Roman Imperial Artwork

Roman Imperial Artwork:

The Application of Greek Mythology as Symbol

Derek Shultz

ARTH 305 Ancient Art and Architecture

Dr. Thomas Russo

April 28, 2009

Roman Imperial Artwork:

The Application of Greek Mythology as Symbol

Shultz 1

There are names that register all across the world as symbols of history, power, intelligence,

and beauty. These names have developed individual identities that are being applied and used

centuries after their initial conception. Everything from sciences and technology to entertainment

and education has had these characteristics applied by the simple addition of a name. These names

trace their origins back to ancient Greece and have not only influenced the present, but also many

cultures and religions throughout the past. A mythology was born in Greece many centuries ago and

contains the names of many individuals that are still widely known today. Zeus, Hera, Poseidon and

Aphrodite are only a small portion of these identities that have transcended time and culture. Greek

mythology was a powerful form of religion that had many influences on the people of the

surrounding lands. The power of this mythology came from its multitude of stories that contained

heroes, villains, tragedies and victories. The names of the characters in these stories are what the

mythology is based on as well as the morals they represent. The individuals mentioned in the events

of Greek mythology were portrayed in many different ways depending on the purpose of the

application. Artwork, literature and word of mouth were used to spread the mythology for

education, worship, and imitation. Imitation, in particular, was commonly used toward societal

members of high status in not only Greece, but later societies such as Rome. The application of

themes and attributes from Greek mythology to an individual’s portraiture was thought to transform

the identity of the individual from a person to a deity in the eyes’ of their peers; therefore, Roman

artwork has been found to contain many instances of Greek mythology, especially in work

containing emperors and empresses of the Roman Empire.

Mythology and religion have been a part of humanity since the first story was told from one

human being to another. Greek mythology was developed as the major means for spreading and

explaining the gods and stories of tribes in the area that we now call Greece. These tribes settled

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before and during 800 BCE and used a process of animism to explain the natural elements around

them and other phenomena in the world. Animism is the introduction of human qualities to

inanimate objects and was used by early Greeks for the purpose of gaining a better understanding

about their surroundings1. A majority of Greek mythology deals with issues of creation and shares

many elements with stories of other civilizations such as Babylon and Assyria. The questions of

creation dealt with the origin of the earth, the introduction of humans to the earth, and the reasons

for why evil exists. Later tribes that settled into Greece brought their own elements of mythology

that dealt with ideas of conquest, violence and extreme behavior. Other settlers brought and

developed ideas of farming and provided stories that related to agriculture and life. These stories

brought to Greece by vast amounts of tribes would later gain many human like figures who would

become the heroes and gods that are known today.2

The success of Greek mythology in terms of its ability to spread can be attributed to some

word of mouth; however, it was from literature and art work that the true connection between

people and mythology was made. Literature has been the difference between the success and failure

of many religions throughout time and Greek mythology was no exception. The Greek creation

stories were first written down by the poet Hesiod in the eighth century BCE. His, Theogony, deals

with the origin of the world and the origin of the gods as they are known in common Greek myth.3

The work of Hesiod was followed around a century later by Homer. The Odyssey and the Iliad were

considered two of the greatest works in history and center around the Trojan War. The war is

believed to have taken place in the late 12th

century BCE and Homer’s Iliad looks at the heroes,

religion, and love at the center of this epic struggle. The Odyssey follows the path of one man,

Odysseus, after the Trojan War and introduces the world to new myths and familiar gods. Poems

and plays also delivered popular mythology to the masses in the forms of tragedies that were based

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on the heroes of highly admired myths. Herodotus, an ancient historian, traveled through Greece

and has documentation of many local Greek myths that have been unaltered through the later

centuries. The compilation of ancient writings, the continuous use of the oral storytelling, and even

the creation of visual arts allowed Greek mythology to solidify as a form of religion around the

Mediterranean and created a group of stories that have stayed intact through the rise and fall of that

religion.

