0 (jl l!)

0

0 0 0 0 C\I (')

0 (')

Richard Tames

RAINTREE ~ STECK-VAUGHN

PUBLISHERS

A Harcourt Company

Austin New York www.steck-vaughn.com

What Is Fascism? Fascism is easier to recognize than define. Nowadays,

"fascist!" tends to be used vaguely for anyone with

violent, vicious political views. Historically, fascism was a

type of political movement that aimed to unite a

country's people into a disciplined force under an all­powerful leader. This leader would overcom.e all conflicts

and failures, creating a glorious future-a nation reborn.

Fascism appealed to ex-servicemen, many of whom,

failing to find work, became poor, embittered drifters.

. They were used to violence. Many missed army com.radeship and a disciplined routine. Fascist

movements offered what - these people needed: comrades, uniforms, orders, personal pride, and a

patriotic purpose.

When did fascism emerge?.

Forgotten heroes (below

left): Defeated or

victorious, many ex­

servicemen in the 1920s

were reduced to selling

items in streets, one step

up from begging.

· Fascist movements were born out of World War I (1914-18), which tore Europe

apart. Over 8,500;00Q.ni.en W~re killed and over 2i ,000,000 were wounded,

gassed, or otherwise inJurecLThe victors, Great Britain and France, faced War. · d~bts, the cost of caripg for the disabled and orphaned, and the challenge of

· g_ettir:ig millions- out of armies and. into work. It was far worse for the defeateq.

The word "fascist" comes from the name of

the movement founded in Italy by Benito

Mussolini: the Fascia di Cornbattimenti

(League of Veterans). It also corn.es from

the symbol that Mussolini took for the

movement: the fasces, a bundle of wooden

rods, bound with a red thong, with an ax-

Mussolini the Prophet Benito Mussolini commented on

Hitler coming to powe~ in 1933:

"Fascism is a religion; the 20th

century will be known in history

as the century of Fascism."

head sticking out. In ancient Rome the

fasces had been carried before the magistrates, as a

symbol of their authority. For Mussolini and his followers, the ax stood for power over life and death and

the rods for strength in unity.

The fascist movements that arose in different countries

are all distinct from each other, but'usually share some

common f ea tu res:

Authority. Power flows down from the

leader, not up from the people. Populism. Propaganda and organization

are used to stir up ordinary people to become energetic but obedient

followers. Nativism. The traditions and heritage of

the nation are held superior to all others. Violence. This is evidence of strength,

to be used against political enem.ies. Anticommunism. Communism claims that the material world is the only reality.

It denies religion and stresses class as the

basis of identity and an international order without nations. Fascism regards

nations as the basis of identity and international order. In addition, fasci$m

claims a spiritual dimension of duty,

loyalty, honor, courage, and self-sacrifice.

Anticommunism has often caused

fascism and the Roman Catholic Church

to become allies.

Left, right: dictators in

step toward destiny.

Benito Mussolini (left)

and AdoH Hitler offered

to restore their countries

to greatness.

Fascist movements and fascist states Catching them young:

There have been many fascist movements, but only Hitler Youth drummers at

two managed to turn a major country into a fascist the 1935 Nuremberg Rally

state: Italy under Benito Mussolini (1922-43) and Germany under Adolf Hitler (1933-45).

A fascist state is a revolutionary dictatorship that

smashes any individuals or institutions opposing its vision of national rebirth. Some countries, such as Spain, looked like fascist states-but they did so

basically to seek stability, not revolution. They worked

with existing powerful groups (armed forces, Church, government officials, large la~downers, and · big

business), rather than stirring up ordinary people to

challenge the power of these groups and create a new kind of society. Fascist movements in the democracies

of Western Europe have sometimes been a noisy

nuisance but never seriously threatened to take over.

vvna-.: 1s rasc1sm :-

Fascism and democracy Fascists argue that, under the right leader, a nation can become perfect, and

therefore it is right to use any means necessary to achieve this. By co9trast,

democracy is based on the idea that people .have differing interests and beliefs

and no person or group is always right about everything. Democratic politics is

r:iot about forcing people ir/a single direction but about persuading them to

resolve conflicts by compromise and to get along together. In a democracy,

political decisions are made by talking. Democracy relies on .parliaments (from

~he French par/er-to talk) to debate all sides of an argument before a decision .... . . .

is made. Parliaments focus wider discussions among political parties, trade

·• unions, churches, community groups, and the mass media.

