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Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
CognitionCognition
General KnowledgeGeneral KnowledgeHow do we know what How do we know what
properties something has, and properties something has, and which of its properties should be which of its properties should be
generalized to other objects?generalized to other objects?How is the knowledge underlying How is the knowledge underlying these abilities acquired, and how these abilities acquired, and how is it affected by brain disorders? is it affected by brain disorders?
Chapter 8Chapter 8
IntroductionIntroduction
semantic memorysemantic memoryschemasschemas
We have an enormous amount of information at our disposal, and we use this information efficiently and accurately.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Background on Semantic MemoryBackground on Semantic Memorysemantic memory - encyclopedic knowledge, lexical or
language knowledge, conceptual knowledgecategoryconceptsemantic memory allows us to:
• code objects• make inferences• decide which objects are similar
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
The Feature Comparison ModelThe Feature Comparison ModelConcepts are stored in memory according to a list of necessary features or characteristics.
Description of the Feature Comparison Modeldefining features - necessarycharacteristics features
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
The Feature Comparison ModelThe Feature Comparison Model
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Research on the Feature Comparison ModelResearch on the Feature Comparison Modelsentence verification techniquereaction times to answer true/false
typicality effect—people reach decisions faster when an item is a typical member of a category, rather than an unusual member
problem—very few of the concepts we use in everyday life can be captured by a specific list of necessary, defining features
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
The Feature Comparison ModelThe Feature Comparison ModelConclusions about the Feature Comparison Model
• can account for typicality effect, but research does not support the idea that category membership is based on a list of necessary features
• feature comparison model assumes that individual features are independent of one another, however many features are correlated
• feature comparison model does not explain how the members of categories are related to one another
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
The Prototype ApproachThe Prototype ApproachEleanor Rosch—we organize each category on the basis of a prototype, which is the item that is most typical and representative of the category•prototype approach—you decide whether an item belongs to a category by comparing that item with a prototype – personal experience•a prototype is an abstract, idealized example; may not exist•members of a category differ in prototypicality•graded structure—all members of categories are not created equal
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Characteristics of PrototypesCharacteristics of Prototypes1. Prototypes are supplied as examples of a category
Mervis and colleagues (1976)prototype ratings for examples of categoriesitems rated most prototypical were the same items that
other people had supplied most often in the category norms
accounts for typicality effect—when judging whether an item belongs to a particular category, typical items judged faster than atypical items
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Characteristics of PrototypesCharacteristics of Prototypes2. Prototypes are judged more quickly after semantic priming
semantic priming effect—people respond faster to an item if it was preceded by an item with similar meaning
priming facilitates the responses to prototypes more than it facilitates the responses to nonprototypes
priming inhibits judgments for nonprototypes (Rosch color studies)
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Priming examplesPriming examples
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Orthographic Morphological Semantic
Prime Target Prime Target Prime Target
corner CORN friendly FRIEND idea NOTION
turnip TURN punishment PUNISH crazy INSANE
tinsel TIN wonderful WONDER admire LIKE
bulletin BULLET active ACT pick CHOOSE
topple TOP greatness GREAT touch FEEL
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Characteristics of PrototypesCharacteristics of Prototypes3. Prototypes share attributes in a family resemblance category
family resemblanceno single attribute shared by all examples of a
concepteach example has at least one attribute in common
with some other example of the conceptno single attribute serves as the necessary and
sufficient criterion for membership in the category
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
3. Prototypes share attributes in a family resemblance category (continued)
Rosch and Mervis (1975)prototypicality judgments about members of
several categorieslist attributes possessed by each itemthe most prototypical item also had the largest
number of attributes in common with the other items in the category
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
The Prototype ApproachThe Prototype ApproachLevels of Categorization
super-ordinate-level categoriesbasic-level categoriessubordinate-level categories
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
The Prototype ApproachThe Prototype ApproachLevels of Categorization
2. Basic-level names are more likely to produce the semantic priming effect
priming with basic-level names is helpfulpriming with superordinate names is not helpful
