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. k8THOR Belitsky, k. Harvey ...

TITLE Productivity and Job Security: Case Studies of.

.$Continuing Education for Engineers, Technicians, andManagers. F 4

rUSiITUTION National Center for Productivity and, Quality of°Working .Life, Washingtone.D.C. .

PUB DATE ' 78 ,

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NOTE' :* 55p.iFor:related documents see ED 149" 142 and CE 018809 : Best dopy available r . .

avanaheE FROM :Superintendent of DOcuments,.U.S. Government Printing' Office, Washington, D.C.. 20402 (Stock 'Number

. 052-003-00529-8)

ERRS PRICE .. ME-$0.83 HC-$3.50 lus Postage.DESCRIP4TORS *Adult Education; case Studies; Continuous Learning;

Employer Employee a ationship; *Engineers: LocalGovernment; *Management; On the Job"Training:

. *Pipaprofessional Personnel; Productivity: . .

*Professional Continuing Education; ProfessionalTraining; Staff Improvement; TechnologicalAdvancement; Tenure; Vocational Adjustment

IDENTIFIERS International Business Machine: Municipal TFainingl'Division' PA; Xerox Corporation .-

ABSTRACT'This report, the third in a series. on prgductivity-

and job security, presents three case studies which detail.variouforms of-contiduing educatidn and training. Four important fadiors inthe cases are identified: employment stability,, management support r.

fot training,, adaptation to. changing job requirements;. and training- evaluation. ihe first case study ffom IBM states that despiteeducational opportunities, plus strodg assuradce of, enduringemployment, many mature engineers did not enroll in job-relatedcourses. IBM is now attemptingAo motivate engineeis through job.redesign and 14her measures. Case 2 is concerned with a Xeroxtraining approach whiCh yrdvides continuing education through thecorporation andedUcational institutions. It is Suggeste4.that Xeroxmay be_able to'devebbp internally most of its senior, managers ratherthan hire new manager, from outside. Thp tbird.case history.isstudy of the provision 14 a Pennsylvania state agen6y of training tomunicipal employees. One implication dtamp from this study a'nd theIBM study is that eliminatinCthe.costi&of training may be allinsufficient stimulus for participation. Stead); employment is citedas an important element. (T40 earlier reports in this series are alsoavailable- -see 'note.) (CSS)

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PRODUCTIVITY AND;6Ola SECURI'T'YI .

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ICase Studies. of Continuing Education for-. -

4 Engineers, Technician,...and Managers :11

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VA OEARTASEPOT OF HEALTHEDUCATION* WELFARENATIONAL OPPST1TIPTE OF,

EN/CATION

71415 00CVMEH7 HAS BEEN REPRO.V DucEo ExActsv AS RECEIVED FROM

THE og RV:N.0R 040NiZATION 04 *GINATHO t7 POIH rS'Or v.E.A, 04 OPINIONS,.STATED 00 HOT NECESSARILY REARESE IS 7 OF riCIAL NA S ZONAL risS T Liu/ g OFEDUC4i0CISS DOSeTION OR POLICY

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.Nation al Center.fbr Productivity, and Quality. riff Working,Life

Washingtoil; D, C. 20038

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Spring .1918

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For sale by the Superintendent of Docwnenta, 11.8. °over:moat Printing OmooWashington. D.C. 23402 '

Stook No. 051-003-6000-311 t

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The 94th Congress preatedlhe National Center forProduCtivit and Quality of Working Life on

. NoveMber 28. :HUB, as an Independent FederalagenCy. The Certtesto enabling legislation (P.L.94-'136)*estabIishes. a rfationaPpolicy encouraging"projilktivity growth consistent with needs of theeconomy. the natural environtpent, and the needs,rights, and best interests bf Management, th'emorkforce and consumers." The Center's parposeis to

trL , 'sum to national efforts to.implement this policy

The Center's small staff of productivity specialistssupports the Board of Directors in pursuit ofseven main obAtives: .

... 410Documentiand reqomMend policies to. . satisfy the Nation's capital investment needs

from a productivitstandpdint.- Encourage labor-management cooperation

to enhance productiVity and the quality ofworking life. ,

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41 Without compromising legislative intent.. identify and recommend ,changes. in. gov-

.. .ernment regulation-which will improve pro-ductlyity.

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Stimulate and support industry task forces. formed to conduct programs for Ind us-

trynlIde productivity improvement .

Develop ands - recommend more effectiveapproaches to improving productivity ki thepublic sector. .

the . IImprove the. review, coordination. and e-gration of productivity enhanceme efforts

. of other Federal agencies .Develop.a betterunderstanding of the don-cept of productivity and encourage better .9

techniques for measuring productivity. changes, . .

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The Board of oireotors maycontain up to 2, mem-/ bens representing business, labor, the Federal Gov.' ernment. State. and -local gaernments.'institutions

of higher education, and others from the private andpublic sectors. The directbrs dete?mine the Center'srole and activitierif through committees formed to

. deal with substailtive igsues defined in an October .

1975 policy stat filen!.. --- I ,

The Center is located in Washington. D.C. It seeks toidentify the varibuspoints of view affecting produc-tivity growth: determine which of tpese views can bereconciled to 'tiler productivity improvement: and J

encourage with%n and among various groups. cooperative Welts toward productivity growth

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. George H. Kuper .4Executive Direaor '

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"Lifelong learning . . . offers a hope that eachone of us can continue to grow -- to achieve hisor her full potential -- and to avoid getting stuckin occupational and educational ruts' that canlead- to alienaion and downright boredom.",

Walter F. Mondale,II Vice.President of the United States-

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'Preface : v

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CONTENTS

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.Summary and Implications' vii ,

Cases.

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I. IBM's Efforts to Maintain FullUtilization of Mature Engineers 1

II. Xerox Centralizes Training of ,Technical, Sales, and ManagerialPersonnel. 13

III. State Agency Trains Amidst JobInsecurity in PennsylvaniaMunicipalities- 25

Footnotes 39

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PREFACE.Si -

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.P. L. 94-136, which established the DtitionalCenter for- Productivity' and Quality of porkingLife, states:

. . -there is a national need to i reaseemployment security through sue activ-ities as manpower planning, skill training.and retraining of workers, inte nal workforce adjustments to avoid w rker, dis-placement, assistance to wo . ers facingor experiencing. displacem = t, and allother. public and private p ograns whichseek to minimise The hu costs of pro-ductivity iniprorement, . ereby diminish-'ing resistance to wo place change andimproving produptiv'.:" growth. .

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The law requires the-Center to "identity, study,and review retraining prokrems . . . designed tocounteract threats to job security which may re-sult from efforts to improve productiyity,"

,,. ;This is tpelhird'report in a series of studies

entitled Productivity and Job Security. The firstof the series dealt with retraining and the sec-ond with the,,value of an attrition clause:

The first repo'rt (Retraining to Adapt toTechnological -Change) deals with adjustment tospecific'technological

changel. By and large,involved were advance notice of the changes andplanning which included the retraining necessaryfor the adjustment. .Unfortunately', technologicalchange is often_ not accompanied by advance no:

slice and planting; in such instances, "adjust-ment" does not occur under bentt-n conditions. v

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The cases in this study., deal with various4to r m s of continuing education and training asprgventive measures to promote job Security,any,itsue which was. raised in the first report.The studies draw primarily on field visits toIBM sites in Armonk and Poughkeepsie, NewYort; the Xerox international Center for Train-ing and Management Development in Leesburg, 'Virginia; - and the 11,1unictpal Training Divisionfor Pennsylvania in Harrisburg. .Helpful writtenand telephone contacts were also made with theprogram manager of human resources in the]BM General Products Division, San Jose, Cali-fornia. The Center is grateful to the severalcorporate and public represeotatives who werefrank in sharing their thinking and experienceson the efficacy of.continuing education in provid-ing job security:' 0

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This report. was prepared by A. HarveyBelitsky, a. consultapt to the Center. EdgarWeinberg, Assistant Director and head of theCenter's human resources program, provideddirection in its preparation. .

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SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS

""NThe three case studies which make up this .

report explore the following question: Whetheradjustment to new technologies could not befacilitated if employees underwent continuingtraining and education -related to thWobs they

-were doing or were likely- to do. These' studieshighlight the fact that most employees are inters-estied in regulv training or education if theiremployment isfrea*onably steady and the train-

.ing or education is equated. with the opportunityto adapt to new and different job tasks overtime. For their part, employers and managersare likely to encourage and provide training onlywhen they, ,believe it will result in higher pro-duction or lower unit cost.

The studies focus. on continuing education or.engineers,- technicians, and .nanagers in two.large private firms -- IBM and Xerox -- and by

.an agency of the State of Pennsylvania. theyare concerned pith adapting to major technolo-gical changes, rapid expansion in output 'an'sizable growth in the work force. They dckrepresent universal policy implications or at-

-plications nor were they expected to do so. Still,thevcases are interesting because the experi-ences they relate do have "a relevance not onlyto comparable entities but also to firms, differ-ing in Aize and fields of production, which hadto adapt to similar economic conditions..