Decision-making in a democracy is often slow,

confusing, and frustrating. Few get exactly what they want, and most put up with things with which they

do not entirely agree. One appeal of fascism was that it avoided the messy business of democratic debate.

Fascists argued that democratic compromises betrayed one's beliefs. Fascist politics was about giving orders,

not making deals. Fascism claimed to be faster and more efficient. Obey the leader, and everything will be fine. Common slogans in Fascist Italy were "Mussolini is always right!" and "Believe! Obey! Fight!"

Mussolini and Hitler claimed dictatorship was right because

democracy had failed, leaving their countries m crisis. They also

deliberately created crises so that their powers would continue to seem

necessary. And they managed politics so that their countries looked like

democracies-except that their

parliaments had no real powers, the mass media no real freedom, and the

only organizations allowed to exist

were those they controlled.

The power of the nation As a journalist, Mussolini was trained

to think in headlines. As II Duce he

posed as a philosopher of high ideals:

"For us the nation is not just territory,

but something spiritual. There are

States whic;h have had immense

territories and which have left no

trace in human history .... A nation is great when it translates into reality the

force of its spirit. "

7

Totalitarianism Fascism and communism are both totalitarian systems, in which the state is

supreme over everyone and everything. Totalitarianism aims at total control.

Even leisure is considered a political matter. The films people watch, the books

they read, and the sports they play all serve political ends. Mussolini banned

jazz, and Hitler had books by Jews and communists burned. A novel by

George Orwell, 1984, published in 1949, describes life in a totalitarian state,

ruled by "Big Brother" and the "Thought Police," where children spy on their

parents and everyone joins in organized -hate sessions against traitors.

Fascism and communism After 1918, fascism rivaled communism as the main

challenge to democracy. On the -surface, no two

systems could be more different. Fascists fought communists on the streets and the battlefield. Communism claimed to be creating a society of

equals, whereas fascism. declared that some individuals and races were unalterably superior. Conm1.unists

believed the state should control all businesses. Fascists allowed private businesses to make big profits, as long as they supplied the state's needs.

Fascism and communism both appealed to people impatient with democracy, who thought their country had become selfish and needed more discipline and

direction. Both fascism and communism were revolutionary movements, aiming to break with the

past and create a new society. Anyone who disagreed with this noble aim was a traitor to be beaten,

imprisoned, or killed.

Leaders and laws _

Fascist and communist states made constant use of

propaganda, posters, slogans, uniforms, rallies, parades,

and festivals to play on the pride, loyalties, fears, and

hatreds of their followers. Emotion, not reasoning, was

the key to the politics linking leader and led.

Can fascism be tolerated

today? The far right

Freedom Party, led by

Jorg Haider, an SS

officer's son, joined an

Austrian coalition

government in 2000. This

prompted Europe-wide

demonstrations, calling

that fascism should never

be allowed again.

Both fascist and communist states built "personality

cults." The leader was presented to the people as a

genius-a deep thinker and bold ;nan of action, a

brilliant commander of armies and a lovi.,ng father to

the nation, the .perfect model of strength, wisdom,

courage, and compassion. The leader had the right to

dem.and total trust and obedience because he knew

where History was heading and how to take his

people toward their glorious destiny.

Mussolini and Hitler were actually cunning and cruel,

rather than clever and caring. Because they had almost

unlimited power, their particular personalities mattered

very much. The fact that Hitler had a fanatical hatred

of Jews and thought gypsies, homosexuals, and the deformed or mentally disabled were worthless as

human beings condemned more than six million people to slavery and death.

Both fascisrn and communism ignored the rule of law in favor of the leader's orders. In a democracy, all

government officials, police, armed forces, and judges should follow rules laid down by lawmakers in parliament and deal with everyone equally. In totalitarian states, the law is just another tool to control

people. Police arrest political opponents ("enemies"),

and judges obediently send them to prison. Judges applying the law against the leader's wishes are soon

dismissed. Secret police often arrest people to be tortured or murdered without even bothering to

pretend that a law has been broken.