Greek mythology is derived from a unifying story that provides the history and background

for which the entire religion and belief are based. The beginning contains a deep nothingness that is

known as Chaos. From this darkness come two beings of great power. One was called Gaia,

goddess of the earth, and the other was called Tartarus, ruler of deep underground. These two

constitute the creation of the world and they were soon joined by Eros, the god of love. Gaia used

Eros to create her husband, Uranus, the god of the sky. Gaia and Uranus gave birth to many

children, the first of which were twelve giants, six male and six female, called the Titans. More, less

attractive, children were created by Gaia and Uranus until Cronus, the youngest of the Titans, took

over of the earth and sky by defeating his father, Uranus. Cronus married his sister, Rhea, and

produced children with her; however, Cronus had been warned that one of his children would kill

him so he would eat each newborn that Rhea gave birth to. Gaia managed to save one of Rhea’s

children by tricking Cronus into eating a rock. The saved child, Zeus, grew up wanting revenge

against his father’s actions and he did so by hiding a potion in Cronus’ wine. The potion made

Cronus throw up Zeus’ brothers and sisters who were Poseidon, Hades, Hera, Hestia, and Demeter.

These gods and goddesses became the new rulers of the world after they were saved from Cronus.

Zeus then freed all the children of Gaia that Cronus had imprisoned and they became loyal servants

of Zeus. The new Olympians made home on Mount Olympus and raged furious battles with the now

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jealous Titans. The gods overpowered the Titans and Zeus locked them in the depths of Tartarus.

Later, Gaia gave birth to another son, Typhon who became a vicious creature and wanted control of

the heavens and the world. Zeus and Typhon waged an epic war until Zeus was victorious and

banished Typhon to Tartarus as well. This sequence of events is at the heart of Greek mythology

and set the stage for many other gods, goddesses, and heroes.4

There are twelve Olympian gods who are said to reside on Mount Olympus and they are

lead by Zeus and Hera. Zeus is the god of the sky, while Hera is the goddess of women and

childbirth. The five other male Olympians are Apollo, god of the sun, Hermes, messenger of the

gods, Poseidon, god of the sea, Hades, god of the underworld, and Ares, god of war. The five other

female Olympians are Artemis, goddess of the moon and hunting, Aphrodite, goddess of love and

beauty, Athena, goddess of wisdom, Hestia, goddess of the hearth, and Demeter, goddess of crops

and harvests.5

Ares is a lesser appreciated member of the Greek Olympian gods. He was viewed poorly by

many Greeks because of his murderous and destructive actions in the field of battle. However, Ares

was worshiped by many for his power to provide victory in battle and strength in life. [1.1] Ares is

the son of Zeus and Hera and he plays a major role in Homer’s The Iliad. This is one of few

appearances that Ares makes in mythology until later in Roman history.6 Aphrodite is a much more

beloved and well known mythological deity. She is portrayed with multiple origins that range from

a birth in the sea to conception from other deities. These debates range within classic Greek works

and both are accepted. She was viewed as the most beautiful goddess and saw herself in a similar

way. [1.2] Aphrodite had multiple love interests in the mythological stories and was even a

surrogate mother. Many people worshiped her based solely on her beauty and wanted her protection

in marriage, love, and child birth.7 Demeter is another Greek deity that received less recognition

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than that of Zeus or Hera, but held her own as an Olympian goddess. Demeter watches over

harvests, nourishment, fertility, and a green earth. She is a bringer of the seasons and a protector of

marriage. Demeter was widely viewed as a giver, provider and protector. [1.3] She would look over

those who looked up to her and was a deity of high reverence.8

The creation of humans is credited to Zeus who, after three tries, gained the help of a giant

named Prometheus and they created the ancestors of the Greeks and Romans that we know today.9

Many humans within Greek mythology have earned status of hero because of amazing feats they

achieved in their lives and one of the most popular of these heroes is Heracles. [1.4] He was the

offspring between the relations of Queen Alcmene of Thebes and Zeus. Hera was jealous of all

Zeus’ children, including Heracles, and made many attempts to sabotage Heracles’ life. Eventually,

she possessed him with mindless rage that caused him to kill his family. To earn forgiveness for his

actions Heracles endured twelve labors that gained him immortality and allowed him to join his

father on Mount Olympus.10

These twelve labors showed the intelligence, strength, and

perseverance of Heracles which made him one of the most well known myths throughout the world.

Greek mythology spread quickly through all the cities of Ancient Greece and became a commonly

accepted and used means of religion. The polytheism of Greece was common to religions around

the Mediterranean and gave Greek myth an easier transition into the time of the Romans.