Factors Important to.Trai.ning

In all three cases, ongoing training and ed- vii

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ucation are dependent upon. foal, factors. Theseare:

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o Employment stability.

.o Management support for training.

. o Adaptation to changing job requirements.it

o Evaluation octraining.

The first, employment stability, influencesthe time horizon of the investment which a firmor public agendy makes in employee training.Reasonably stable employment also affects mor-ale and the receptiveness of employees to train-ing. .

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The second, management support for train=ing, is concerned with the extent to which man -'agers encourage personnel to pursue continuingeducation and training. It is crucially importantto employee interest and participation in ongoingeducation and training.

Both the third factor adaptation to ohang-ing job requirements and the fourth evalu-ation of training -- relate to job performance asan end product of training. These can involve .adaptation to a new and possibly more demandingjob and they can be characterized by attempts toevaluate training in terms of the trainee's ulti-mate JO performance, "the most crucial phaseof evaluation." 1/..Case I -:- IBM

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Case I shows that despite the 'availability ofeducational opportunities plus strong assuranceof enduring employment, many mature engineers ,_did nbt believe it worthwhile to enroll regularlyin job-related educatiinal courses. It was found

viii that mature engineers *anted to feel that they1

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were optimally productive. They needed to beassigned to the new, challenging tasks whichwere often reserved for younger engineers withmore up-to-date educatipns. IBM, is now en-

steaged in job redesign and other ineasures tomotivate mature engineers to enroll in continu-'ing educatio)i and thereby insure their fullerutilization.

Case 11 -:- Xerox

Case IT is concerndd with the approach totraining by Xerox, Xerox considers training tobe so important to its. corporate interest that it

, made a huge commitment in a centralized train-ing facility for service technicians, sales, andn4nagerial employees. The facility is on a sin-gre site and resembles a college campus.

Xerox has always made opportunities forcontinuing education available to its employ-ees both inhouse and in educational institutions.Steady employment was all but guaranteed by therapidly growing firm with the condition. that allpersonnel ,adapt through training and educationto frequent technological changes and changedjob requirements.

With the establishment of the expensive pewtraining facility, Xerox has expanded the objec-tive to include productivity advances as a directresult of courses offered. It is also possiblethat the training facility will allow Xerox to de-velop internally most or all of its senior man-agers rather than hire new managers from theoutsider as ttad b0Pn. nee SSperiod of exceptionally rapid expansion.

Case III -- Pennsylvania

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Pennsylvania State agency of training to muni ,-, ix'

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pal employees. It reveals tbat when the lack o.- . ,

job security wat an. overriding concern, th6. program by, itself was not a sufficient stimulus

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Training represents a "form of investmentwhose. returns.are realized over ,time. Thus -itis_bardly surprising that in many instancei-ther local government employees nor the man-agers see any value in investing in jobs whichare rio more secure than those of officials whomust regularly seek'public office. .

It'can be inferred that in local goveinmentswhere 'municipal employees lack the protectionof a civil service and Inerit ssfem and/oragerial support of training, levels of output andproductivity are less than the possible maxi-mum.

'Some Implications

o' Training provided at no monetary' expensemay be by itself an insufficient stimulus.IBM learned that training must be connectedwithczree-rdevelopment- or at le.t4nre-sponse to .`demands of. new assignments.Pennsylvania learned that Iteady employ-.

anent is a major element in making trainingattractive to local' government employees.

o Local government productivity could beprdved by an increased commitment to on-going training (given assurance of employ-ment security). Localities might furthtfbenefit through ithproved employee moraleand increased productivity it their r-crmintb-irators were exposed by training courses tosuch

rportantareas as interpersonal rela-

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)o When education is clearly and directly rela-

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. more interested in 1parning,and retain moreof what, they have learned. 0

0 . 4o IBM and Xerok, evaluate managers pirtly ink

terms of the career progress made :by ent-ployees,ipho report to them. As a result,managers do not concentrate exchisively onmeeting short-term puiput. and profit tar-

. gets. They also encourage training as wellas retraining for new taski which result inreatet diversification of work assignments.

This results in better morale and increasedproductivity.1

o AttemptsaLshould 1;e made to evaldate the im-pact of the different kinds of,training and ed-ucation despite the inherent problems that

. fray be present .even When job-related train-ing is involved. Such an gffort could lead tea validp:tion system whereby .couldbe dtre.ctiir related to productivity) whiChwould increase support for training andedu-cation. Validation might also result in im-proved'hirins criteria and frameworks fOrdesigning c'eaaln jobs.

-o- Films Which must provide most itraining n.-.

ternally because they,ariengaged in devel-oping substantial technological innovationsmay find that a centralized facility offersaperiating econamies and the nonquantifiablebenefits of a collegiate setting.

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. .sonnel as Sully as possible.

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Like oilier employees of the. cbepOratiOn;.IBM engineers have enjoyed stable employmentover the years. Major- and rapid technological .innovation,' hoWever, provide the company with \

. 'a special challenge in maintaining the technical' . vitality of its engineering population -- a chal-

lenge it meets With an extensive educational re-. ;

newal program, as well as a-number of non-.educational measures:

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CASE I. IBM'S EFFORTS TO MAINTAIN'FULL UTILIZATION OF MATURE .

ENGINEERS

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IBM eonsixiers steady employment to be apesitive facto] for "morale of the work force,"according: to the company's chairman'. 1/ Insupport of this belief, IBM has a practice of"full employment" (no layoffs), which brings .

with it a special indu6ement to utilize its per-

Evolving Problein. ^

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A number of inalysti and educators haveidentified a probleqt of "technological obsoles-cence" among development or design engineersin early or midcareer. As ,a resulttof.the tran-sibtor revolution andcother technological chang-.es a college edUcation in engineering as cometo-be considered insufficient educatio capitalto last a' work,-lifetime Knowledge. f - olidstate Physics, which was not taught when today'smature engineers were in college, has become 1

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essontial. A former university president. hasfiere'd that an engineer has a half life of about7-1/2:years, meaning that the contenof 50 per-'bent of engineering courses is different 7-1/2years aftel- an -engineer has received..a college

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. A national slow down in the growth of re-search and development expenditures has cur-tailed the den-rand for new engineers, leaving

. many firms with large cadres of mature en-gineers hired in earlier ,periods. The great

--sensitivity in demand for engineers to changingnational priorities and economic circumstances

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produces employment fluctuitionS that probablyexceed those of any other profession. 3/

Changing Emphasis in Education

. , 4"Continuing education has been a way of life

in IBM from the early days of the company,particularly since the inid -1950s when thecorporation entered electronic digital data proc-essing .- . : " 4/ IBM learned thatcontinuing edu-

i," ea "on is most effective when it is related to4: IB technologies, products, and systems fam-

ilies. Therefore, it has made a variety of job-related; courses widely available. These areusually, offered in a clabsroom setting during theworkday; they vary in length from a single dayto 'several weeks. 'Managers can ask that new

, courses be developed as needed: An IBM ana-lyst credits these courses with the fact that the' ... engineering population ha's aged 'about sev-

en, years in the. last ten [the years. 1963 - 73J,which means that 'on-gaing formal .educationmakes the group technologically younger than its

ICchronological aget" 4/

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. The Systems Research Institute in tiew York2 City, IBM's "graduate school" in systems edu-

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cation, offers a thorough, month long courseproviding' an in-depth understanding of complexsystems. Ehrollees have at least 10 years ofemployment experience. While the course isopen to managers, it is priniarily for engine'ers.A Jess.exhaustive systems development courseis offered at an educational. facility in rough-. keepsie, New York. This one-week, 40-hourcourse, conducted by design and developmentspecialists, is for engineerS with five or moreyears of dxperience...

IBM's approach conforms with that enunciat-ed in 19o4 by an advisory committeeon continu-ing engineering studies, which was made up offour engineering organilations. The committeecalled for the "spetific enhancement of the com-petence of the individual as a practicing engi-neer, rather than the attainment of an additionalacademic degree." 6/ The report 'stated: "Un-like traditional eduTation, where each coursebuilds upon its _decessor, independent .self-sustaining modem of learning need to be devel-oped." 7/

To help employees attaih baCkgrounds in bothengineering and business administration, so as,.to be effective at managing both material andhuman resources, IBM devised a full-time,

' one-week course in project managemegt that isupdated every two to three years.

bifferences in personnel needo and profes-sional' and managerial preferences at the var-\ious facilities led IBM todikcidd that it wasworthwhile to encourage the MEskelopment of var-ious approaches to technical vitality.. Commit-tees' were established at most locations to con-

y cider not only educational approaches ranging.from technical communications to'sabbaticalsbut also now work should be structured andwhether job rotation should be steppe4up. Des-Rite. differences in programs' from site to site,all found that the long-term benefits Of education 3

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-and.trlining had to be balanced against short-term production requi-rement. 8/-

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the forefront of calculator technology, were able4 to benefit from efforth at educational IreneWal.