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
The Prototype ApproachThe Prototype ApproachLevels of Categorization
3. Different levels of categorization activate different regions of the brain.
superordinate terms are more likely than basic-level terms to activate part of the prefrontal cortex
subordinate terms are more likely than basic-level terms to activate part of the parietal region
Example: AnimalHorseRace Horse
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Conclusions About the Prototype ApproachConclusions About the Prototype Approachcan account for our ability to form concepts for groups that
are loosely structuredcan be applied to social relationships, inanimate objects,
nonsocial categoriesProblems
concepts can be unstable and variable (e.g., prototype ratings can shift based on experience)
we often do store specific information about individual examples of a category
better for general population than for experts
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Individual Differences: Expertise and Individual Differences: Expertise and PrototypesPrototypes
expertisepracticeexperts construct prototypes in a different fashion
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Individual Differences: Expertise and Individual Differences: Expertise and PrototypesPrototypes
Lynch, Coley, and Medin (2000)tree expertsexperts' best examples were very tall, well-behaved
trees . . . rather than typical, average treesfor novices the ratings were based on familiarity rather than
typicality
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Individual Differences: Expertise and Individual Differences: Expertise and PrototypesPrototypes
Johnson and Mervis (1997)experts and novices prefer different levels of categorizationbird-watching experts provide very specific names for birds,
rather than basic-level term
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Individual Differences: Individual Differences: Expertise and PrototypesExpertise and Prototypes
Example of Expert PrototypesExample of Expert Prototypes
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
The Exemplar ApproachThe Exemplar Approachfirst learn some specific examples of a concept
(exemplars)then classify each new stimulus by deciding how closely it
resembles those specific examples
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
A Representative Study on the Exemplar A Representative Study on the Exemplar ApproachApproach
Heit and Barsalou (1996)provide first example that comes to mind of seven
basic-level categoriesdifferent group rates the typicality of each category and
of each example with respect to "animal"researchers try to create equation to predict typicality of
the categories based on the exemplars in terms of frequency and typicality ratings
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Heit and Barsalou (1996) (continued)
exemplar frequency and exemplar typicality did accurately predict which of the seven categories were most typical for the superordinate category "animal"
less typical exemplars increase the correlationwhen asked a question about a category, people don't
just consider prototypes, they also include information about less typical examples of the category
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Comparing the Exemplar Approach with Other Comparing the Exemplar Approach with Other ApproachesApproaches
• exemplar approach proposes that we do not need any list of features (as in feature comparison approach), because all the necessary information is stored in the specific exemplars
• make decisions about category membership by comparing to a stored representation (like prototype approach), but the stored representation is a collection of numerous specific members of the category, not a typical member
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Comparing the Exemplar Approach with Other Comparing the Exemplar Approach with Other Approaches (continued)Approaches (continued)
• do not need to perform any kind of abstraction process (don't need to devise list of features or a prototype) which would force you to discard useful, specific data about individual cases
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Problems with the Exemplar ApproachProblems with the Exemplar Approach• exemplar approach may be more suitable for
categories with relatively few members (so as not to overwhelm semantic memory) • Requires too much memory• prototype approach may be more suitable for
categories with numerous members
• individual differences in representations may be substantial
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
ConclusionsConclusions• both approaches may coexist
• different hemispheres • left—prototypes• right—exemplars)
• different categories may require different strategies for category formation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Network ModelsNetwork Modelsnetwork models of semantic memory propose a netlike organization of concepts in memory, with many interconnections;
the meaning of a concept depends on the concepts to which it is connected
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
The Collins and Loftus Network ModelThe Collins and Loftus Network Modelsemantic memory is organized in terms of netlike
structures, with numerous interconnections
when we retrieve information , activation spreads to related concepts
Node = conceptlinkspreading activation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
The Collins and Loftus Network ModelThe Collins and Loftus Network Modelsentence verification tasks—activations spreads from the
concept nodes until an intersection is located (or not)
frequently used links have greater strengths; activation travels faster between those nodes
explains typicality effect, but has been superceded by more complex theories
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Network ModelsNetwork ModelsAnderson's ACT Theories
ACT-R—Automatic Components of Thought-Rational; attempts to account for all of cognition
propositional networkproposition—smallest unit of knowledge that can be
judged either true or false; abstract representation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
ACT* distinguishes among three types of ACT* distinguishes among three types of memory structuresmemory structures
• Declarative memory (LTM) takes the form of a semantic net linking propositions, images, and sequences by associations.