The end of fascism? The fascist states and their . fo~owers emerged after World War I and were destroyed in World War II, but

fascist m.ovements continue to reinvent themselves,

especially where a country is in crisis-or can be made to look like it. The fascism that was· is a warning from

history of the fascism that might be again.

() 200 400Km

I I I () 125 250 Miles

Classic Fascism Italy 1922-43

J

Unity and Empire Between 1859 and 1871 Italy was unified by wars

that ended Austro-Hungarian rule over the north of

the country arid put the rest under the king of

Piedmont Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II. But united

Italy remained backward, producing less steel than

even little Belgium. The south, Sicily, and Sardinia

remained wretchedly poor. In 1900, when Victor Emmanuel III became king, half

the Italian population was still

illiterate. Politics was cursed by

CRETE

~

corruption and short-lived,

unstable governments. Between 1880 and

1914 more than 8 rn.illion Italians

emigrated for a better life in the United States and

Argentina.

Italy imitated other European powers by

. . conquenng an overseas en1p1re,

starting with Eritrea and part of

Somalia. Its invasion of Ethiopia ended in humiliating defeat at Adowa (1896).

In 1911-12 Italy took Libya and the

Dodecanese Islands from Ottoman Turkey.

The green shading shows Italy's empire

by the time Mussolini came to power. He

would add the port of Fiume, in 1924,

and Ethiopia, in 1935-36.

War Italy remained neutral in 1914 but joined the Allies in

1915, in return for promised territories from Austria­

Hungary. Italy launched eleven attacks along its

mountainous northeast frontier, gaining just· seven

niiles. In October l 917, the Austrians, reinforced by

Germans, counterattacked at Caporetto and pushed

the Italians back many miles, taking 250,000 prisoners.

Italian victory at Vittorio Veneto in 1918 salvaged

some national pride, but Italy ended the war with

600,000 dead and little to show for it. South Tyrol,

Trentino, and Trieste became Italian, but the port of Fiume and the Dalmatian coast did not. What did we fight for? The

\t1~,~<t\}·~~l.~(~,.

endurance of Italy's troops

in World War I brought

little reward.

Past Against Futu~ ~-·~-~--:·::tf;:?f:io When World War I broke out, the · -~\-::,-:·:\-\.< .. poet Filippo Marinetti (1876-1944) predicted thatif,·;}:'\:i,~/L~--: ·

would give Italy the chance to break with the past: .,,,.,.~W·::z~:ttf<:,. ,. , , _ •,"f'._~~;::,:,.,-.• ~, .,;..~

",; •""c\. .... a.< ... ,, • ' "The War will sweep from power all [Italy's] foes: diplomats, ·:.:.~~!-t';}~~?j~~-

... h I ·t G kLt" h"t _._-;,.~*'t"?"=': S< pro,essors ... arc aeo,og,s s ... ree , am, ,s ory ... museums, ,., '\-i.;':.:,~ ·.:i:~ libraries, the tourist industry. The War will promote gymnastics, sport, practical " - · ·· \.,,. ·

schools of agriculture, business and industry. The War will renew Italy, enrich

her with men of action, force her to live no longer off the past, off ruins and the

mild climate, but off her own national forces."

Marinetti became and remained a strong supporter of fascism.

....... ~..;,~·- . -~--~···-·-·· . -·------

Working days lost in strikes

Italy on the brink Between 1919 and 1921 Italy see1ned to slide toward

civil war. War debts damaged national finances. Angry

peasants demanded land reform. Rioters demanded

cheaper bread .. Trade union membership grew from

250,000 in 1918 to 2,300,000 in 1920. In Milan,

Bologna, and Florence, 500,000 workers seized control

of factories. Politicians, divided between liberals,

socialists, and Catholics, seemed powerless to govern

firmly. In 1921 a socialist group split off to form an

Italian communist party. It was more prepared than the socialists to plan for violent revolution.

1918 -1919 -1920-1921 -1922 -1923-

912,000 22,325,000 30,569,000

8,180,000 6,917,000

296,000

Like Hitler, Mussolini believed that the

spoken word was still vital in the new

age of mass communication.