Those who ,gad maintained their academic baseor who Were. young enough to remember .basfcmathematics, physics, and chemistry were able"to be retrained quickly as electronics special-ists. However, thole with 20 to 30 years of ex-perience Who had_lOst.their academic base oftenneeded to shift dco,..ulzatioria and go into manufac-turing, personnel relations, general manage-ment, -Dr sales.. These persons, received ad-ditional training for,their new pos4iops.

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Reaccreditation and Professional Development

_ Three innovatiyo educaticmaltiprograms-wereinitiated by IBM ltithin_ the pasfa10 years: twoart * devoted to technically updating engineirs,one of which involves redccreditation; the pur;,-pose of the thitiis to enhanCe IFofessiorral de-n,velopment."

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- -Union College of Schenectady; fillew YorkUnion College conducts a reaccreditation pro -

:gram which updates the undergraduate degree&of a .select group of IBM electrical engineerswith 10 or so years of experience. Enrollment. -is voluntary, but managers encourage participa-Lion. Tuition and textbook costs are paid by

Courses in prevailing -e1ectrCilc techno-logy are given on a trimester basis. Clasiesof about 25 are held after, working hours. andduring some relftase ., time from work. in the .four years that the program has been in exist-ence;' nearly 70 engineers have earned certifi-cates of accreditation* along with nine credits

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:'.1.4,JJni'vkrsity 'Vermont, -Burlington --: The_ University of rmont .conducts a full-time,

4 ' i1 . A2-month prgirrini leadfrig :,to' a Master's de-/ ,. ):.gree fb`r Seattonel electrleat engineers. De-

, ,: .". veloped tiy. iirt-,. d the university, the pro-,- gram emphasiigp. ai;ge-scale integration. They

program -also includes,;practiseal experienCe in. .designing . and -manufacturing semi-conductor

devices tor. lai-ge-scale integration at IBM'si. Burlington. facility. for:, one -suMiner , and dur-

ei. ing school ,holidays.. Basic or' prerequisite'

. . courses are offered. &ring the 'first pliase., Famil4s. are allowed .to accompany students.

This educational . opportunity is conskdered to --/ be an llonor, and perticipantS are highly trio-

tivated to succeed in. preparing for changesin theid field or broadening their skill base.Both IBM and,. the university have exptessetipleasure with the caliber of the students, andgraduated.

IBM Poughkeepsie, New York, ana San.,To e,California - - Both the Poughkeepsie and SailJpse IBM facilities offer week-long professionaldevelopment courses. {Several IBM divisionsalso provide their own related programs. ) Un-like most IBM programs, which are technicalor job-centered, these are ,,geople-oriented.Heterogeneous groins, composed, of profession-

, als from ddlopment laboratories, manufactur-ing, finance, and other units, are encouraged tofind a greater awareness of their owp 'long-termdesires in their careers.

Usually, enrollees are selected for thepro-gram after five to seven years with the corpora-tion, "because for most it is a time of question-.ing personal' objectives, reassessment of Meepurpose of work and search for the meaning ofsuccess in life." 9/

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Over, 5, 000 employees have participated in-. the program since its inception in 1969. The .

company feels that participation is " . . . an im- '5

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portartt experienCe for all successful and:grow-; ing professionals." 10/

Despite their differences, the programs atboth schools share basic similarities: groupparticipation has inc teased at the expense of

; lectures; fewer topics are covered- bat Theseare gone into more intensively; and more time

' is devoted to discussing personal and humanrelations, changing social values, and IBM polL-icies." Most participants are said to " . . . leave

. the sphool encouraged to have a fresh dialogwith heir managers about personal growth anddevelopment, changes in. assignment, additionaleducation, and increased restonsibility." 11/ -Ars° benefiting from exchanges with engineersand other professionals are top IBM managerswho often lecture at.the schools.

'Ongoing Training and Educatioh

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Most .IBM engineers work in 'applied 'science or development of nets processes orproductd, 'with relatively few, engaged in pureresearch. -Those involved in research gre of-fered a diversity of educational' altepatives. Aspecial speaker program'ranges from lecturesby original thinkers, A)Alose work .is not directlyrelated to that pf thh research division, Co gem-*, inars on new products condUcted usually by IBMdevelopment or marketing personnel. Three-month to *one-year sabbaticals can be taken . ,within the division, in othei IBM divisions, -orat academic institutions. A visiting scientistprogram encourages interaction between out-standing U. S. and foreign scientists and IBM .researchers. Conthquing educational programsfor researchers include courses on current de-velopments "and future technologies, varioustyp'es and levels ,of study at IBM, programming

.6 schools, tuition refund's for cdurses taken after

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.. ,working hours related to job effectiveness andcareer development, and participation in pro-fessional societies, including publication ofpapers on nonconfidential aspects of research.

IBM development design engineers are bycontrast .usually invoved with on-the-job train-ing, programs (the /firm's largest training ef-

. fort) and courses given during working hours on. current IBM technology. (According to a Labor

I/Department study, these two forms of trainingare the most hig ly favored by both researchpersonnel and development or, design engi7neert.) /2/ IBM so refunds tuition for all job-related courses t ken at accredited institutionsto update knowled e or learn about new applica-tions.

/Research p

hours weekly,reading work-rhours readingtechni6a1 literaengineers (als

fessionals nationwide spend 10ither on the job or at home,ated literature and another ninenonwork-related scientific andire. 13/ Development or designnationwide)' spend less time on

reading. How fever, a survey of engineers, in-cluding development. or design engineers who

,were undergoing continuing education at the' Uni-versity of Wisconsin, concluded that readingprofessional journals seems to be a c!pnvenient(and voluntary) " . . . basic method necessaryfor an engineer to maintain h, place in the pro-fession." 14/

Training and Education Costs-

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While a sizable portion of the cost of educa-tion is assumed by engineers through the timethey devote off the job to reading and attendingcollege courses, the outlays for training and ed-'ucation by IBM and other high-technology firms 7 .

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#4 a"a're- subtantial. .(Accordiift- to a 19'67 study,estimated outlays. for industrial education0 up-

odit,e. scieritists.and engiriee4, Arlin. managers,.4.'and'intkoduce new 'technology exceeded expendi-

tt.tres fpr kinds'of priv*te.and public college.1 duc ation ) 15/ "

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It is difficult to, arrive at an. exact figure ofIBM (as well as other firms') outlays for edu-elation and.trainingfo'r two reasons. First, such

, expericiltureS are not reckoned with the same i-,riancial detail ,as, ar$ production costs. Second,training and edication are not considered' line

'items, but.,o'verlipati costs. 16/ However, sincetrie cost of training and education is part of afacility's overhead, each manager is, chargedfor them and; therefore, has an ,incentive tosend his emplbyees to relevant training and edu-cational programs. In addition, records aremaintained for employee enrollment, by course,for each IBM operating unit, and budgeting isdone for the various programs conducted .at eachIBM educational site. Thus an '.'avecagen stu-dent cost, could be calculated.

One published estimate of IBM's expendi-tures for continuing ethication was one to twopercent of the total deVelopment or engineeringbudget. 17/ A study' made several years ago de-,ter'minecrrhat a particular inhouse program costone-fourth as much 'as a comparable universitycourse, with the savingattributed to'universitytuition and transportation costs between. labora-tory and university. 18/

Evaluating Training and Education

While all training programs are not speci-fic ally and quantitatively evaluated, there areseveral indicators that IBM training and educa-

8 tion respond to the corporation's needs, One is

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the high level of technical expertise which ena-bles the company to "apply modern science tothe solUtion of increasingly complex customerproblenis." Another is that most of the pro-grams have come into being as the result ofperiodic surveys of the needs of line manage-ment, with very few having emanated from IBMtraining otganizations. A third indicator is thatof courses offered each trimester, 20 to 30 per-

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.......,

Evaluation is considered to be more feas-ible when there are more "mission -oiiented"courses and fewer "degree - oriented" pro-

> . grams. 201, Frequent evaluations of the-workperformance of engineers are considtred to re-flect the impact .oftraining. One IBM educatorfeels that training can be evaluated indirectly,if imprecisely, by comparing the career pro-gression of program participants with nonparti-cipants.

Subjective appraisalsof the professional de-velopment program include "positive reactionsof management to the participants' enhanced un-derstanding' of their roles' and relationships tothe 'company,'" a "continued and sustained de-Mand for enrollment," and highly favorable stu-dent ratings. 21/ (The Lawrence LivermoreLaboratory, a major institution in. the fields ofbasic nuclear and energy research, evaluatesits continuing education on the basis of partici-pants' job performance, but depends "mostheavily" on.participantst, evaluations.) 22/

is,

Job Redesign an Important Factorv,,, , .

Those who work for long periods with tech-., nologies which- . have not radically changed,

whose jobs lack variety, or who have not beenexposed. to new -and challenging job assignments

. . are especially vulnerable to loss of technical vi-tality.,

. 21I

<.,

9

..:t ..