The Roman Empire began its conquest in the 3rd

century BCE and by 264 BCE they

controlled all of Italy. A century later all of Greece was under the rule of the Roman Empire and

became another victim in the massive spread of Rome across their known world.11

Romans

encountered many new religions during their conquest; however, they did not ban new religions that

were not Roman. They were actually quite the opposite and accepted and even adopted many

aspects of religions found in conquered areas. Rome’s polytheistic religion allowed for easy

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incorporation of many other gods and goddesses, even those from Greece. Roman religion has

much dissimilarity from Greek religion in both the organization and communication. Roman

mythology has one base story that centers on the founding of Rome by two brothers, Romulus and

Remus. Other stories within the mythology are scattered and unorganized because there was a lack

of literature on the subject. Roman mythology finally gained stability when poets began to borrow

from Greek example and wrote the mythological stories down for others to read.

Many Romans were fascinated by the Greeks and borrowed much of their cultural identity

to use as their own. Greek mythology became a way for Romans to tie the loose ends of their

mythology together. The plethora of gods and goddesses in Greece allowed Romans to relate their

own gods by common characteristics and to fill in missing links with myths from the Greeks. The

twelve Olympian gods of Greece were quickly identified by new Roman names based on

similarities in what they presided over or how they acted. The male gods changed from Zeus to

Jupiter, Hermes to Mercury, Poseidon to Neptune, Hades to Pluto, Ares to Mars, and Apollo

remained the same. The females were converted from Hera to Juno, Artemis to Diana, Aphrodite to

Venus, Athena to Minerva, Hestia to Vesta, and Demeter to Ceres.12

The Romans were influenced

by the Greeks in all elements of life and many of these elements had strong ties to this now shared

mythology. Roman emperors also adopted many of the traits from Greek mythology in order to

promote their rule and self image throughout the empire. This involved the application of Greek

mythological themes and characters to portraiture of the emperor all throughout the empire. Romans

especially grasped the more heroic and attractive myths of the Greeks in order to promote their own

superiority as an empire and as individuals. Images of power, strength, and wisdom were commonly

used in an effort to promote the dominance of the Rome and its leaders. Some of the most noted

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Roman emperors and empresses have been strongly identified with common Greek/Roman

mythology for reasons ranging from their own ego to community involvement.

Hadrian was the successor of Trajan as emperor of Rome. He ruled from 117 to 138 CE and

was a highly respected leader in the Roman Empire. Hadrian had a very disconnected relationship

with Rome and its Senate. He chose to spend most of his rule in the provinces outside of Rome all

throughout the empire. Hadrian gained a great respect for Ancient cultures especially Ancient Greek

art and architecture. [1.5] He was the first Roman Emperor to portray himself as a deity while still

in power which was a direct reflection of the ancient influence. He also used this Greek persuasion

to establish his legacy in the Roman Empire as a great builder. Hadrian created some of the greatest

built forms in Rome such as the Pantheon, his villa at Tivoli and Hadrian’s Wall.13

All of these

forms showed his devotion to ancient culture and his devotion to maintaining the stability of the

Roman Empire. Hadrian married Vibia Sabina in 100 CE and had an unhappy and uneventful

marriage with her. [1.6] The two were rarely seen together and both had separate love lives. Sabina

had many encounters with aids around her home and Hadrian had a more famous relationship with

Antinous.14

Both the emperor and empress were still good to the empire and both had many

instances of praise by individuals in the community.

Hadrian and Sabina are portrayed together as the imperial couple in a work of art that

strengthens their bond with the application of Roman mythology. This work of art called, The

Imperial Group as Mars and Venus, represents the Emperor and Empress as the two Roman deities

Mars and Venus and was composed in the 2nd

century CE. [1.7] This coupling of the two deities

with this Roman couple was very intentional. Mars and Venus, originally Ares and Aphrodite, are

considered lovers in Greek mythology and this relationship transferred later into Roman mythology.

The representation of Sabina seems to be more of an addition to the main figure of Hadrian. Sabina

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is shown in a traditional Greek portrayal of Aphrodite with intent to present the beauty of the

empress with the application of the goddess of beauty. The drapery of the empress’s cloth and her

pose next to Hadrian are easily likened to Greek statues of Aphrodite. However, Aphrodite is

usually shown with uncovered breasts, which is not the case with Sabina. The simple explanation is

that it was improper to expose an empress and all the other attributes of the statue still allow Sabina

to represent Venus successfully.15

Hadrian is more idealized in a classic nude Greek arrangement.