• Procedural memory (LTM) represents information in the form of productions
• Working memory is that part of long-term memory that is most highly activated.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
A propositional networkA propositional network
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Productions in Procedural memoryProductions in Procedural memory• Productions represent knowledge about how we do
things• Example: knowledge about how to type the letter "Q" on a
keyboard, about how to drive, or about how to perform addition.
• "IF” a sensory precondition• "THEN” action
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Anderson's ACT Theories Anderson's ACT Theories (continued)(continued)activation can spreadlimited capacity of working memory can restrict the
spreadingif many links are activated simultaneously, then each link
receives relatively little activation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Network ModelsNetwork ModelsThe Parallel Distributed Processing Approach
McClelland and colleagues
parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach— cognitive processes can be represented by a model in which activation flows through networks that link together a large number of simple, neuron-like units
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) - an information processing paradigm that is inspired by the way biological nervous systems, such as the brain, process information
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Why use neural networks?Why use neural networks?Neural networks is to learn to associate patterns in input data to an output on their own
involves modifying the connection weights
Gives them the ability to •Derive meaning from complicated or imprecise data•Recognize input that has not seen before
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
How Do Neural Networks Work?How Do Neural Networks Work?The output of a neuron is a function of the weighted sum
of the inputs plus a bias
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
How Do Neural Networks Learn (to associate How Do Neural Networks Learn (to associate output with an input pattern)?output with an input pattern)?
• If the output is not correct, the weights are adjusted according to a formula• Uses the difference between input and output
• Goal - Minimizing the error in the network• Most common measure of error is the mean square
error: E = (target – output)2
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Neural Network ExampleNeural Network Example
Handwriting Recognition
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Neural Network ExampleNeural Network ExampleBank LoansBank Loans
• Imagine a highly experienced bank manager who must decide which customers will qualify for a loan. Her decision is based on a completed application form that contains ten questions.
• The bank manager's experience allows her to use "Intuition” that will enable her to recognize certain patterns that her brain has become attuned to.
• If we had a large number of loan applications as input, along with the manager's decisions as output, a neural network could be "trained" on these patterns.
• The inner workings of the neural network have enough mathematical sophistication to reasonably simulate the expert's intuition.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Parallel Distributed Processing AssumptionsParallel Distributed Processing Assumptions
Cognitive processes arise from the interactions of neurons through synaptic connections.
The knowledge in such interactive and distributed processing systems is stored in the strengths of the connections and is acquired gradually through experience
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Three Central Characteristics of PDPThree Central Characteristics of PDP1. Cognitive processes are based on parallel operations,
rather than serial operations. Therefore, many patterns of activation may be proceeding simultaneously.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Three Central Characteristics of PDPThree Central Characteristics of PDP2. A network contains basic neuron-like units or nodes,
which are connected together so that a specific node has many links to other nodes (hence the alternate name for the theory: connectionism).
PDP theorists argue that most cognitive processes can be explained by the activation of these networks.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Three Central Characteristics of PDPThree Central Characteristics of PDP3. A concept is represented by the pattern of activity
distributed throughout a set of nodes.
Notice that this view is very different from the commonsense idea that all the information you know about a particular person or object is stored in one specific location in the brain.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Features & Concepts of PDPFeatures & Concepts of PDPserial search vs. parallel searchmemory can cope with partial and/or partly incorrect
informationcharacteristics connected in a mutually stimulating
networkspontaneous generalization—draw a conclusion
about a general categorydefault assignment—draw a conclusion about a
specific member of a category
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Other important characteristics of PDPOther important characteristics of PDP3. Every new piece of information you learn will change
the strength of connections among relevant units by adjusting the connection weights.