4,

.

/..f.- .

7

According tb the program manager of humanresources at IBM's General Products Division,San Jose, California, often training and educa-tion must be supplemented by job redesign, jobrotation, and transfer. He said: \

...in looking at engineering organizations,we noticed that new, challenging problemstend to get assigned to the younger engi-neers, thus depriving the older engineerof the opportunity to learn and grow. 23/

Job deprivation in older engineers was con-firmed by a study of .company records for 2,500design and d4velopment engineers and managersin six firms (three aerospace and three in "rep-resentative, technology-based commercial in-. dustries"): assignments of professionals underage 40 were found to be in the 50th percentilqor above in terms of complexity;, thse over40 were assigned work in the bottom half ofthe complexity scale." 24/ A later analysis ofthe study found that "difiTi.ences in performanceare greater within age groups than betweenthem. 'Clearly,= critical to avoid age-171iited stereotypes." 251

Many experts attribute 'declines in the capa-city to acquire new knowledge and proficienciesless to age than to "lack of practice and .en-couragement." On authority, of certain re-search, "intellectual p;owess' bears.a resem-blance to "physical prowess." Physical joggingis " . . . only .effective if done stretiVusly andregularly over long.-periods of time. Mentaljogging is no less strict 'a regimen and offersno easy short cuts." 26/ Such a view has sup-port within rsm. A survey cited by the programmanager of humin resources at the San Jose fa-cility disclosed that professionals felt that theiroccupational growth occurred primarily as a re-sult of changed in job or assignment. The IBMbooklet, About Your Company; states that en-

10 larging "the capabilities .of our people through

22C

.-46000'

job development" is a "fundamental principle"of the,corporation. A professor who his exten-sively studied "organization' and job design"concluded that such measures are the bestmeans to assiitei. the "competence" of a -workfOrce. 27/ .

IBM his tried a variety of job developmentapproach's, often with, the many 'repetitive and -

routine /engineering jobs. Using modern tech-nologyr -.the corporation has been able to rede-sign prckesses for engineers in computer designwho are no longer involved in -"hands-on" activ-ity but rather are confined to paper work. Thishas resulted in bringing "the engineer back intoa better balance with the system," by includingin the work learning, closure, and feedback.Sometimes job missions have been broadened; /by -giving engineers greater variety in their'work; other times jobs have been narrowed tocounter the feeling of being spread too "thin."

Role of Managers Critical

If training and education, actuated by bothrecurring changes in occupational tasks and re-design of work, are keys to high productivityamong engineers, then managers, 1.in currentjargon, have a key role, in assuring that engi-neers remain "turned on. IBM's vice presi-dent of technical personnerdevelopment believesthat his firin, has a "people-development" ori-entation and that IBM management does betterthan that of most other companies. - One reasonwhich is cited- is that IBM regards highly thosemanagers who are especially good at developingpersonnel. The importance of this is demon-4"

4 strated by the qne -page ,"people management"supplement which As part, of the appraisal ofmanagers. Usually more than 30 percent of amanager's time is projected to be spent on peo -)ple management; 28/ and there is periodic eval- 11

nation of how :long a manager's personnel' havebeen assigned to unch3ngitig jobs.

..,I .

In general, IBM feels thsat a. broad stope is, . necessary for stimulating changes in work tasks

and in learning as the means fdr apsdring. the4 technical vitality of engineers. 29/

.

1

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44

0

X,.

. 4 i

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12

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e

24

V.

t

. 1 . .

XEROX CENTRALIZES TRAININGOF TECIINIOAL, SALES; AND

MANAGERIAL PERSONNEL

-.

'Tire Xerox Inteinational Center forI in and Mannenrient ,Development in Leesburg,.

Virginia is one of the largest corporate trainingfacilities in existence. Built at a cost of over$70 million, the facility occupies 40 acres of

ja. 2,.300-acre wooded tract. The centthr_ canaccommodate up to 15,000 trainees a year.Training is offered to technical representatives(whp service machines), sales personnel, andmanagers, e center has a training and sup-tort stuff nearly 5p0.

)According to the center's director., Xerox-has always considered."people its most inrkpor-lant, asset. The chairman of Xerox expecft

sties' irectly, relp.ted to production and salep.trains to .receive the same attention as activ-

liehas said that .while training may be consid-ered a burden, "it's got to beco_me a way oflife." 1/ Inapt/plied productivity is the desiredend result of training.

For y,pars even before the facility was open-ed in June 19/4, Xerox has established a closeinterrelationship between employment, trainingand education, and technological change.

With.a number of xerographic patents now inthe public, domain, the company has found thatcompetition has increased. Furthermore, fu-ture developments of already complex productsare bound to be even more sophisticated. Xeroxdetgrmined that its success in the marketplace- i3

25

4

depends on providing intricate products" of highquality for the- riformation needs of business andgovernment, and the only way of doiiik this is byproviding superior, training to its emplOyees..(The s of -Xerox appear to be consistent withthose resied for the Western "Electric . Ccr-porati n Education Center, which sees itself

. not only in the. role of teachers, but alsoas catalysts in speeding up the introdwtion ofnew, chnological ideas into Company opera-tions. 2/

lb

?ADesirability of a Single'Training Center

Although some firms hay.? centralized train-ing facilities, it is more usual for companies tohavb several training locations. A Xerox studyin the late 1960s showed that it wes desirableto consolidate training of technical, sales, andmanagerial personnel into a _ single facility.Training was being conducted in the corpoca-tion's brandhes and its six regional trainingcenters. It was determined; that consolidationwould eliminate duplication in instructors, in-

t struction space, and hotel space for housingtrainees. Variations in approach and quality of <,training could be removed.. And an academicsetting entailing "integrated living learning ar-eas" -would en8ourage a sense of communityand interchange among trainees from differentoccupations and geographical areas. 3/

HoWever, Xerox continues to train many ofits manufacturing, information service, and en-.

gineering tperelonnel in Rochester, New Ybrk,where products are designed and manufactured,and Sr#§re toe machines are." Also availablethere are-the .educational facilities of the Uni-versity of Rochester and the Rochester Instituteof Technolga4,both of which receive gifts from

14 Xerox.

2 6.

is

4

O

Branches and the Training Center .io;- .

.

Xerox branches throughout the country de-termine who undergoes 'training on the basis of4peeds.ireated ty technological change and attri-tion in the work force. Full-time branch train-ing managers for sales personnel and for tech-nical representatiyes prepare trainees and thencontinue to work with them when they return tothe field. The managers are guided by perfor-mance profiles of strengths and weakness whichthe center prepares Tor 'each trainee. Becausesome center courses are recommertded for col-lege credit through the American Council of Ed-.ucatiores Project. an Noncollegiate SponsoredInstruction, some employees have been encour-aged to continue their c§llege education on theirreturn to the branches. Xerox pays part of thetuition upon puceeSsful completion.

Preparation of Courses .

4

sr,

yee

According to the center's manager of educa-.tion services, training courses are 'Prepared inresponse to the "needs of the field" -- the re-sult of new technology,, new produces, alteredmarketing plans, establishment of new jobs, orevaluation which shows that current traininginadequate. The center offers over 60 courses.

Development of a course begins when a prod-uct is,on the drawing board. In the case of the9200 duplicating system, the course preparationbegan three yeas before introduction .becausethe.machine is so intricate.

In preparing a course, a task analysis is rmade of the affected occupation and a perfor-mance model is derived which pippointe tasksfor which training is necessary. A learning 15

27

model is then prepared consisting of the se-teaching tasks and how they fit the ob-

jectives of the course. Finally, lesson plansare written and presentation media are chosen.The center sometimes uses the programmedlearnint products developed by Xerox LearningSystems.

Classrooms

The centees 113 classrooms have the most ,

advanced audio-visual facilities. The class-rooms are octagonal, so that the instructor isnot viewed as reigning at the head of the class.Cruses in the sales fieldconsist usually of 10trainees, a number particularly adapted to"learning in the round. This stimulates stu-dent-instructor participation and aids studentsto learn from each other as well as fror-theinstructor. 4/

Sales instruction classroonis are close torole-playing rooms. In addition to a consider-able investment in Xerox copying ecitiipment, theCenter has other elaborate instruction equip-ment, including graphic arts apparatus for fourartists, two audio studios, and a T. V. prci-duction studio with control and master controlrooms.

Instructors .m

Instructors are drawn from among the topperformer in thpir areas of expertise and usu-ally stay at the center for two or three years.They .ar of such a high caliber, that most arepromot to managerial positions in\lheir bran-

16 ches w en their teaching stint is over. Some of

28

4

. -.Vi\ .,

those who\ wish to stay and make a career 'cli, .teaching are given an opportunity to becornWsenior techiical instructors. P 4

InstruciOrs draw upon their 'actual experi-ences. Ther also receive special training inlesson planning,. clasqroom management, and,counseling. 1

. .

d -

, \Trainees

I\ ,..

i A

The Leesbur; center cab accommodate up to1, 000 trainees at time. Trainees are drawnmainly from the, two groups of employees whoare in direct co act with, the firm's customers:sales representat'ves and' technical representa-tives. The cent also trains managers at alllevels; those who have attended the courses areexpected ultirpatel' to number in the thousands.

