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A report on the Congress of Vienna.
Citation preview
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The Congress Vienna of
Derakhshan Qurban-Ali, Susan Wang CHY4U-02
April 5, 2011
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Overview
apoleon Bonaparte’s rise to power shook the status quo of Europe to its core.
The young upstart emerged as one of the most powerful people in the late 18th
century when his military campaigns steadily expanded the French empire.
Overnight, princes were felled for new ones at his instigation.
The Napoleonic Wars engaged every major European power who fought to prevent
the alarming growth of French dominance in continental Europe. By 1814, the coalition
against France emerged victorious. Napoleon abdicated on April 6, 1814 and the Napoleonic
Wars finally came to an end.
In light of Napoleon’s defeat, the allied countries came together at the Congress of
Vienna in 1814-1815 to redraw the framework for peace and stability in Europe. Weary
from 25 years of intermittent warfare, the European powers—dominated by the old regime
and the aristocracy—desired to establish a system of checks and balances that would prevent
the dominance of any one country and the potential of a continental war.
To ensure peace and stability, political changes had to be made such that each
territory was headed by a ruler capable of maintaining order. In some cases this meant the
restoration of a former ruler and in other cases, the assignment of territories as protectorates
under greater powers. The redistribution of territory that was at the heart of the Congress
was a complex issue involving many conflicting interests. Each empire wanted to expand its
power by the amassment of more land while at the same time preventing their rivals from
doing the same.
More complications arose from the nationalistic sentiments that had been gaining
momentum since the Napoleonic Wars. Many ethnic minority groups demanded, both
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peacefully and violently, the independent status of a representative nation. This meant that
whatever territorial decisions that the Congress makes will have lasting consequences on
European history.
Ultimately, the Congress was a diplomatic success in that it was able to achieve its
primary goal—that of maintaining peace within continental Europe. Not until 1914, on the
outset of World War I did a substantial, Europe-wide war break out. Through the mediation
of conflicting interests and tensions through peaceful negotiation, the Congress allowed
Europe to endure in a century of relative peace.
Delegates
FRANCE
France was represented by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord on behalf of
Louis XVIII. In the beginning of the negotiations, France played the role of observer;
however, due to the strategic negotiation on the part of Talleyrand, France gradually became
a full participant in the Congress, because he wanted France to be respected and treated as an
equal to the other Great Powers. France strongly believed in legitimacy and thus, supported
the independence of Saxony. Talleyrand used lesser powers to gain political sway until he
could reach the inner circle of power (the great powers).
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
Austria was represented by Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, who at the time,
was of the most influential diplomats in Europe. He was Austria's foreign minister from
1809 to 1848 and was an arch-conservative and worked hard to create stability in Europe
and preserve the power of the old regime. Austria was extremely cautious when it came to
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Prussia’s expansion, because it was suspicious of Prussia’s intentions. The Austrians and
Prussians had competing interests as leaders of Germany; since Austria held this role, it
viewed Prussia as a very real threat to their power. Austria led many decisions in the Congress
and believed that Europe would find peace only if its legitimate monarchs were uncontested
by liberalism and nationalism. Metternich was deeply concerned about Russian expansionism
because he believed strongly that Europe’s stability depended on a balance of powers whereby
no one power could become too powerful.
UNITED KINGDOM
The United Kingdom was initially represented by the British foreign secretary Robert
Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh. Great Britain had a great amount of influence due to the fact
that its sea power had largely helped win the Napoleonic Wars. Britain had surfaced from the
Napoleonic Wars as Europe’s greatest power and they acted as the arbiter in the Congress.
The British government also vied for the elimination of French power, because it was a threat
to their country and economy. Britain opposed Russian expansionism as it would disturb the
balance of power. Most of Britain’s gains during negotiations were colonial, and it rose to
become the most dominant colonial power after the Congress of Vienna.
KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA
Prussia was represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenburg, a prominent
Prussian statesman. Prussia and Austria were often at ends with one another due to historical
competition for control over Germany. Prussia was involved in the controversy of the Polish-
Saxon Crisis, as it strived to gain more German territory. Prussia had expansionist ambitions
and desired Saxony in order to expand their territory all over Europe.
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
The Czar and Emperor of Russia from 1801-1825, Alexander I, decided to present
himself to the Congress to make decisions, though the official Russian delegation to the
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Congress was led by Count Karl von Nesselrode. For a time, Alexander I allied with
Napoleon by the Treaty of Tilsit, but ultimately he was a member of the alliance that
defeated Napoleon. Russia’s expansionist ambitions were a threat to all of the other great
powers, and Russia’s bid for Poland created a lot of tension and controversy within the
Congress. The Russians supported the Prussians in their desire to acquire Saxony if it would
allow them power over Poland.
SIGNIFICANCE
Balance of Power
The Congress of Vienna was an extremely significant part of European history, and
the effects of the decisions made had resounding effects on the continent for decades
afterwards. The main goal of the congress was reached through implementation of “balance
of power” politics in Europe and the policing of smaller European states by the big powers.