4. Sometimes we have only partial memory for some information, rather than complete, perfect memory. The brain’s ability to provide partial memory is called graceful degradation (e.g., tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, brain function after accident or stroke)
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Current Status of PDP TheoryCurrent Status of PDP Theory generally consistent with the neurological design or
neurons and the brain works better for tasks in which several processes
typically operate simultaneously; tasks requiring serial processing may be accounted for by other models
PDP explains: word superiority effect, retroactive interference, category formation, complex decision making
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Current Status of Theory (continued)Current Status of Theory (continued) used to study social psychology, developmental
psychology, cognitive disorders can explain situations where learning accumulates
gradually across trials
The parallel distributed processing approach to semantic cognitionJames L. McClelland & Timothy T. RogersNature Reviews Neuroscience 4, 310-322 (April 2003)
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic MemoryThe Structure of Semantic Memory
Parallel Distributed Processing ApproachParallel Distributed Processing ApproachProblems
• not currently structured enough to handle the subtleties and complexities of semantic memory
• has trouble explaining why we sometimes forget extremely well-learned information when we learn additional information
• cannot explain why we sometimes can recall earlier material when it has been replaced by more current material
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
schema—generalized knowledge about a situation, an event, or a person
schema theories especially helpful when psychologists try to explain how people process complex situations and events
Scripts-a simple, well structured sequence of effects-in aspecified order-that are associated with a highly familiar activity
What Your Favorite Porn Says About Who You Arehttp://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/intelligent-lust/
201201/what-your-favorite-porn-says-about-who-you-are
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Background on Schemas and ScriptsBackground on Schemas and ScriptsPeople encode "generic" information about a situation or
event, then use this information when in that situation or a similar situation
This “package” of information is called a schema
heuristics—general rules that are typically accurate
schemas can lead to errors
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Background on Schemas and ScriptsBackground on Schemas and ScriptsPiagetBartlettsocial psychologyschema therapyscript—simple, well-structured sequence of eventsscripts recalled more accurately if identified in advance
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Enhanced Memory for Schema-Consistent Enhanced Memory for Schema-Consistent MaterialMaterial
Brewer and Treyens (1981)recall objects from waiting room;highly likely to recall objects consistent with "office
schema""remembered" items that were not in the room, but were
consistent with "office schema"Neuschatz and coauthors (2002)
"lecture schema"
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Enhanced Memory for Schema-Inconsistent Enhanced Memory for Schema-Inconsistent MaterialMaterial
people are more likely to recall schema-inconsistent material when that material is vivid or surprising
Davidson (1994)—read stories describing well-known schemas; people especially likely to recall schema-inconsistent events that interrupted the normal, expected story
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
The Status of Schemas and Memory SelectionThe Status of Schemas and Memory SelectionRojahn and Pettigrew (1992)—meta-analysis; schema-
inconsistent material was somewhat more memorable
However, when people "remember" events that never actually happened, they are likely to construct a schema-consistent event
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Schemas and Boundary ExtensionSchemas and Boundary ExtensionBoundary extension—our tendency to remember having
viewed a greater portion of a scene than was actually shown
Intraub and colleagues—see photo then draw replica of photo; participants consistently produced a sketch that extended the boundaries beyond the view presented in the original photo – p. 270
relevance in eyewitness testimony situations
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory AbstractionSchemas and Memory Abstractionabstraction—a memory process that stores the meaning
of a message but not the exact words
verbatim memory—word-for-word recall
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory AbstractionSchemas and Memory AbstractionThe Constructive Approach
Bransford and Franks (1971)listen to sentences from several different storiesrecognition test including new itemspeople convinced that they had seen these new items
before (false alarm)false alarms particularly likely for complex sentences
consistent with the original schemafalse alarms unlikely for sentences violating the meaning
of the earlier sentences
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory AbstractionSchemas and Memory AbstractionThe Constructive Approach
constructive model of memory—people integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct larger ideas; later cannot untangle the constructed information from the verbatim sentences
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory AbstractionSchemas and Memory AbstractionThe Pragmatic Approach
pragmatic view of memory—people pay attention to the aspect of a message that is most relevant to their current goals
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory AbstractionSchemas and Memory AbstractionThe Pragmatic Approach
Murphy and Shapiro (1994)read letters from "Samantha" to cousin or boyfriendbland vs. sarcastic commentsrecognition test on original, paraphrased, or irrelevant
sentences
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory AbstractionSchemas and Memory AbstractionThe Pragmatic Approach
Murphy and Shapiro (1994) (continued)
correct recognition was higher for sentences from the sarcastic condition than for sentences in the bland condition
more false alarms for paraphrases of bland sentences than sarcastic sentences
more accurate in their verbatim memory for the sarcastic version than for the bland version