Training is strenuous and is scheduled from8 to 5 daily. ' However, no problems have beenencountered in training even..those workers whoate somewhat oldet but are' also expected tokeep abreast of technological change. Traineesare encouraged to use The varied recreationaland physical education facilities to learn howindustrial stress can by reduced.

.

' Sales, technical, and managerial personnelare not segregated; but

plushhoused together

in comfortable but not plush individual rooms.Some courses a e tOcrosq-taught,stance, a sal s instructor lecturing 'technicalrepresentatives.

Trainees are , predominantly from Xeroxbranches in the United States. However, a`ma-jority of Canadians enroll, and a small' numberof English-speaking Latin American employeesreceive product training:

29

17

I.-

/.

Technical Representatives

Technical representatives are taught highlyspecific, taskrelated skills needed to repair .

and maintain equipment., Knowledge in'the "niceto know" category is not coVeygd because, asthe manager of education sei9es exPlained,, itwould not bescost-effective. Most trainees havea technical school background or mechanical orelectrical experience with another firm. Thosewho received. technical training while in militaryservice are often competent new shires, but thatsource is drying up. According to asenior instructor, individuals who grew' up on a farm orworked on automobiles often, become capabletechnicians. Thivbasic requirement for train-ees, however, is a good; logical mind.

Technicians may begin training with-a two:week course that .consistslarigely ,of practicallaboratory work on the, 660 copier: They thenwork on the,-job, for several months and, if thisexperience is favorable, may return to the cen-ter for training on. more sophistidated equip -ment i .

Some of the techhicianOnow begin their/raining on the 9200 duplicating system, Xerox's

/most complex product. Ti 9200, whi"ch doesnot require a 'skilled operator, contains a min-

i iature computer; it is the mo§t'expensive officesystem, producing 7,200 scopies per hour andcan automatically receive, duplicate, sand col-late up to 50 different documents?

Each training laboratory is equipped with 10of the. 920a duplicating 'systems. Each lab 'canaccommodate 18 students; the tudent-ihstru-tor ratio there is six to one. M t of the train-ees time' is spent- 4,in self-paced struction in a

.laboratory. . . .

,

18 The course normally. runs six weeks, but-

30.

this is'..flexible -- some may finish in fair andone -half weeks; others may .take seven weeks.A minor proportion of the newly-hired techni-.clans do not complete the 9200- course. Thesepeople return to their brandhes, and after more'skills training, return th,the center to learn howto service less complex equipment. They mayreturn to the tote center a year or two later foranother try on the 9200,

Student self-paced or criterion.-referencedinstruction (tests for which criteria are .set) hasbeen developed for Various modules of the 9200course. Practice troublehooting is done beforetests are Jaken, with an instructor signing off.on each course module so that the trainee canmove on to another. Criterion tests are givenindividually; however, at an early stage, pair-ing occurs and a glow learner may som4timesbenefit fi-om being paired with a fast learner.

. .

Those who complete the training are issuedmicrofiche maintenance and parts manuals andhand viewers; each microfiche contains theequivalent of nearly 100 pages of text. Contihu-

.. ing education in the forth of home study aoursesis also available.

, Training is -highly job-oriented, and thosewho do well are able to advance on a determinedcareer ladder consisting of the following:

o Associate Techhical.Rapresentative (o the-job training for first six months of ploy-,ment).

o Technical Representative (responsibility formachines in an assigned territory).

O Senior Technical Representative (responsi-bilityfor more complex technical problems-- troubleihooting).

. .

o Technical Specialist (responiibiley centers 19

on training in the branch, including diagnos-tic training and human relations training forcontacts with customers3.

o Technical Instructor at the Leesburg center(promotion front either the technical repre-aentative or technical. sPecialist positionsand the possibility of progressing to seniortrainer or training manager polsitions at the

'c enter).

o Field Servic e i1i1 anager.

o Branch Service.Manager.*

Sales Perso'nnel19

Various levels of training are offered tosales personnel. Newly hired sales personneltake a three-week basic course, spend about sixmonths in the field, and then returiv'for ad-vanced training. In the advanced sales course,trainees learn about nurrierous capabilities andapplications of sophisticated equipment. Also'offered is specialized training in 14 verticalmarkets, including manufacturing, aerospace,banking,.p,arance, and law, which have theirown pa flow and necial probleIn . Mana-gerial-training for sales personnel t lso avail-able.

Sales .training. consists pr dominantly of aone-to-one role-playing relati5nship. The.in-stnictor usually plays a reluctant customer andthe exchange is videotaped and played to the en-tire class for criticisni and comments, Train-ing also includes watching other videotapedrecordings and instructional exposition. Salespersonnel sometimes return a half dozeti or slo'tines to the center for training on specialized

20 products.

Managers

.

A 0 *

L. ,According to tile. chairman of Xerox, it it

necessary to improve management developmentso that more top positions can be filled fromWithin. , (Many managers were recruited fronloutside during the company's exceptionally rapid,growth period. ) The chairman told his top man-agers, "From now on you'd better start grow-ing your own [managers] or you're pot going tohave [them]e" He also made it clear, that theabty of managers to secure training for theirpersonnel must'. be considered as important. as"any other part" of a manager's job. 5/

Manage ent training, the type of trainingmost recent y intro used -at the cereer, is also.designed t avoid "managerfarOsolescence"I which, as reporte by one survey, three-fourtg;of 60 firms q Toned considered an existingpossible pro em. Ahother study traced over 40percent of managerial layoffs to technologicalchange and obsolescence. 6/

Courses are provided for first-line sales andservice managers, executive (iipper) managers,

end middle managers iti sales; service, andsupport functions. Emphasis is on courses formiddle managers to compensate for their rela-tive lack'of training. One prograth for middlemanagers is titled "Managing Tasks ThrcrughPeople." Classed consist of about 20 managers,from the United States and: Canada. ,

As in all managerial instruction, learning is. by a, "participative and experiential, approach",

with no self-pacing. Courses are designed to"assure job relevance" by dealing wiih needsrevealed in company surveys. Actual "Xeroxsituations" are used to provide "an opportunityto plan the application of course learnings backon the job.' Electives are available to meetspecific nee*. 7/

33C-

21

*s.

Evaluating Training

The substantial investment in and commit-ment tortraining makes it important tb learnwhetherlhe outlay provides an acceptable returnon, investment. Xerox employs 13 of its ownpeople full-time .and 22 .consultants. to prepareand evalupte courses given it the Leesburg cen-ter.

The same quality control proOtss,that ap-plies to evaluating marketed products is usedbefore courses are adopted so that refinements

R. and revisions can be made. A series of testsare employed: an editorial test, made by some-one who has not been involved in the' preparationof the course;. a development test, consisting ofthe teaching of the course by its developers; anda pilot test, in which regular instructors aretrained and then teach a few test classes. Es-tablished courses and trainees are evaluatedcontinuously. The entrance test which all train-ees take on arrival at the center becomes a baseof comparison for later evaluations.

Eviluation takes three major forms. Thefirst involves verification of teaching methods,and asks, do students learn what they aretaught? For example, 80 percent of a sampleof students in a technical representative coursemust piss the performance test at the end ofthe course. The second is concerned with thegeneral instructional system, and asks, can acourse be taught better or at lower cost? 'train-ees are surveyed every three months on theirimpressions of the center, ranging from in-structor performance to quality of food. Asa general finding, instructors in self-pacedcourses who spent ever half of their time in di-rect contact with students and provided themwith considerable "feedback" were most likely

'to have students who performed well on the per-22 formance test at the end of the course. The

. 34

116

.

. third is concerned with validation of design, andasks, have trainees been taught the right things?or, "Does performance on the end-of-courseobjectives relate to the ultimate productivity andfield performance of the student's'" 8/ , Thisevaluation is accomplished by follovrupof train-ees in their branches; it is known as "fieldtracking" or "field relevancy study." .

ti -.

In order to tie validation to productivity, tw,iitypes of factors must be identified. First arejob performance indexes by which productivitycan be measured. These involve performanceof large and independent tasks -- for example,preparing a customer survey and time requiredto pinpoint and repair a typical machine failure.The second are environmental factors which areoutside' the influence of training and personaldifferences and have an impact on productivity.

It is possible to derive measures of job pro-ductivity in divisions of Xerox branches involvedwith personnel appraisal, compensation, Adcareer development. Sales personnel have al-ways been paid on the basis of new machinessold or leased and customer retention of leasedmachines. 9/ The training of technical repre-sentatives will be able to be validated when theircompensation is tied more firmly to their pro-ductivity,. However, before this can be done,some problems must be dealt with -- for ex-ample, the mix of equipment handled by a tech-nician and the distance traveled to servicemachines.es. .