The balance of power created a system whereby all of the big countries (Britain, Prussia,
France, Austria, and Russia) would ensure that none of them became a hegemon, or overly
dominant.
Furthermore, in order to ensure stability, the big powers needed to find a way to
quell any situations similar to that of France during the French Revolution. This is because
domestic revolutions can destabilize a country as well as the entirety of Europe. Thus, the big
powers took it upon themselves to police smaller countries and suppress any revolutions that
may present themselves. These policies created conditions which led to the Pax Britannica, a
period of relative peace in Europe dating from the Congress of Vienna until the First World
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War. During this time, there were minor revolutions and the Crimean War (1854-1856);
however, there were no wars that involved all of Europe.
Although it is disputed to have caused a lot of conflict and harm, the principle of
legitimacy did contribute to maintaining stability in Europe. The great powers strongly
believed in the principle of legitimacy, which condoned restoring the rulers of Europe that
were in power before the French Revolution. They believed that the return of the former
monarchs would stabilize political relations among the nations. Unfortunately, many
restored leaders were despotic and autocratic, but this principle did create a sense of stability;
in the short term, autocratic governments tend to be more stable than revolutionary
democratic ones. Many rulers in Europe worried that the ideals of liberty and equality during
the French Revolution might encourage other revolutions around Europe. In 1815, Czar
Alexander I, Emperor Francis I of Austria, and King Frederick William III of Prussia signed
an agreement called the Holy Alliance. In this agreement, they vowed to base their relations
with other nations on Christian principles in order to combat the forces of revolution. In
addition, a series of alliances developed by Metternich (called the Concert of Europe)
ensured that nations support each other if any revolutions broke out.
Milestone in International Diplomacy
The Congress of Vienna was a milestone in the history of international diplomacy; it
was seen as the first of a series of Congresses which have been called a "Congress System"
even though it technically was never a system. Despite being rough around the edges, the
Congress of Vienna successfully prevented numerous conflicts through international
diplomacy and cooperation. Article VI of the Quadruple Alliance started a tradition of
international cooperation by periodic congresses and the implications of this can still be seen
today and in the recent past. The goal of Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe was
to maintain global stability and prevent war. The comparable contemporary equivalent of
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these agreements is the United Nations (U.N.), an international organization established in
1945 whose purpose is to maintain and promote global peace and stability. There are various
parallels between the Congress of Vienna and the United Nations; they were both formed by
major powers after a war (Napoleonic Wars and World War II) and these powers agreed to
cooperate to reduce conflict and promote global cooperation and negotiation within
international relations. Diplomacy has been used by both the Congress of Vienna and the
United Nations to keep peace and stabilize potential conflicts.
Condemnation of the slave trade
Though often overshadowed by other pressing matters at the Congress of Vienna,
key decision made during the Congress was the condemnation of the slave trade as
inconsistent with civilization and human rights. The Congress of Vienna outlawed the
Atlantic slave trade. All of the major powers conferred on this issue, but Britain was the sole
country that took any actions to actually stop the trade by setting up an anti-slaving naval
squadron. Slavery had been a part of human life as early as 2,600 B.C.E. in Egypt and it
became an extremely profitable European trade in the late fifteenth century; these are just a
few of the reasons as to why this decision is particularly astounding, shocking and important
to comprehend. In 1807 the slave trade in the British colonies was abolished and it became
illegal to carry slaves in British ships; the slow ascent to the global abolition of slavery
commenced. While most of the countries failed to take any action to stop slavery, the public
declaration that it is deplorable is a huge milestone because it establishes the values of a
society. If the great powers agreed that slavery was inconsistent with civilization and human
rights, then most other countries influenced by them will follow suit. This decision may not
have had huge immediate effects, but it laid the groundwork for future acts, such as the
Slavery Abolition Act 1833, which was an 1833 Act of the Parliament of the United
Kingdom abolishing slavery throughout most of the British Empire.
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Political Effects
There were an abundance of political effects that occurred as a result of the Congress
of Vienna, and these would have an impact on the rest of European and even global history.
The unified efforts to diminish the size and power of France and to maintain a balance of
power meant redrawing the map of Europe; many of the territorial decisions made during
the Congress still stand today. Concurrently, the power of Prussia and Britain increased
greatly, with Britain becoming the dominant colonial power. European colonies were greatly
affected by the power shift that occurred; Spanish colonies took advantage of the events in
Europe to declare their independence and break away from Spain.
France was dispossessed of all territory conquered by Napoleon, Austria was given
back territory it had lost, as well as additional gains in Germany and Italy (Lombardia and
Venice). Norway and Sweden were joined under a single ruler, a Germanic Confederation of
39 states (including Prussia) was created (from the previous 300) under Austrian rule, the
neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed, Hanover was enlarged and made a kingdom,
Britain was given Cape Colony, South Africa, and various other colonies in Africa and Asia,
and Sardinia was given Piedmont, Nice, Savoy, and Genoa. Another important decision was
the guarantee of freedom of navigation for many rivers, such as the Rhine and the Danube.