The strength and beauty of Hadrian is shown through his physique in the statue with limited attire to

represent the strength of the empire itself. Hadrian stands in a classic contraposto pose while

bearing the crested helmet, baldric, sword and breastplate that are common attributes of Mars. [1.8]

It is curious that a ruthless killer such as Ares would be chosen to represent an emperor. When the

characteristics of Ares were incorporated into the god, Mars, he became a much more respected and

well loved deity. Rome worshipped Mars because of his strength and they could relate to him with

all of the empire’s military conquests. Mars was a very appropriate choice of representation for

Hadrian as he was an individual representation of the strength for the entire Roman Empire. There

is an interesting story that goes with this statue because the original heads of Hadrian and Sabina are

no longer there. Instead, they have been replaced by a later imperial couple of the Roman Empire,

Lucius Verus and his wife Lucille.16

The statue maintained its original purpose of imperial

propaganda because the Greek symbolism and mythology are still intact.

Once Hadrian set the standard for deification during his rule it became a trend for later

emperors and empresses. One later emperor, Commodus, had a representation for being egotistical

in his reign from 161 to 192 CE. Commodus was the son of Marcus Aurelius who was considered

one of the greatest Roman Emperors. He chose to disregard many of the needs of the empire and

instead worked toward personal gain and pleasure. Commodus was good looking and he considered

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himself to be a god. This mindset eventually led to his assassination by the people closest to him.

During Commodus’ reign he commissioned a work of art that epitomizes imperial portraiture with

an application of Greek mythology.17

Commodus applied the mythic hero of Heracles to an imperial

portrait bust of himself for reasons that were solely based on imperial propaganda. This propaganda

was not normal in comparison to his predecessors because Commodus was not promoting himself

as an emperor, but rather as a god. The application of Heracles was unique in that it was Heracles

after he completed his labors and became a god. This image was rarely used in imperial portraiture

because it was such a highly revered status of the myth. Commodus grasped hold of this image as a

perfect representation of his status on Earth and wanted the piece commissioned for that reason.18

To examine the work, Bust of Commodus as Hercules from 190 CE, it is necessary to first

examine earlier works that contain the image of Commodus in order to establish the correct face on

the sculpture in question. [1.9] When looking at portraits of Commodus it becomes apparent that he

chose to be represented in an idealized manner rather than in a realistic state. Commodus chose to

represent himself like his father in terms of facial hair and skin texture. The composers of the

Commodus portrait busts gave him silky smooth skin and deeply drilled the curls in his hair to add

dramatic contrast that is very Greek in aesthetic.19

Commodus wanted to be viewed as perfect in

every way to establish himself as a god equal to Jupiter. These features fit directly with Bust of

Commodus as Hercules; therefore, the subject can be confirmed and the application of the myth on

that subject can be examined. [1.10] The famous attributes of Heracles are clearly established on

this portrait bust and it takes quick identification to establish that this was the intended myth to

portray. Commodus is holding the club of Heracles and the apples of the Hesperides which was one

of the twelve labors. The emperor is also wearing the lion-skin headdress of Heracles, another

reference to one of the twelve labors. These symbols apply the attributes of the god, Heracles, to

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Commodus and there is still further application of symbols of greatness on other parts of the bust.

Signs of the zodiac and a kneeling Amazon portray Commodus as a victor in battle and a supreme

celestial being; however, these claims are purely for propaganda since Commodus never had great

victories in battle.20

[1.11] Commodus was considered a maniacal, self-centered individual and this

bust of him was purely for his own ego. It was meant to show the Empire how great Commodus

believed he was and how great they should believe he was. There are other portrait busts, however,

that are completed out of respect for the subject rather than political self- propaganda.

Julia Domna was the wife of the Roman Emperor, Septimius Severus, and is considered one

of the most well respected empresses of the Roman Empire. The two were married in 187 CE and

Severus was emperor from 193 to 211 CE. She saw herself as a motherly influence on Rome and

wanted to take that role to heart while she was empress.21

Domna was a strong spirited woman in

Rome during the time her husband was in power. She surrounded herself with the greatest writers,

philosophers, and artists to become educated and well rounded as a person.22

Julia Domna was a

provider to the people of Rome and gave her knowledge and wealth in support of a city that she felt

a maternal connection to.