?

A connection can also be shown betweentraining and job performance in quantitativeareas of management -- budget, finance, andcareer progression in a manager's staff. It ismore difficult to evaluate the role of transac-tional analysis in improving personnel manage-ment.

Md.

.

Pt

Xerox's. evaluators are also attempting to 23 ,

35

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determine the costs,. as well as the bene.fits, oftraining. Reasonably good cost estimates arethought to be available. While opportunity costs-- the loss of field production while an employeeid in training -- are not computed, each branchis charged the salary'of any of its enrolled em-ployees. The center defrays aft other expenses.

The promise of successful validation extendsbeyond "validating training objectives. V It

. . . also suggests means for improving pro-ductivity by .addressing environmental influencesand personnel selection criteria." Research byXerox evaluators has shown that achievementafter training seems to be related to the extentand type of job experience, but not ti the levelof education. Thus, it is possible, 'by identi-fying factors that account for difference in cri-terion performance' among students . . . to con-struct guidelines for student selection, (course)material modifications, course administration,instructor training, or the nature of the job it-self; the investment, in diagnostic evaluationmay well pay large dividends in training tost-effectiveness. " 10/ 1:.

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CASE III. STATE AGENCY TRAINS AMIDST, JOB INSECURITY IN PENNSYLVANIA

MUNICIPALITIES

Regular training is as important for devel-toping human resources and raising productivity'in the public sear as it is in the private sector.Nonetheless, thecoromitment to training on thepart of local governments is far from ideal.According to a recent. survey by the Interna-tional City Management Association, " . . mu-nicipal in-service training is generally still un-

*--lertaken as an appendage t000ngoink activities."

To provide train4g fot local govermtent'employees, the State of Pennsylvania set up aMunicipal Training Division in 1968 for "under-trained administrators and employees." 2/ Oth-er States have established similar institutions.However, Pennsylvania's program was selectedfor study here because, according to public ad -,ministrators outside ttie State, a fine systematicprogram has ettblved,7!

Theprogram is also noteworthy because ofthe factors whicb have severely limited its of -fectiveness (and which others, warned, mibe able to avoid). A major disadvantage hasbeen fluctuating employment at the local goverti-ment level. Others include lack of managementinterest in employee training, inadequate oper-ating funds at both the State and local level, andinadeqUate time for training elected officials..

.

Y.

7 iLocal Government Training Gains in Importance

The importance of Adequately trained loOal 25

37

government personnel has been increasing inrecent years. Citizens are'demanding more andbetter services at the same time that they are 4"

. revolting against increases in taxes. Costs con-.

, tinue to skyrocket. New Federal, revenue-shar-ing programs have increased the burden of re-sponsibility shouldered by local governments.And new Federal and State laws regarding com-munity development and environmental protec-'Lion have placed further demands on local em-ployees. 3/ Clearly, the better use of personnelthrough training to increase productivity is an

I answer for these embattled municipalities.

The State's" Role in Training

Pennsylvania, the third most populous Statein the Union, is composed Of over 2,600 incor-porated municipalities. These are chartered bythe State of Pennsylvania and are thereforecreatures of the State. 'Because home rule issomewhg limited, the 'partnership between theState and its municipalities is unique.

There are several reasons why training oflocal employees should be provided by 41 "out-side source" 4/ (that is4 an agency of the State).Many of the municipalities are very small andare unable or unwilling to pay for training. Theylack the expertise to provide adequate training.Uniform instruction among municipalities is de-sirable in several areas -- for example, water-mankgement and sewage treatment, which areadministered by municipalities but governed byState regulations. A State training program can.'provide the entire State with a trained cadre ofoperators. 5/ It also increases the likelihoodthat personnel will keep abreast of technologicalchange. And with the growth of urban and sub-urban sprawl, boundaries are tending more and

26 more to bl ; counties, boroughs, cities, and

il 3&NY

at

S

townships are beginning to share more of their.problems -- and tl it personnel. .

-

Employment Insecurity

. ,

. tPoi many Pennsylvania local government

employees, employMent is of a temporary na-ture. In part, this is because there is no meritsystem or civil service protection. Most localgovernment jobs are appointive; when new of-ficials are elected (for terms ranging from twoto six years), appointees of the previous admin-istration may be replaced by those of the vic-tors. Turnover is very often swift and employ-ment security is often nil. Even in those in-stances where officials are re-elected to officetime and again., large numbers of local govern=ment employees are affected with uncertaintyover their jobs. As a result, the incentive fortraining is not significant for both employeesand local government management.

, _._. .

State.Agency Centralizes Training=

The State agency responsible for training is,the municipal Training Division (MTD) withinthe Department of Community Affairs. TheMTD evolved from the Public Service Institutewhich had come into existence in 1936Congress passed the George -Deen Act. TheAct, whose emphasis was primarily on voca-tional education, also provided States with Fed-eral funds to set up inservice training in numer-ous occupations. Elected officials were includedin the 19508. urin the late 1960s and early1970s, the t wining of school business offi- ,cials and oche employees in the schydfs wagemphasized. 6

39

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0

27

A

4

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No

..State funding of the MTD has provided great-

--ex flexibility than `was the case when training wasdependent on vocational education monies. TheMTD provides training for, the State's over14, 000 fleeted local officials. In addition, itprovidfs training for, among others-, local ad-mtnis:Vrators, managers, planners, water and zsewer ereatmeni operators, assessors, andcode enforcers. Most managerial training. isdefrayed by funds received under the Fede'ralIntergo s rnmental Personnel Act. Water andsewer tre ment.training. is funded by the Fed-eral Envir umental, Protection Agency alongwith the State.

The MTD no longer has anything to do withschools, nor does it train State employees.While it offers management training for police,law enforcement training is handleelsewhere.The same. true for fire control. .

.-

Determining Training Needs

Training is initiated via a variety of means.MTD conducts frequent "needs surveys" bymail, .phone, or simply questioning a group.Local officials- can -request training. And trait-ing efforts .can result from legislation; for ex-ample, the 1968-State law requires certificationof water and Wastewater operators.

The MTD also recognizes that those whoseemployment is stable need continuing educationand training and those whose jobs depend uponelectoral vagaries need entry-level training.According to MTD estimates, about two-thirdsof those in training are learning a job skill, whiletie remainder are being taught the legal respon-sibilities of their jobs.

28 The table shows the number of trainees en-, 40

.1041,

Traineei by unctional Area MTD,Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 197S--76.

je

00'

Enrollees by Fiscal1973-74

Fiscal1974-75,--4

Fiscal

6

Program Area 975-16

Local boir-ernment

CommunityDevelopment

Management.

EnvironmentalProtection

Other. ,

Tatar

1, 677,0

2,939

3,309 .

:1, 30,7

4, 758

928'4

3,875

4, 113

2, 741

"7$ 2, 909 k

ois-

4,876,

3,395

2,372

1, 447

1,990 14,566 15,15,106-.

rolled,by MTD by functional area between 1973'atid 1976. The total increased by ,l, 100 betweenthe first and last fiscal year periods recorded.-. However, more substantial variations occurredwithin broad program areas. The reduction inthe Other category (1975-76) reflects the MTD'srelinquishment of training for educational andlaw enforcement .officials. 'Local Governmentalso. shows wide fluctuatiohs, the result ofchanges among officeholders affected by elec-tions. The increase under COmmunity Dqvelop-ment reflects the growing importance of code. .

enhircenforcement, 'which falls within that-category. 11#

(PennSylvapia leads other States in codeforcemeat training; it is probably also the leaderin training in water and sewage treatitent. )Within Managethent, the financial managementscourse enrollnfent declined steadily over thethree fiscal years: This May reflect *an initialsurge, to improve capabilities and possibly learn 29

.0.

41 1 IL

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how to deal with new Federal requirements onthe part of several hundred employees whoseemployment stability is somewhat greater thanthat of most other local government workers.

Flexibility in Training

. .iThe MTD accommodatei course offerings tothe working schedules of the t'rainee's. Waterand sewageeatment workers tend to work insmall plants and cannot be released to attenddaytime classes, so their program isusuallyconducted` at night. Evening classes' are alsoheld for elected officials.. Appointed officialstend to .prefer daytime classes. Code enforce-ment (*)urses have been successful when i.dnduc-ted during the day but not at night.

..

'Courses tire held at- a variety of sites; at acentral location within the State, at one or moreregional sites, by correspondence for those inout-or-the-way locations, and sometimgliftt theworksite itself. The last has the advantage of al-lowing all employees to undergd training, there-by avoiding resistance on the part of the un-trained to new ideas which might be introducedby the trained.

"'The length of the courses varies from 3 to60 hours but avgrages chours. Courses arehild from one, afternoon

1.

a week to four succes-sive days for intensive training. For water and

00. wastewater treatment, the course runs for threehours one night a week, over 10 to 12 weeks.Minimum enrollment per:course is 15 people.

co

Tuition Feese. .l

it? Whereas- most courses have been provided30 free to the employees, including managers and

42 ,...