The Dutch Republic was united with the Austrian Netherlands to form a single kingdom of
the Netherlands under the House of Orange, Prussia was given much of Saxony and
important parts of Westphalia and the Rhine Province, France was restored under the rule of
Louis XVIII, Spain was restored under Ferdinand VII, Russia attained Finland and control
over the new kingdom of Poland, and Britain attained several strategic colonial territories
and also gained control of the seas.
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Criticism
hile the Congress of Vienna did preserve relative peace in Europe for a
hundred years, it was not without faults. Criticism of the congress point
towards its disregard for nationalistic sentiments, which, by the time of the
Congress were already well-established. Instead of unifying territories and their people by
shared language and culture, the Congress established boundaries with only maintaining a
balance of power in mind. The consequences of this oversight were soon felt in the ripples of
revolution in the years following.
Another criticism of the Congress was its acceptance and encouragement of a
Conservative Order which promoted stability and peace at the price of progress in liberty and
civil rights. As such, criticism of the Congress maintains that it helped keep reactionary
regimes in power and subsequently stifled social progress.
Some go as far as to claim that the Congress held a total disregard for the positive
impact of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, namely the advances in
constitutional rights for ordinary people. So while the Congress may have made significant
progress in diplomacy and the stability of Europe, it was rarely done with the common
people in mind and often at the sacrifice of their rights.
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ITEM 1
The Grand Duchy of Warsaw
he Grand Duchy of Warsaw is a Polish state established by Napoleon in
1807 that lasted until 1815. The land was a part of the greater Polish-
Lithuanian Commonwealth until the late 18th century when a number of
partitions by Russia, Prussia and Austria dissolved the commonwealth into
extensions of the three empires. The Duchy of Warsaw rested on land that had been
partitioned to Prussia in the late 18th century (1793, 1795). It remained under Prussian
control until 1806, when an uprising over conscription rose into a liberation movement.
Following this, a new government was instated and one of its first tasks was to support
Napoleon Bonaparte’s efforts against Russia in East Prussia. The Duchy was not established
until some months later when Napoleon led a number of successful campaigns against
Prusso-Russian forces. With the defeats, the Russian Tsar Alexander I was forced to seek
peace terms and even an alliance with France. This resulted in the Treaty of Tilsit (1807)
which granted Russia control over Białystok, a province once a part of Prussian Poland and
consolidated Prussia’s remaining Polish states into The Grand Duchy of Warsaw.
The creation of the Duchy was welcomed by republicans in partitioned Poland and
Poles in France who held high hopes that Napoleon would restore the Polish state to its
former glory. The new state was allied to France and in a personal union with the Kingdom
of Saxony (previously a part of the Holy Roman Empire). The King of Saxony, Frederick
Augustus I served as Duke of Warsaw but emplaced a constitutional monarchy with a
parliament there at the behest of Napoleon. However, while the state was technically
independent, in reality, it was under French control. It was garrisoned by French forces and
served as a satellite of France – the Duchy was treated largely as a source of resources and
subject to French national interests; in addition, its government was based on the French
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model and was subject to the Napoleonic Code. On the other hand, the constitution
respected Polish traditions and customs and while the ruler was absolute, his power was used
with discretion and often delegated to ministers.
The Duchy doubled its size in 1809 following a successful war against Austria. Despite
this success, French occupation would lead to eventual economic ruin as a result of the
Continental System and a disproportionately large army that was maintained in its borders.
The new Duchy of Warsaw was seen as a form of constant irritation for the Russian
Tsar Alexander I who desired the land for Russia. The resulting enmity was a factor to the
tension that culminated in Napoleon’s Russian campaign in 1812.
For the Poles, Napoleon’s invasion of Russia was a cause for renewed hope of restored
Polish glory. Napoleon encouraged this nationalism, terming his efforts in Russia his “second
Polish war”. With great effort, the Duchy put onto the field an army corps of some 98 000
men (~2.5% of the population). Napoleon’s later loss in Russia was also a loss for the Duchy
as in the following year (in 1813) Russians assumed control.
THE FOURTH PARTITION AND THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
With the victory of the anti-Napoleonic forces and the need to redefine borders in
Europe, the Duchy of Warsaw became a hotly contested issue at the Congress of Vienna
(1814-15). Lip service was paid to the Polish by the Congress who encouraged the powers to
respect the rights of its Polish subjects (as long as their rights were compatible with state
interests). Furthermore, the Congress decided that free trade and communications will be
provided for within the borders of the old Commonwealth. The latter never materialized.
Despite the presence of a number of European states and past rulers, decision making
at the Congress were laid in the hands of the major powers. Given its history, it may have
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been inevitable that the Duchy of Warsaw was divided between Prussia and Russia, with
Austria to retain its gains from the First Partition (1772). In the congress, Russia made
demands for the entire territory of the Duchy. This motion was denied by other European
powers in what later became the Polish-Saxon Crisis. However, the majority of the Duchy
(around 128 000 km²) was eventually put under the jurisdiction of Tsar Alexander of Russia
who was to rule the Duchy under the name of the Kingdom—or Congress Kingdom—of
Poland. In effect, the new kingdom became a Russian puppet-state: while it had its own
constitution and army, it was seen as an extension of the Russian Empire and its foreign
policy was decided by the Tsar. In fact, sixteen years following the congress (1831), it lost its
status and became fully annexed to the Russian Empire.