I

Gabriele d' Annunzio, A man of action

-·---·-·. ' ____ _. __ -- . ., .. --- - -

Famous as a poet from the age of 16, Gabriele

o'Annunzio (1863-1938) fought in World War J·,

losing an eye in combat and winning an award forbravery. A daring air raid over Vienna in

\ .. \9t8inade him a national hero. In 1919, while

'LJt~lf ~9d yugo~l~vic19uc1rrele9 ovEJr the former L'.lAu\3trci.~Hungarian··p6rt6fF1UmEJ; d'Anbunzioseited .. :::?;ifWitf)·~ ba.nd of war V~terp.nS c1nd ruled· it as a :.:.)ciiqt~toruntil an ltalian·.pattleship, enforcing aJrea,ty . t:fHatFiume shoUld be independent' bombarded .

Respect for a hero:

···:.':triem:Although dj Annuhzio had failed: he Was ?: kdtnired tor acting boldlywhile others talked. He·· .

Mussolini appears to listen

attentively to Gabriele

f ~\~:~~:~ci:~~!iSE:~s:;i:~~e . d' Annunzio.

A revolution from the trenches? As editor of II Popolo d'ltalia, in December 1917, Mussolini predicted:

")\ new aristocracy is emerging ....

The disabled servicemen of today are

the vanguard of the great army who

will return tomorrow. They are the

thousands who await millions of

demobilized soldiers. This enormous

mass ... is bound to shake up

society. The brutal and bloody

apprenticeship of the trenches will

mean ... more courage, more faith,

more strength. The old parties, the

old men ... will be swept aside .... "

The first fascists Mussolini founded the first Fascia di Combattimenti (League ofVeterans) in Milan on March 13, 1919. Its 200 members were the pioneers of a movement that attracted new

members through rallies at which Mussolini proved himself a superb

mob orator. His facts were often wrong, his ideas confused, and his

attacks on opponents unfair, but he looked tough and sounded tougher.

Direct action also encouraged recruits. On April 15, fascists gathered

a mob to attack a socialist

demonstration in Milan and smash

up the offices of the Socialist Party

newspaper Avanti!

Mussolini's aims were large but vague: a fair deal for

war veterans; Fiume, Dalmatia, and an overseas empire

for Italy; and violent opposition to communists. Later

he added reforms to help poor peasants. His main

followers were ex-soldiers, disgusted with the war's

outcome. They were joined by students and

intellectuals, hopeful for a brighter future that would

fulfill the original promise of an Italy united for

greatness. The early fascists were drawn together less by

specific plans than by their general mood-" Me no

Jrego" ("I don't care what anyone thinks ... ").

In 1921, Mussolini, claiming (but not necessarily having) 300,000 supporters, fonned a National Fascist

Party and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of Italy's parlianient. Many businessmen

and landowners, frightened by trade union and peasant

demands, welcomed the Fascists as a weapon against communists and socialists. When landless laborers invaded large estates, landowners loaned trucks to

Fascist squads so that they could bring men from the cities to throw the laborers out. In May 1922, Fascists took over the local government of Bologna, in August of Milan.

-

From democracy to dictatorship In October 1922, Fascist groups began taking over

railroad stations, post offices, telephone exchanges, and

other public buildings. They claimed that, if the

country was sliding into a chaos of riots and strikes,

they would patriotically keep communications going. When socialist leaders announced a general strike, Gateway to the future:

Mussolini dern.anded that the government stop it-or Fascists march through

the Fascists would march on Rome and take over Rome's Porto del Popolo,

themselves. In fear of general disorder, or even civil October 28, 1922.

war, Victor Emmanuel III,

acting as guardian of the constitution, invited Mussolini to become prime minister­

the youngest in Italy's history.

So, technically, Mussolini came to power legally, but this was obscured by the "March on

Rome." Squads converged on

the capital as though seizing power by force, like true revolutionaries. Mussolini arrived undramatically by train, but insisted on a "victory

parade" through the city.

At first, Mussolini governed at the head of a coalition

of parties, and few of his ministers were Fascists. In

November, the king and

parliament gave Mussolini powers of dictatorship for one

year. He improved his image by giving up drinking and ;making,

and he traveled around being

photographed for the

newspapers, looking like a

serious, hardworking leader.