.0...

e

)..

0.

i administrators and the .rminicipality, modesttuition fees of $10 to $25 are now being as-sessed. A registration fee. of about $25 ischarged for the water and sewage programs. Afee is also charged for the code enforcementcourse. , These are paid by the municipality orthe individual. Some of, the impetus for charg-ing for all courses is the result of a view, that''free training is worth what you pay for it." Thefolly of assessing fees for training on the basisof this view can be ,settled by pointing out that

le workers make a sufficient commitment to andinvestment in training, simply by enrolling in andtaking a course, especially if this occurs afternormal working hours..

% r

Preparation and Delivery of Courses

According 42 the head of the MTD, several,different agencies administe'red training ,pro-grams for local governmer4 personnel as' ateas 1971. Many of these programs were provide tiby State colleges and universities, a practicewhich the MTD fo'lowed when it first came intoexistence and its staff was very small. How-ever, these academically-originated serviceswere judged to be "... too sophisticated and.es-otePic for the local officials involved [and] alsoproved to be of little utility ... . ." Next, theMTD utilized outside consultants and trainers.Whiles the courses were good in quality, theywere high in cost; moreover, because the con-

. sultants often had little previous involvementwith locA government, they sometimes failed tocapture the interest of the.. officials who tooktheir courses. 6 As a result of the impact of 15these experienc-es, the MTD has spent severalyears generating confidence in its training.nits

MTD now selects part-time instructors froth 31

A 43 I

I

a

or

its own staff, loCal officials and rhanageis, en-t gineers,.professionals,tconsultantt with Munic-

ipal ekperienc'e faculty,membert of collegesand universities (the lastmake up about 5 per-cent of the, total). In ,rifsrefl'aring a' course, for

. example, in skills tra;ining for road and streetsmaintenance, the MTD staff meet's with roadbuilders or the association which representsthem as well as the State Department of Trans-

. portation. They then make a problein assess-ment, which for certain Managerial .courses israther sophisticated.

.The MTD uses an advisory committee sys -tem in several training-,aieaS, chiefly in man-

* agement. There are Committees for geographic*areas representing about 75- percent of the

State's Population. They are made up largely oflocal officials whc; formulate the number andtypes of training programs which are to be of-fered in ticeir region.

. -The MTD" has generated textbooks and Ina4.-Cials which emphasize general deirelw-mint and problem-solving. Some materials arepurchased fom universities. Written materialsare supplemented by demonstrations films,,nd.field trips., ...

. .= ..,Prospectfve trainees are in-formed off' the'

availability of courses through. a vaiety,;,edsources, important among which are agents ofthe Pennsylvania State :Linty/TY coopeir :yeextension service' who, are pbsitraned,thra4 Outthe State. ..

FO'stering Training , A

, .,) ' 4 1 *i.%;.. ` : r: "Training in a few fields --: Water and p.ewigetreatment, for example *-- is mandated. How-

32 ever, most is voluntyl and employee partictpa-'4 .,.

..

-ir .!..., : ..)

tion seems to depend upon the suppCirt and en-thusiasm for training on the part of management-- the administrators and elected officials in thelocalities. The MTD has found-that city and town

. managers tend to support training as do munici-pal clerks. However, elected officials, whonormally control local .governments, .are farless likely to promote training because they failto see any direct benefits froin it .for them-selves. For their part, many appointed officialsoften do not devote full time to their municipalresponsibilities; thus, people who serve by ap-pointment on a. local sewage authority are likelyto work full time at ther totally unrelated jobsand therefore... have ttle time or inclination tobecome edUcated abo the requirements of theircivic, jobs.

.Inadequate revenue bases also mitigate

against training, as does the."undermanaged ornonexistent staff of administrators" 7/ who shyaway from training for their employeTs becausethey are neither knowledgeable nor convinced ofthe need for it. Thus there are InstanceS whereemployees initiate steps 'for Mining and arethen frustrated by their superiors. Junior su-. Tervisors and other employeq have often been

vheard to make such remarks "It's too bad mysupervisor didn't go for: training."

The MTh is in the process of pr,eparing amanual on a variety of environmental problems,including water and sew.age treatment, for thepurpose of educating elected .and appointed of-ficials in the complexities of environmental ctrol and the need for more trained perso el.

Training can be fostered by stabilized em-ployment, and this is most likely to come aboutfrom a more widely used merit system. Union-ization' of public employees has grown, andunions of course are concerned with all formsof job security. Most of the State's counties areexpected to have some unionized employees in a 33

45

4

.few years, although this cannot be said for thesmaller communities. "

Training Needed for Managersa

, tFew Pennsylvania' localities have nersonuel

systems of any sophistication, and most have no'staff for training. As a result, some local man-agers and administrators have little apprecia-tion for the value of training. In contrast with

hFederalmanagers, most of whom have had sometraining in managerial science, operationsmethods, agency goals, and interpersonal rela-tions, 8/ they often ignore or do not know howto copewith,complex problems.

The MTDis trying to rectify this situation by4. placing special emphasis_ on manag_ente4.traiii-

ing. Most MTD funds are spent for managementtraining, and of those who enrolled for trainingduring 1975-76, more than one-fifth are in man-agement: The problem is that the majority ofmanagers must take orientation courses as theresult of job insecurity. Moreover, many "re-peaters" show up when revised or advancedcourses are offered.

a The City of Philadelphia is notable in" that ithas a sophisticated civil service for managersalong with a job classification plag which pro-vides opportunities for career progression. Ad-vanced management courses are offered byPhiladelphia's. training department, which hasreceived much assistance from the MTD. TheMTD also combined recently with the Pennsyl-vania Mtinicipal Manager's Absociation to formthe Pennsylvania Municipal Management Insti-tute to provide certification for those completingadvanced management training.

Evaluating Training. Although the high rate of job turnover makes

34 it difficult to evaluate training; nevertheless the

46

MTD is attempting 'to make such an assessmentof its entire training program in terms of who isbeing trained and who is being ignored, methodsof administering training, and the cost and con-tributions of specific programs. All traineeswho complete a course are asked to commentfrankly on program content, instructor per-formance, and changes they suggest. A mortesophisticated followup of trainees on the job asanticipated after trainee records are furthersystematized. /

e However, the MTD has yet to Bete rrne howempl yees can be tested at the start of a course,upon is completion, and later on the j b. Ac:-cormng to an MTD researcher, idea ly objec-tival would be set for each course, w'th evalua-

_tion_c_rite_ria ilased_on traine_e_testsi appraisal_of their performance by supervisor , and

. ..,pos-

sibly "observations" by their peers./ vit.

rICMA Survey

Of nonunifo rm ed local enment employ-ees in -the 500 largest junsd/ctions nationallywhich account for 80 percent bf State and localgovernment employees, a gieat majority areprotected by some sort of, merit system andtherefore. enjoy reasonable ob security. Evenso, it is considered uncom on for local govern-ments to provide "top qu lity service econom-ically." The reason, .acco ding to one professorat a university institute r governithent service,is that effective .local go ernment "... requiresrecruitment, selection,/ appointment, and pro-motion on merit bases It calls for adequatecompensation, eniploy e training, performancestandards and evaluatfions, and rewards for cre-ative suggestions and, 'outstanding performance."

- 9/

To upgrade /local , government services 35

47

ro

.

through training employees, nearly two - fifths bfall Stateshave State agencies similar jo the IVITDin Pennsylvania, 10/ Despite the presence ofsuch training -faciaries along with a merit sys-tem, municipal inservice training was generallystill found to be inadequate, according to an In-ternational City Management Association (ICMA)survey of all cities with a population of 10,000and over (59 percent responding).

The survey also revealed that no trainingwas provided by more than 35 percent of the.cities (typically with populations under 25,000)."Although many excellent courses, seminars,conferences, and other programs are beingused, there i$ little evidence that they are partof a comprehensive* ongoing strategy for in-creasing individual and organizational- effectiveness." 11/

Major reasons given for this follow: 12/

1. In the absence of a single person or depart-ment responsible for training, the approachto training is uncoordinated.

2. Training is not so much aimed at managersor chief administrative officers or their as-.sistants, but at skill development. This re-sults in there being no support for trainingfrom the top.

$ -3. Trairiing budgets are typically small, with

the great majority of cities 'allocating lessthan 0.5 percent of the total municipal budg-et.

4. Municipalities do not try to evaluate theirtraining programs. Most evaluations are ir-regular and moreover consist of II... in-formal feedback from trainees, a systemthat may help promote an uncertain attitudeabout the value of training." Such quantita-

36 tive factors as reduced grievances and dis-

I

,

J'

r .-

ciplinary problems, job turnover, and absen-teeism are least used, possibly becausetraining for department heads/middle man-agement is in such hard -to- quantify areas asmanagement principles, decision making,and problem solving. (However, it is pos-sible ,to evaluate training even in the lessquantitative areas if, as ,realized by the Penn-sylvania -1VITD, "goals or change analyses"are set.)