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory AbstractionSchemas and Memory AbstractionThe Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction
two approaches (Constructive and Pragmatic) quite compatible
in many cases we integrate information into large schemasin some cases we know that specific words matter and pay
close attention to precise wording
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryIn Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memoryinferences—logical interpretations and conclusions that were not part of the original stimulus material
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryIn Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryThe Classic Research on Inferences
Bartlett (1932)—memory as the complex interaction between the participants' prior knowledge and the material presented; individual's unique interests and personal background often shape the contents of memory
"The War of the Ghosts" study—Native American story read and recalled by British students
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryIn Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryThe Classic Research on Inferences
"The War of the Ghosts" study (continued)
Participants tended: • to omit material that didn't make sense from their own
viewpoint• to shape the story into a more familiar framework• to add extra material to the story, making inferences so
that the story made more sense from their perspective• to borrow more heavily from their previous knowledge
as time passed before additional recall
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryIn Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryResearch on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
gender stereotypes—widely shared sets of beliefs about the characteristics of females and males
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryIn Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryResearch on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
Explicit Memory TaskDunning and Sherman (1997)
read sentences followed by recognition-memory test"new" sentences consistent or inconsistent with
gender stereotypesmore likely to mistakenly "remember" a new sentence
as "old" when it was consistent with a gender stereotype
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryIn Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryResearch on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
Implicit Memory Tasks1. Using neuroscience techniques to assess gender
stereotypesOsterhout, Bersick and McLaughlin (1997)—ERP
techniquestereotype-consistent sentences vs. stereotype-
inconsistent sentenceschange in ERPs for stereotype-inconsistent words but
not for stereotype-consistent words
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryIn Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryResearch on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
Implicit Memory Tasks2. Using the Implicit Association Test to assess
gender stereotypesNosek, Banaji, and Greenwald (2002)Implicit Association Test (IAT)—based on the
principle that people can mentally pair related words together much more easily than they can pair unrelated words
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryIn Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryResearch on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
Implicit Memory Tasks2. Using the Implicit Association Test to assess
gender stereotypes (continued)
Stereotype-Consistent pairings (male/math vs. female/arts)
Stereotype-Inconsistent pairings (female/math vs. male/arts)
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryIn Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryResearch on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
Implicit Memory Tasks2. Using the Implicit Association Test to assess
gender stereotypes (continued)
participants responded significantly faster to the stereotype-consistent parings than to the stereotype-inconsistent pairings
technique can be used to examine attitudes, as well as stereotypes
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryIn Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryImplications of Inferences for Persuasion
AdvertisingHarris and colleagues (1989)
read stories containing advertising slogansdirect claim vs. implied claimpeople who had seen the implied-claim version often
believed they had seen the direct-claim versionConsumers be careful
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryIn Depth: Schemas and Inferences in MemoryImplications of Inferences for Persuasion
Politicsstatements can be technically accurate but still misleadinglisteners make incorrect inference
people make inferences only in certain situations; often recall material in its original form
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Schemas and Integration in MemorySchemas and Integration in MemoryIntegration and Delayed Recall
background knowledge may not encourage schema-consistent integration if people are tested immediately after the material is learned
Harris and colleagues (1989)story consistent with U.S. or traditional Mexican cultureno chaperone/chaperonerecall after 30 minutes—no tendency for the Mexican-schema
stores to shift in the direction consistent with U.S. schemasafter two days—the students had shifted a significant number
of story details
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Schemas and Integration in MemorySchemas and Integration in MemoryIntegration and Limited Memory Capacity
schemas are more likely to influence memory integration when memory capacity is strained during recall, but not on a relatively simple task
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Conclusions About SchemasConclusions About Schemas1. We often select material for memory that is inconsistent
with our schemas.2. We may indeed remember that we saw only a portion of
an object, rather than the complete object.3. We frequently recall the exact words of a passage as it
was originally presented.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8
Schemas and ScriptsSchemas and Scripts
Conclusions About SchemasConclusions About Schemas4. We often avoid making inappropriate inferences.5. We may keep the elements in memory isolated from
each other, rather than integrated together.6. When we are recalling information from our real-life
experiences—rather than information created by researchers—we may be more accurate.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 8