In addition to the partitions to Russia, part of the Duchy was partitioned to Prussia.
This land included some of the land it gave up following French victory in 1807 (but had
acquired in the First and Second Partitions). A piece of the land the Prussians newly acquired
came as the Grand Duchy of Posen (or the Province of Poznań)—an area around 29 000
km² in size.
The third division was the establishment of a free territory that included the city of
Kraków and the surrounding area which was previously part of the Duchy of Warsaw. It was
1164 km2 in size and had a population of 88 000. This partition was consolidated to become
the Free City of Kraków whose protection was provided for by Prussia, Austria and Russia.
Thirty one years following the Congress, the free city was annexed to Austria.
As a result of the Congress, the original Poland-Lithuanian Commonwealth was
partitioned into three territories among Prussia, Russia and Austria: the Free City of Kraków,
the Grand Duchy of Posen and the Kingdom of Poland. Of the original commonwealth,
Russia now controlled two-thirds.
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EARLY RUSSIAN RULE AND THE FUTURE OF THE KINGDOM
OF POLAND
The Polish desired the Kindom of Poland to be united with the eastern “lost lands”
of its commonwealth and become a partner of—rather than an extension of—the Russian
Empire. While Tsar Alexander considered the idea, it was abandoned under the pressure of
Russian elites who were not willing to surrender any of the annexed lands.
What followed were decades of conspiracies against the empire: liberal opposition in
the Polish parliament (which was seen as ingratitude by the Russian Tsar) grew to become
more radical. The secret Polish Patriotic Society was one of the first opposition groups.
Russo-Polish relations grew tense following the Decembrist uprising in Russia in
1825. Outbreaks of revolution in France and Belgium in 1830 further intensified the
situation. Unrest conflated in the form of the November Insurrection (November, 1830)—
an act of conspiracy at the cadet school in Warsaw that developed into a national revolt. The
uprising dethroned the Romanovs in Poland and began a Russo-Polish war. Hostilities
continued until September of 1831 when the Russians emerged victorious.
What followed the Russian victory were harsh reprisals, confiscations, arrests and
deportations. The liberal constitution that was emplaced by Napoleon more than two
decades earlier was suspended: this meant that the Polish parliament, government and army
were now completely under the jurisdiction of Russia. Cultural Russification took place and
liquified the Uniate Church and removed the Lithuanian code of law.
Poles emigrated in the thousands. The Polish struggle for self-sovereignty was seen by
many as a paragon of the fight for liberty for much of the first half of the 19th century.
Uprisals continued to occur centuries after the Congress of Vienna as Poles fought for a
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independent Polish state. Poland finally regained independence in 1918, as the Second
Polish Republic.
Kingdom of Saxony
he Kingdom of Saxony was a state in Germany from 1806 to 1918. Saxony’s
capital was Dresden and it was a part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1806.
After the defeat of Emperor Francis II by Napoleon at the Battle of
Austerlitz, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved and the Electorate of
Saxony became an independent kingdom with the support of France; Elector Frederick
Augustus III became King Frederick Augustus I.
Following the defeat of Prussia (Saxony’s ally) at the Battle of Jena in 1806, Saxony
joined and remained within the Confederation of the Rhine until Napoleon’s defeat at the
Battle of Leipzig; the Confederation dissolved as a result. Unlike the vast majority of German
states, Saxony had fought alongside the French; King Frederick Augustus I remained loyal to
Napoleon for too long and suffered the consequences. He was taken prisoner and his
territories declared forfeit by the allies in 1813, with Prussia intending to annex them. In the
end, the opposition of Austria, France, and the United Kingdom resulted in Frederick
Augustus being restored to his throne at the Congress of Vienna, but Saxony was forced to
give up the northern part of the kingdom to Prussia. This land became the Prussian province
of Saxony.
The negotiation of Poland and Saxony’s fate was one of the most contentious issues
at the Congress of Vienna and it developed into the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia had already
occupied much of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but Tsar Alexander I also demanded the
Prussian parts of Poland. In return, he was prepared to support the Prussian annexation of
the Kingdom of Saxony. These plans were opposed by Austria, Britain and France because it
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would give Russia a disproportionate amount of territory and it would upset the balance of
power in favor of Russia and Prussia. The main goal of the conference was to create a balance
of power that would preserve the peace, and Russia’s proposal contravened this goal. Thus,
Britain, Austria and France signed a secret treaty on January 3, 1815; the intent of the treaty
was to prevent the realization of Russia and Prussia’s plan and they agreed to go to war if
necessary.