The representation of Julia Domna as a Greek deity was meant to pay homage to a highly

respected individual rather than to idolize a high ranking member of society. The Portrait of Julia

Domna as Ceres is a prime example of an empress being promoted to a deity by the people rather

than by the government or herself. [1.12] The portrait dates to 203 CE and allows the features of the

empress to stand equally with the attributes of the goddess. To examine this piece of art it is again

necessary to examine a previous work featuring the empress, Julia Domna. [1.13] There are key

items that separate Domna from other empresses in terms of imperial portrait busts. The feature that

is most predominant and most distinguishing is the wig that Domna is pictured as wearing in her

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portraits. This wig parts in the middle and falls to both sides of her head in a wavy fashion. This wig

has been called a helmet hair by many, but it manages to simplify the process of identifying Julia

Domna from other empresses in similar sculpture.23

Once the identification of the empress is complete, it is necessary to identify the myth. The

drapery of the fabric indicates the presence of a deity, but it is the symbolic attributes that

distinguish one from the next. The objects in the hands of Domna are linked to Ceres because they

are the forms of fruits and grains and belong to the goddess of agriculture, Ceres.24

This

mythological being seems very appropriate for the empress that she has been attached to. The

charitable acts, wealth of knowledge, and provider of foods in famished times would all be

characteristics of Julia Domna that have strong ties to Ceres. People in Rome would have looked up

to her much like they look to the gods and goddesses. It would have been very easy to worship this

empress because of her generosity and wealth in all aspects of her life.

Greek mythology has been transferred through various artistic media in a simple attempt to

answer worldly questions and connect with others in the form of religion. Once the questions were

answered, the attributes of the mythological beings became used for more individual use as

representations of high status individuals. These individuals, particularly Roman emperors and

empresses, were portrayed in imperial portraiture with applications of mythology applied to their

figure. These applications varied greatly depending on the subject, the myth, and the reason for

applying the myth in the first place.

Hadrian and his wife Sabina were portrayed in a loving embrace to present an image of

togetherness to the Roman public. This image was achieved through the application of lovers in

Roman myth. The individual attributes of these deities also enhanced the emperor and empress by

showing them as beautiful, strong and protective individuals. This was a prime example of imperial

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propaganda to reassure the Roman Empire. A more personal application of Greek mythology to a

Roman emperor was conducted by Commodus. This application differs from Hadrian and Sabina

because the work of Commodus was completely self-centered and egotistical in design. It was

meant to idealize the emperor and portray him to the Roman Republic as a supreme being. This was

an extreme application of mythology for personal gain with no regard to the needs of the empire. A

third application of mythology to Roman imperial portraiture was used to represent a respect for a

highly admired individual in the community. Julia Domna was a highly revered Roman empress

that did great things for the community in both knowledge and charity. Her donations to the

community were greatly appreciated by the people of Rome and one individual artist chose to

portray her as a goddess of similar reverence. The sole intention of this artwork was to depict the

wonderful nature of Julia Domna and her great influence on not only the artist, but the entire Roman

Empire. There are many applications that Greek and Roman mythology can achieve in the realm of

portraiture. Roman imperial portrait busts, with the application of Greek mythology, were used to

depict an idea to the citizens of Rome. These ideas ranged from a sense of security, a personal

admiration of oneself, and a personal respect of royalty. There is careful consideration put into the

application of a particular myth on a Roman subject. The history of the mythological being, the

history of the person being portrayed, and the style used in the artwork are all important to the

successful depiction of the Roman imperial portrait.

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Annotated Bibliography

Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.

North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008.

This book allowed me to fully understand the basic stories of Greek mythology. It

introduced me to the history and origin of the myths and gave a strong family tree for

identifying the history of the gods.

Davis, Kenneth C. Don’t Know Much About Mythology: Everything You Need to Know About the

Greatest Stories in Human History but Never Learned. New York: Harper Collins

Publishers,

2005.

This book gave me a detailed understanding of the stories behind each individual god. It

allowed me to focus on each Olympian god in order to find identifying characteristics of

each.

Elsner, Jas. Art and Text in Roman Culture. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University

Press, 1996.