-·~1as::,1.,; rc:1:;..:.:,~111-il.Cl,y , ~ ..... ---

On June 1, 1924, socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti

spoke out against Fascists for beating up opponents in elections. The 1924 elections were undoubtedly fixed

by Fascist bullying and corruption, but they were

enough to secure Mussolini in power. After that,

elections became irrelevant. The last words of

Matteotti's speech were, "And now get ready for my

funeral." On June 10, he was kidnapped by Fascist

bullies. His body was found months later. ln protest,

the opposition parties walked out of parliam.ent.

Mussolini suspended it.

Building a dictatorship ln 1925 Mussolini took the title of Il Duce (the Leader). Strikes vyere banned -a popular move with most non­

unionists. Only state-controlled unions and newspapers were allowed. Crime

reports were banned. So were beauty contests. Police powers of arrest were

increased. Mafia leaders and cmmnunists were imprisoned. In 1926 the Fascists becam.e the only legal political party.

Charming Churchill British politician Winston Churchill

wrote in The Times in i 927:

"I could not help being charmed

... by Signor Mussolini's gentle

and simple bearing and by his

calm detached poise in .spite of

so many burdens and dangers."

Disciplined young peoplE

marching in uniform

symbolized the hope of

national unity that fascis

promised.

The true uses of leisure Achille Starace (1889-1945), director

of the National Leisure System,

explained the purpose of some of its

activities for youth:

"... to know the true face of the

Fatherland by traveling along its roads

.... To make them expert at swimming

and climbing, and in the skills which

may be necessary in a future war! To

loosen their muscles in joyful and

simple sporting contests .... "

Only party members were allowed to hold Leading from the front:

government jobs or become judges. Even teachers Achille Starace, secretary

were made to wear Fascist uniforms. Parliarn.ent was general of the Fascist

replaced by a complicated but powerless Chamber of Party, leaps through a

Corporations, which was supposed to represent all the burning hoop at a physical

nation's differing groups-business, workers, farn1ers, fitness contest, arranged

students, officials, and so on.

Compared to most dictatorships, Italian Fascism was not particularly brutal. Beatings were routine enough, but, over the whole period of Fascist power, only

4,000 political opponents were imprisoned and ten

by order of Mussolini, in

Rome, July 1938.

I.

were executed. Extreme measures were justified by the

need to protect Mussolini, who survived four Fascists were attracted to

assassination attempts. Although Mussolini allowed the speed and technology as

king no real power, he treated him with outward symbols of power and

respect and never tried to abolish the monarchy. progress. "The Flying

Duce" (below), named afte

Modernizing the economy Mussolini, was introduced

The Fascist government encouraged industries, in 1938 and could travel a

especially those of military value, such as metals and 100 mph (160 kph).

chemicals. Roa.ds and railroads were

improved for the same reason. Marshy land was drained to increase wheat

output. Electricity output tripled between 1920 and 1935-but was still

less than half what it was in . Great

Britain, a country with roughly the same

population. In 1939 there were just 372,000 motor vehicles on the roads in Italy, compared with 2,527,000 in Great

Britain. And in 1939 the average Italian's living standard only equaled what the

average Briton had reached by 1800.

Compromise with the Church In 1929 the Lateran Accords settled quarrels between the Roman Catholic Church and the state dating back

to 1870, when Italian soldiers had conquered the pope's territories and made Rome Italy's

capital. The Accords recognized the Vatican as an independent state, paid

generous compensation for its lost lands, and confirmed Roman Catholicism as

Italy's national religion.Young Mussolini

ha<:! been very anticlerical but, as a practical politician, he thought it wiser

to make a friend of the pope. The

Church regarded order under Mussolini as preferable to chaos or, worse still,

comrnurusm.

The Pope In 1926, when Mussolini suNived

the fourth attempt on his life,

Pope Pius XI declared that

"This is a new sign that Mussolini has God's full protection."

Later he denounced Fascism as

"a creed entirely given over to hate,

to irreverence and to violence."

c1ass1c 1-asc1sm-1ta1y 192..!-4;:J

Anti-Semitism In "1937, Mussolini warned Italy's Jews to "uphold Fascism or leave." Following

Italy's alliance with Germany, books by Jews were censored, anti-Semitic

periodicals were permitted, and leading Jews were arrested. Jews found it

hard to get work, but there was no brutal persecution to match the horrors of

Nazi Germany. Later, during the war, when German forces tried to deport

. ,Italian Jews, the Italian arrny and authorities absolutely refused to cooperate,

and many Italians risked their lives to help them hide.