Luckily, a peaceful settlement was reached on October 24, 1814. Prussia received 40%
of Saxony (later known as the Province of Saxony) with the remainder returned to King
Frederick Augustus I as the Kingdom of Saxony. Prussia’s share of land included a third of
Saxony’s population and the city of Wittenberg, which was the home of the Protestant
Reformation. In addition, the Kingdom of Saxony joined the German Confederation, which
was the new organization of the German states to replace the Holy Roman Empire.
ITEM 2
EMDEN, OSNABRUCK,
MINDEN AND BRUNSWICK
EMDEN
mden is a city in northwestern Germany. It became a trading port with Baltic
countries following its founding in the 800s. It became northwest Europe’s most
important port for trade following the Dutch wars of independence in the 16th
century when Emden received much of Holland’s trade. The region was a center of
Calvinism.
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In 1744, Emden was annexed to Prussia. Following the Seven Years’ War, the region
came under French rule. By 1758, Emden was recaptured by Anglo-Germans. During the
conflict, the region was used as a supply base by the British and supported their war in
Westphalia.
During Napoleon’s conquests, the area and its surroundings (termed East Frisia)
were put under the Kingdom of Holland. The kingdom was a short-lived one as it lasted
only 4 years from 1806 to 1810. Strategically, the kingdom’s location gave Napoleon better
access to the Netherlands. It was ruled by his brother Louis Bonaparte.
The Congress of Vienna ceded most of the land to Prussia, along with Osnabruck,
and Minden.
OSNABRUCK
Osnabruck lies south of Emden. It developed as a marketplace in the 8th century. In
the late 16th and early half of the 17th century, during the Protestant Reformation and
Europe’s wars of religion, the city was a bed of civil unrest. Economically, the city depended
on its linen and tobacco industries.
Prussian troops entered the city in 1795 following the French Revolutionary Wars.
French troops followed in 1803. Eventually, Osnabruck was passed under the Electorate of
Hanover in 1803, then to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1806. Following Napoleon’s conquests,
it became a part of the Kingdom of Westphalia from 1807 to 1810, governed by Napoleon’s
brother Jerome Bonaparte. From there, it was ceded to the First French Empire. Then, at
the behest of the Congress of Vienna, the city came under the jurisdiction of the Kingdom of
Hanover in 1815.
In 1866, following the Austro-Prussian war, Osnabruck again passed hands into the
boundaries of Prussia.
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MINDEN
Minden is a city in northern Germany that spreads over both sides of the Weser
River. It lies to the west of Osnabruck. Like Osnabruck, Minden developed as a marketplace.
Charlemagne—Emperor of Rome from 800-814—established a bishopric (a region run by a
bishop of the Roman Empire) there. The city developed after given the rights to open a
marketplace, mint its own coins and collect duties.
Conflict arose in the city as a result of the Protestant Reformation: most notably, a
series of witch hunts took place in the 17th century and resulted in 128 prosecutions.
Following the Peace of Westphalia (1648) which ended the Thirty Years War,
Minden was ceded to Prussia. It remained under Prussian sovereignty until its dissolution in
1947.
BRUNSWICK
Brunswick or Braunschweig as it is known in German, is a city in northern
Germany, west of Minden. The name is derived from a combination of the name Bruno and
the German term wik which refers to a place where merchants rest and store their goods. The
circumstances of the city’s founding are unknown, but most believe that the city resulted
from the union of two smaller cities at the turn of the first millennium.
From the 13th to the 17th century, Brunswick was a member of the Hanseatic League
(an alliance of Northern European trading cities and guilds). By the 18th century, Brunswick
was a political and cultural centre: for instance, Goethe’s Faust was first performed in the
city.
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Brunswick has not played a large role in German politics. While many counties were
added to its domain it weakened in time with constant divisions of territory. The
Reformation distorted the unity of the region as some princes took one side, while some the
other. By the time of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, little impact had been made on its
influence, but this was not to be the case in subsequent years as its position came to be
greatly influenced by Prussia’s growth. As Brunswick supported Frederick the Great of
Prussia during the Seven Year’s War, it was devastated by the French. The duke of
Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, led Prussian troops against Napoleon and died in
1806 from battle wounds. Following this, Napoleon disposed of the ducal family and
included Brunswick in the formation of the Kingdom of Westphalia. Following the Congress
of Vienna, the territory became the independent Duchy of Brunswick. Brunswick served as
its capital with Charles II, Duke of Brunswick, serving as duke. In 1866, the duchy joined
the North German Confederation. It later became a state of the German empire in 1871,
following German unification.
North and West Germany
he decisions surrounding Germany during the Congress of Vienna often found
middle ground between contentious issues. Decisions avoided both extreme
centralization and extreme fragmentation in order to balance power in Europe.
The Holy Empire was not restored and the Confederation of the Rhine was not maintained
either. Reforms made during the French Revolution within German states were not entirely
retracted and enlightened despotism was not wholly re-established. The new political order
created from Germany lasted for over fifty years.
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Prussia played a very important role in Germany. It was decided during the Congress
of Vienna that Prussia would be the defender of Germany’s western boundary, for fear of
aggression from France. The Rhineland and Westphalia (including the Ruhr district, which
developed into a hugely successful industrial centre) became Prussian provinces.