ICMA's definition of training as "an invest-nient in the human resources of an organization"suggests the possibility of a long-term nature'in the payoff of training. 13/ It follows thatreasonably stable, employmerir is a prerequisitefor making such art. investment. _.__ _

. 37

49.

.

-.

.. FOOTNOTES

Summary and Impliaations

, 1/ Comptroller General ..of the' United States, $

Report to Congress, Better Evaluation Neededfor Federal Civilian Employee Training, Aug-usti12, 19 75, p. 17.

0

Case I.

1/ "How IBM Avoids Layoffs Through Retrain-rng," Business Week,' November 10, 1975, p.112. Fora tnp eteconsideration of IBM's fullemployment practice in the firm's manufactur-ing division, see Clair F. Vough, Tapping theHuman Resource -- A Strategy for Productivity,

.New"Yoric: American Nfanagement Associations,1975.

2/ S.S. Dubin, "Motivational Factors in P'ro-Tessional Updating," In Professional Obsoles-cence, S. S. Dtibin, ed., Lexington, Mass.: D..C. Heath & Co., 1971; for 'even shorter half-life ,estimates for engineers, see Samuel S.Dubin, "Defining Obsolescence and Updating," inMaintaining Professional and Technical Compe-tence of the Older Engineer -- Engineering andPsychological Aspects, S. S. Dubin et al., eds.,Washington: American .ciety for EngineeringEducation, 1974, pp. 3-4;-,

-,-

,

1,

.,3/ For a brief discussion of employment insta- 39

--1-50

(

.

.

bility of engineers- especially those in defenseand space industries -- see Earl F. Cheit,-The

s u1 Arts and the Liberal Tradition, -friiiork: cGraw-H111 Book Co., 1975, pp. 76-77;

or a fuller discussion, see U. S. Departme. La4dr, Labor Market Experience of Ena eersduring Periods of Changing Demana, ManpowerResearch '.Vionograph No. 35, prepared 43y-'Trevor Bain, Washington: U.S. GPO, 1974, pp.

1, 7. 21. , lAr.,

4/ Gabor Koves, "Engineering and Technical4 Education in the Rochester, Minnesota Location

. of the IBM General Systems Division," IEEETransactions on Education, August 197677:1-1-4-.

51 Donald B. Miller, Technical Vitality of theOlder Engineer in Industry," Speech at Engi-neering Foundation Conference, July 1-6; 1973,South Berwick, Maine (mimeo); also in Main-taining Professional and Technical Competence'of the Older Engineer, op. cit., pp. 37 -46.

6/ Cited by R. R. O'Neill, "Continuing Bcu-Fation, " in Britannica Review of Developmentsin Engineering Ecication, Newman A. Hall,ed., vol. 1, Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britan-nica, 1970, p. 73.

7/ A Report of the Joint Advisory Committee oncontinuing Engineering Studies Considering theRoles of Industry, Government, Academic Insti-tutions, Engineering Societies, Sponsored byEngineers' Council for Professional Develop-ment et al., 1965, y. 1.

8/ Donald B. Miller, "Technical Vitality of theOlder Engineer in Industry," 2E. cit. ,

9/ Donald B. Miller, "Professional Develop-sent - - A Program to Stimulate PersonalGrowth," IEEE Transactions on Education,

40 February 1976, p. 16. i

4 51

.

10/ Ibid.

- 11/ Ibid, p. 18

12/ U.S. epartmeneof Labor, Labor Market'Mperienc of Engineers during ee7lrocis o

%

Changin emand, op. cit., p. 29.

13/ Continuin Education' for R &D .Careers,prepared for t eNliationaf Science Foun kon bySocial Research, Inc., NSF 69-20, W, shinFton:'U.S. GPO, '1969, pp. 117, 119-120.

14/ John. P. Kills and Judy A. Jones, Etig-iiiers Involved in Continuing' Education, Wad=-

___'neon: American Society for Engineering Edu- ,

cation, 1975, p. 1.

e 15/ Carnegie Commission on Higher Education,inward a Learning Society: Alternative Chan-nets to Life, Work, and Service,(-New York:

\ McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973, p. 8 9.

16/ D. L. Thomsen, Jr., "An Industry ViewOthe Conference Objectives," Continuing En-gineering Studies Series No. 4, American ci-ety for Engineering Education, 1970; p. 14. '

17/ E.A. Roberts, Jr., and E. E. Metzler, III,"ii3M's Continuing Education Program at Pough-keepsie and East Fishkill, New York, " Con-tinuin Engineering Studies, Monograph Ne777American Society for Engineering Education,1968, p. 56.

18/ Ibid.

19/ Ibid, p. 54.

20/ Donald B. .MilIer, "Challenging' Job Re-Wiremexits: A Stimulant for Technical Vital-ity," 1972 ASEE Continuing Engineering StudiesDivision Meeting, Denver, November 3, 1972(mimeo). $

I Pe, `' 52 ..

41

21/ Donald B. Miller, "Professional Develop-.

i trwent ", op. cit.. p. 18.H22/ W.D. Decker, "Anatomy of a Continuing

Education Program, " in Maintaining-Profes-sional and Technical Competence of the Olaeiiengineer, op. cit. p. 197.

23/ Donald B. Miller, "Technical Vitality --Ry to Extending Engineers Productivity," pre-

41 sentented at Workshop on ContinuingNEducationfor Engineers at Midcareet, sponsored by ,Na-tional Science Foundation, Dallas Worth,August 21-22, 1974.

'24/ Gene W. Daltdn and Paul H. Thompson,"Accelerating ObsOlescence of Older' Engi7neers," Harvard Business Review, Septernper-

. October 1971. pp. 58, 60.

25/ Paul H. Thompson, Gene Dalton; andRichard Kopelman, " ,'But 'what have you donefor me lately?' The Boss, IEEESpectrum, October 1974, p 85-86.

26/ William R. Dill, "Obsolescence as a!Prob-Wn-3. of Personal initiative," in Professional Ob-soleScence, S.S. Dubin, ed., op. cit., p. 50.

27/ Louis E. Davis, "Design of Jobs," inicraintaining Professional and Technical Compe-tence of the Old-erEngineer, op. cit. p. 245.

11-

_28j D.B. MilleTr, "How to Improve the Per-TYrinance an'd Productivity of the KnowledgeWorker," op. cit.

`29/ Ibid.-7- :

Case II

42 1/ "The Corporation and its Obligations, " An

53

.

3

-...,,,...

interview with C. Peter McColough," HarvardBusiness Review, May-June 1975, p. 135.

. .

2/ Hugh L. Jgnrey, "Western Electric's Cor-orate Education Center," LEE Transactionsn Education, August 1976, p.

3/ Harriette R. Behringer, 1 Place tote rn," IEEE Transactions on Education, Aug-ust 1976, pp. 103, T04.

4/ Ibid, p. 104.

. 5/ The Corporation and Iii Obligations .. I,f t

3p. cit., pp. 133,135. ANA,

t ,

---8/ H. G. Kaufman, Obsolescence and.-Profes-Fional Career -Development, New York: Amer-ican Management Associatioris-, L974, pp. 24-25.. '-7/ From a "Course Overview."

8 /* ,.Jay` Alden, "Measuring Training' Effective-Wegs at Xerox,." Improving Human Performance-Quarferly, December .1976.

91 Ibid.

10/ 'Ibid..

'se III,

9'.

ternational City Manatersent Association,7`H Municipal Year Book 1976, Washington,

, D.C., 0. 185-, . °%,

.,

. 2/' 'James G. Shultz, "State Technical Assist-, -ince and Training for Local Governments," T'i .

Report bf National Conference, The State's Rolein Strengthening Local Government Capabilities, 43,

1

54.

.

4

,

ft

F-

Air

-; 0

4

Department of Community Affairs, Harrisburg,Pennsylvania, May 1975, p. 3 5.

5'3/ George H. Klaus, II DCA'S [Department of.roihmunity Affairs] Municipal Training Divi-sion," DCA Reports, ffarrisburg, Pennsylira-nia,- May.1975, p.. 8.

4/ J.G. Shultz, op. cit., pp. 30-31.

5/. William A.. \fittnl, Jr. and Anthony J., Sig -Merit, "Operator Training in Pennsylvania,"The 49th-Conference of the Water Pollution Con-tall Federation, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Oc-toper 3-8, 197g.

6/ J.G. Shultz, op. cit. ;.p. 3 5.

7/ Ibid, p. 34. 1*8/ The Municipal Year Book 1976, Qp. cit.* 13T87.

9/ Leroy F. .Harlow, "State fiscal Pocy randFinancial Incentives, as a, Catalyst for Local'Government Change," in Report of*. DiationalConferrice, oP. cit., pp. 9, 13-1C

5. 7.:";

10/ Ibid, pp: 98, 102.

11/, The Municipal Year Book 1976, op. cit.,185:187.-

12/ Ibid, pp. 185, 192,,

13/ Aid, p.'186.

44

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6

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