A new Caesar Mussolini presented himself as a Julius

Caesar reborn, renewing the glory of ancient Rome, making Italy admired,

feared, and prosperous, mistress once more of a great empire. In the 1930s he

greatly increased military spending. Ethiopia was conquered in just seven months in 1935-36, for the loss of only 1,537 Italian lives-and tens of

thousands of Ethiopian ones.When the League of Nations imposed trade sanctions on Italy as punishment for its aggression, Italy left the League.

In July 1936 Mussolini sent 50,000 Italian "volunteers" to Spain to support the army rebellion against the

socialist government. The Spanish Civil War was a chance to develop military skills while supporting

fellow fascists. In 1938 Mussolini aligned Italy with Hitler's Germany as an anticommunist power.

Crisis and collapse In 1939 Italy invaded Albania. In 1940, fearful of being

left behind by German victories, Mussolini ordered

advances against Yugoslavia and Greece and in North

Africa against the British. But Italy's efforts in World

War II were weakened by rivalries among army, navy,

November 1935: New

subjects of the Italian

empire, Ethiopians were

taught to make the Fascist

salute to portraits of

· Mussolini.

Classic Fascism-Italy 1922-43

August 1938: King Victor Emmanuel Ill and

Mussolini (right) at army maneuvers

air force, militia, and police forces, which Mussolini

encouraged in order to increase his personal power as

settler of disputes. Each, for exam.pie, had its own

spies, but none shared inforniation with the others.

Joining the war proved disastrous. It cost Italy a third

of its national wealth. In Greece and Yugoslavia Italian forces became bogged down in guerrilla fighting.

Great Britain reconquered all Italian territories in North and East Africa by 1942. Betw·een 1940 and

1943, two-thirds of Italian shipping was sunk.··

On July 10, 1943, Allied forces invaded Sicily. Defeat looked inevitable.

On July 24-25 the Fascist Grand Council, meeting for the first time since war broke out, dismissed

Mussolini. The king then had Mussolini arrested and made a leading soldier, Marshal Pietro Badoglio, prirne minister.

His government, mostly military men and government officials, changed sides to support the Allies. German

paratroopers snatched Mussolini from prison to set up an "Italian Social Republic," with a few remaining Fascist

followers, at Salo, a small town in northern Italy. In reality this was only a

German puppet state. German troops meanwhile fought a bitter rearguard

action. the length of Italy. About

100,000 Italian partisans, particularly

communist groups, harassed their retreat. Some 36,000 partisans died

and 10,000 civilians were killed in

German reprisals.

CoLJn(Qal~azzo· <;iano, · 14. ~EiitJJ1>bithe fatr1ily At W, µi~n0{i9Q3~4) tookpart in_

... '. ······· . ... . . . ..

:ffi:rr11tt:~:e~;g~~:/;~:: .. · ..

JtilflE~Ifi!f

""''Q~~·- . Q~-•.:1111-111.Cl117 • ..,._._ __ ""'

The end When f taly was torn between advancing Allies and Italian soldiers surrender

retreating Germans, with its own army and partisan when British forces attack

forces split and fighting on both sides, far more ftalians the port of Bardia, Libya.

-Catholics as well as communists-were willin·g to Mussolini had called it a

die to overthrow Fascism than to defend it. Mussolini's "bastion of fascism."

regime failed to create the "New Man" who would

give his life for a Fascist Italy. Most Italians, after all, had

never been that interested in politics and simply tried

to get on with their lives, more concerned about their

families, homes, farms, or jobs than political parades or

speeches. The king and the pope remained as alternative

symbols of authority. The contrast with Nazi SS units, fighting until they were ·wiped out, could not be greater.

Italian Fascism seems to have been . satisfied by the

appearance of unity, energy, and strength and ended up believing its own propaganda. The test of war proved to be a collision between dreams and harsh reality,

exposing Fascism as a sham and a failure.

In April 1945 Mussolini tried to escape to Austria, disguised as a German soldier. He was caught and shot

by conmmnist partisans. His body was hung upside dO\vn in Milan for crowds to spit on.