Furthermore, the king agreed to relinquish the majority of his Polish property to Russia in
return for a substantial part of Saxony. Prussia was given a very strategic position and was
propelled back into Germany. On the other hand, Austria shifted eastward in the direction
of Eastern Europe and Italy for geographical, military and political reasons; overall, the
Habsburg Empire became less associated with Germany. The possessions in southern and
western Germany were surrendered along with the Austrian Netherlands in return for
Venetian territory on the Adriatic.
Created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the German Confederation was the
association of Central European states that aimed to coordinate the economies of separate
German-speaking countries; it acted as a buffer between the powerful states of Austria and
Prussia. Most sovereignty rights remained in the hands of the member governments and
there was no central executive or judiciary, except for a federal Diet meeting in Frankfurt am
Main to consider common legislation. Britain believed that it was useful as a stable, peaceful
power in Central Europe that could discourage aggression from France or Russia.
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ITEM 3
Genoa
enoa is a seaport in northern Italy. Historically, Genoa has been a very
wealthy city being well situated for Mediterranean trade. The crusades of
the early 13th century brought immense wealth to the city and with the
development of a powerful banking system Genoa remained wealthy for
the first half of the millennium.
Genoa’s power declined with the internal struggle between Genoa’s noble families in
the feuds between Guelphs and Gibellines (supporters of the Pope and supporters of the
Emperor respectively). From the 14th to the 16th centuries, power over Genoa passed hands
between France and Milan, another wealthy city-state—although independence in name was
preserved.
In 1522, a republic was established. In 1528, seaman and statesman Andrea Doria
overtook Genoa and put the city under the jurisdiction of Spain. The thirty year dictatorship
of Doria was a prosperous period in which art and economy flourished.
Invasions were rife and power did not remain in one hand for long. Following Doria’s
rule, the city again passed hands, from Spanish to French, then to Austrian control during
the War of Austrian Succession. Later on, a popular uprising in 1746 would uproot Austrian
control of Genoa.
By this time, Genoa’s power was declining. The shift in trade from the Mediterranean
to the New World meant that Genoa was no longer the powerful seaport it once was. Along
with economic decline, came political decline. 1797 saw the end of aristocratic rule in Genoa
as pressure from Napoleon’s French military drove Genoa to form the Ligurian Republic
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along with its surrounding territories. The new Republic was under French control: its
government was modelled after the French’s, it was allied to France and Napoleon appointed
its chief of state. By 1805, the Ligurian Republic, along with Genoa, was absorbed into the
French Empire.
When Napoleon was defeated by the coalition of anti-Napoleonic forces, the question
of who was to rule Genoa again became a point of contention. The Congress decided to
annex Genoa and the Liguria Republic under the rule of the Piedmont king.
Sentiment for Italian unification began to surface following the Congress. Nationalistic
sentiments for a unified Italy (waged largely against the Austrian Empire) would preoccupy
Genoa for much of the 19th century. Modern Italy arose in 1861, when the Italian Peninsula
and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies were united under King Victor Emmanuel II, King of
Sardinia.
Mainland Venice and the States of Milan
nder the Austrian rule of Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II, the reform of
1786 divided the State of Milan into nine provinces. Each state was governed
by Imperial Delegates: Milano, Pavia, Lodi, Cremona, Casalmaggiore, Como,
Valle Intelvi, Mantova and Terre. This created Milan’s first separate administrative structure.
After the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, the state’s administration
was divided into districts. After Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of Vienna gave the States of
Milan back to the Austro-Hungarian Empire under the new Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia,
where the city of Milan became one of the two capitals, along with Venice.
With the conquer of Venice on May 12th, 1797, Napoleon shut down the
monasteries, looted the churches, uprooted citizens and turned many of the islands into
fortified garrisons. Venice had lost independence. After the Congress of Vienna, the
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Austrians took over from the French and added barracks. It initially became Austrian
territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio with Austria. However, it
changed possession many times over the following eight years. Ultimately, the Congress of
Vienna determined that Venice would be given back to Austria.
The Ionian Islands
he Ionian Islands is a group of 7 Greek islands: Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante,
Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cythera (Cerigo) and Paxo. The islands have no
geographical unity, have differing histories, and existed as a separate state for
only 7 years in history from 1800 – 1807. The term Ionian possibly refers to
ancient settlements of Ionian colonists on the islands or Io, the virgin priestess of Hera.
Prior to the conquests of Napoleon Bonaparte in the late 18th century, the Ionian
Islands were part of the Republic of Venice. Venetian rule lasted from the 14th and 15th
centuries to 1797, when the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797)—that ended a five year long
war between Austria and France following the French revolutions— dissolved the Republic
of Venice (despite its attempts at neutrality) and ceded the islands to France.
For many of the people of the Ionian Islands Napoleon was a liberator. During
Venetian rule, the social system in most of the Ionian Islands was a feudal one: being divided
into classes of nobles, the bourgeoisie and the commoners. The exploitation of the majority
by the nobles resulted in uprisings that were severely repressed. When Napoleon conquered
the islands he publicly burned the Libro D’oro (the Golden Book) which outlined the
privileges of the nobles. (In contrast, the island of Ithaca had always been in a liberal, class
free democracy— illustrating that the islands differed in significant aspects.)
Two years later (in 1799), the islands became a republic under Russian protection
after a Russo-Turkish fleet seized the islands. In Corfu, the new government returned the
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privileges of the nobles destroyed by Napoleon some years prior. When Russia was later
forced into negotiating peace terms in 1807 following the War of the Third Coalition, the
islands were returned to France under the Treaty of Tilsit. They remained a part of the
French Provinces of Illyria until the decline of French power, whence Britain took an interest
in the islands and proceeded to overtake them one by one (Corfu remained a French outpost
until 1813).
The islands largely prospered under French and British rule. During French rule,
agricultural and social improvements were made, schools were built, public services were
reorganized and the Ionian Academy was established. During British rule, roads were built,
water systems were improved and the first Greek university was founded.
The Congress of Vienna gave control over the islands to Britain. Changes were made
with the Treaty of Paris on November 9, 1815. Under this treaty, the islands became the
United States of the Ionian Islands, with Corfu as its capital. Britain was granted exclusive
protection of the island while Austria was given rights to equal commercial advantage there.
In 1821, the Ionian Islands supported the Greek Revolution against the Ottoman
Empire. Forty three years later, the British donated the islands to the new King of Greece
whence it became a part of the Kingdom of Greece.
Dalmatian Province of Venice
apoleon annexed the Venetian Dalmatia from Istria to Kotor in 1805 and
created the Kingdom of Italy; however, the Dalmatian Province of Venice was
removed from the Kingdom of Italy in 1809 by Napoleon. The people of
Dalmatia were opposed to the French rule under Napoleon and thus, they declared war on
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France in 1813. The Habsburgs formed a temporary Kingdom of Illyria and restored control
over Dalmatia in 1814. However, at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Dalmatia was granted
as a province to the Emperor of Austria; it was officially known as the Kingdom of Dalmatia.
The Kingdom of Two Sicilies
he Kingdom of the Two Sicilies consist of southern Italy and the island of
Sicily. Until the 11th century when Normans conquered the island of Sicily
and the Italian peninsula up to the south of Rome, the area was ruled
successively by Romans, Byzantines, Lombards, and Saracens. Power
eventually split between the French and Spanish (in the 1300s), one ruled the continental
kingdom and the other, the island of Sicily. When the two areas were reunited under the rule
of the Spanish King of Aragon (in 1443), the title of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies came to be
known. However, until the Congress of Vienna (1815), the kingdom was commonly referred
to as the Kingdom of Naples.
In 1713, with the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, Naples was ceded to
Austria. It would later acquire Sicily as well (by trading it with Sardinia). Austrian rule was
displaced in the 1730’s (following the War of Polish Succession) when the Bourbons (who
descended from Spain) restored Spanish control of the kingdom. Naples became the
kingdom’s capital: it remained as Western Europe’s third largest city well into the nineteenth
century.
Prosperous regions of the kingdom (Aquila, Foggia, Bari, Lecce, Taranto, Reggio
di Calabria, and Salerno) had economies that were connected with Tuscan, Venetian and
Genoese trade. In the early 1500s, a trade imbalance of 10:1 favoured exports of agricultural
raw materials. By the later half of the 18th century, imports overpowered exports with a ratio
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of 6:5—the kingdom’s agricultural prosperity could not compensate for the introduction of
(higher priced) industrial goods.
The Kingdom suffered a disastrous famine from 1763-1764 resulting in the death of
200 000 people—or 5% of the population.
Napoleon Bonaparte conquered the continental kingdom in 1805 which at that
time, were in the hands of the Bourbons. The Bourbons did manage to maintain control
over the island of Sicily with the protection of the British Royal Navy. The King of the
kingdom at the time—Ferdinand IV (or Ferdinand I as he is also known) was exiled to Sicily
until his restoration in 1815. The throne was replaced with Napoleon’s brother—Joseph
Bonaparte.
After Napoleon’s return from exile in Elba (during the 100 Days Campaign),
Joachim Murat, a French Marshal who succeeded Joseph Bonaparte, raised a revolt towards
the north of the kingdom. He rules Rome for a short period. When Napoleon eventually
falls, Murat is executed by the rightful Bourbon king of Naples and Sicily. Following this
short stint, Austria regains control of northern Italy and the Papal States which were once
under French control are returned to Rome.
The Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were united by the Congress of Vienna into the
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Ferdinand IV King of Naples was restored to power. By a
secret treaty with Austria, Ferdinand was retrained from making any constitutional
advancement without the approval of Austria. This was in keeping with Metternich’s desire
to preserve the status quo in Europe. Ferdinand was heavily influenced by Austria in other
ways as well: at one point, Count Nugent—an Austrian—was made commander of the
army; in addition, his Austrian wife, Maria Carolina, had great control over him.
In 1820, a revolution in Spain inspired a similar revolution in the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies. The liberals—former members of Murat’s army—captured Naples with the
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support of the bourgeoisie and the army. Ferdinand was forced into instating the Spanish
constitution of 1812 that centralized bureaucracy. The success of the liberals alarmed those
of the Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia and Russia) who feared that the conflict would spread
to the rest of Europe. Austria had been given leave to protect the Bourbon monarchy if
necessary at the Congress of Vienna. In light of this, an Austrian army marched on Naples
and reestablished absolute government to Ferdinand. He would rule until his death in 1825.
Efforts for Italian unification began with a series of revolts in 1848 following the fall
of Klemens Wenzel von Metternich. In 1859, the King Victor Emmanuel became the first
king of Italy, bringing an end to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
Parma, Modena, Lucca and Tuscany
ustria is given Parma, Modena, Lucca and Tuscany; they are ruled by an
Austrian Hapsburg. Under the treaty of Fontainebleau it had been argued that
the Duchy of Parma should be given to Marie Louise with the remainder going
to her son. This settlement was contested and elaborate scheme was designed by members of
the Congress, under which Parma, Guastalla and Piacenza should go to Don Louis or his
mother, the Queen of Etruria. It was also agreed that Lucca and part of Elba should go the
Grand Duke of Tuscany and that Marie Louise should be compensated. In the end it was
agreed that the Queen of Etruria should be given the Duchy of Lucca and that Parma should
go to Marie Louise; however, her son (the king of Rome) should be excluded from
succession. Everyone, particularly Metternich, was pleased by this arrangement, which
ensured the predominance of Austrian influence in the Italian Peninsula.
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The German Confederation
he German Confederation was a union of 39 German sates, 35 monarchies
and 4 free cities that was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and
lasted until 1866. The Confederation succeeded Napoleon’s Confederation
of the Rhine (established in 1806 as a buffer against Austria and Prussia),
which in turn followed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire ordered by Napoleon
during the Napoleonic Wars. The new Confederation had similar boundaries as the Holy
Roman Empire had during the French Revolution, but it greatly simplified the number of
member states: from 300 to 39.
The problems the Germanic states faced prior to the Congress of Vienna included an
economic one: trade passing through the states could (if travelling from Prussia to Cologne)
be taxed 18 times. Some called for the removal of domestic tolls and a German tariff on
imports. However, trade was not addressed at the Congress of Vienna save a suggestion that
trade and transportation be discussed at a later date. It was not until the 1820s that the issue
of customs was addressed significantly. At the behest of Prussia, the Zollverein (Customs
Union) formed and included most German states by the 1830s. However, Austria—being
Prussia’s chief rival--was purposely exempted from the union.
The states had loose political association, had no central executive or judiciary. The
main purpose of the union was strengthened defence for its members and the maintenance of
independence. If attacked, members were to assure mutual defence (with the exceptions of
the King of Hanover (England), Duke of Luxembourg (Netherlands) and the Duke of
Holstein and Lauenburg (Denmark)). The confederation also served as a buffer against the
power of Austria and Prussia and supported the Congress’ goals of creating a balance of
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power in Europe. In fact, Britain supported the Confederation during the Congress because
it believed in a need for a peaceful power in Europe that could deter French or Russian
aggressions.
Power in the Confederation was to be exercised in a general assembly. The Reichstag
(an assembly of the Imperial Estates) of the Holy Roman Empire was reinvented to become
the Frankfurt Diet. Delegates of the confederation met at a central diet in Frankfurt where
an Austrian always served as president. The diet served as a diplomatic conference but was
ineffective because it required the unanimity of 2/3 of the vote and delegates were bound to
their governments. Prince Clemens von Metternich, director of Austria’s foreign policy at the
time (1809-1848), dominated the Confederation with Prussia’s support. He sought to quell
liberalism in the Confederation (as he did elsewhere) with his passing of the Carlsbad
Decrees in 1819. Under its terms, a system of press censorship and university regulation was
set up to diminish liberal thought.
Despite Metternich’s efforts, liberalism had already taken root in the German states,
sparked by the writings of figures such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) and the
achievements of France followings its revolution. In addition, the easy French victories in the
German states made German unification a practical solution.
The idea of German unification was disdainful for many members of the German
aristocracy who feared the liberation of the small states under their control. Metternich
opposed the unification of Germany because he saw that the Habsburg Empire would not fit
easily into a united Germany. Instead, he desired a loose association of German states in
which none could challenge the power of Austria. Prussia’s stance was similar as they too saw
German unification as a threat to their power.
While opposition against a unified Germany was strong, the sentiment for the
alternative was even stronger. In 1848, liberal revolutions spread across Germany, resulting
in the establishment of the Frankfurt Parliament. With the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, in
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which Prussia challenged Austria for the right to rule the German Confederation, the
confederation was ultimately dissolved to form the North German Confederation under
Prussian rule. In 1871, the Confederation was became the German Empire.