I was able to use this book to follow some of the origins of Roman mythology and it gave

me material to examine the path that the mythology took in its integration of Greek beliefs.

Freeman, Charles. Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. New

York:

Oxford University Press, 2004.

This text book allowed me to find information on the emperors and empresses of Rome.

This information allowed me to establish key traits of each individual in order to discuss

their reasons for mythological portraiture

Hanfmann, George M. A. “Personality and Portraiture in Ancient Art.” Proceedings of the

American Philosophical Society 117, no. 4 (August 15, 1973): 259-285. JSTOR

(accessed April 1, 2009).

This article gave me great examples of Roman and Greek portraiture that gave me ideas

about the mindsets that individuals had when commissioning a portrait. It was helpful to

establish my ideas and reasoning about Roman imperial portraiture with mythological

applications.

Kleiner, Diana E. E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1992.

This book was helpful when it came to identifying works of art and looking at key traits

within them. I was able to gather some expert insight by using this book in my discussion

about the artwork in question.

Shultz 14

Kousser, Rachel. "Mythological Group Portraits in Antonine Rome: The Performance of

Myth." American Journal of Archaeology 111, no. 4 (October 2007): 673-691.

Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed April 1, 2009).

This was another helpful article that allowed me to see how mythological beings were

portrayed in Rome. I was able to see comparisons between my chosen works of art and the

ones expressed in this writing. I gathered a lot of insight about the inner thought of Greek

mythological portraiture.

Louvre. “Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities: Roman Art”. The Louvre, Paris, France.

http://www.louvre.fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_notice.jsp?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=1013419867

3225778&CURRENT_LLV_NOTICE%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673225778&FOLDER%3

C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500819&baseIndex=26&bmLocale=en, Accessed April 21,

2009.

This website was from a museum and it allowed me to look at artwork and find useful

information that would be difficult to find otherwise. This website also gave ideas and

features in the statue that I might have missed otherwise.

Ramage, Nancy H. Roman Art: Romulus to Constantine. New York: Abrams, 1991.

This book was filled with art from Rome and aided in my discussion on the work of

Commodus and other imperial portraiture.

Ruebel, James S. “Politics and Folktale in the Classical World.” Asian Folklore Studies vol. 50,

no. 1(1991): 5-33. JSTOR (accessed April 1, 2009).

This reading was useful because it gave me some of the mindsets and ideas that were alive

in both Greece and Rome. I was able to gather some knowledge about the mythologies and

politics and the similarities and differences between the two cultures.

The Getty. “Bust of Sabina”. The J. Paul Getty Trust,

http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=7629, Accessed April 21, 2009.

This was a museum’s website that gave me the ability to find the necessary artwork for my

comparisons. The website also provided useful information about each of the artworks such

as date and location.

Wheeler, Mortimer. Roman Art and Architecture. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1964.

This was another useful source to strengthen my knowledge of imperial portraiture in Rome

and also gave me glimpses of other Roman work with Greek mythology application.

Woodford, Susan. Images of Myths in Classical Antiquities. United Kingdom: Cambridge

University Press, 2003.

Shultz 15

This book was helpful in my comparison of Julia Domna to Ceres. It had useful information

on Ceres and gave me a good image to work with in the artwork identification and analysis.

Shultz 16

Images

1.1 1.2

1.3 1.4

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1.5

1.6

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1.7 1.8

1.9 1.10

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1.11 1.12

1.13

Shultz 20

1 Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.

North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008. pg 7.

2Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.


3 Ibid. 4 Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.

North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008. pg 12-17.



6 Davis, Kenneth C. Don’t Know Much About Mythology: Everything You Need to Know About the Greatest

Stories in Human History but Never Learned. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2005. pg 203. 7 Davis, Kenneth C. Don’t Know Much About Mythology: Everything You Need to Know About the Greatest

Stories in Human History but Never Learned. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2005. pg 200. 8 Davis, Kenneth C. Don’t Know Much About Mythology: Everything You Need to Know About the Greatest

Stories in Human History but Never Learned. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2005. pg 205. 9 Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.








13

Freeman, Charles. Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. New York: Oxford

University Press, 2004. pg. 488-490. 14

The Getty. “Bust of Sabina”. The J. Paul Getty Trust,

http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=7629, Accessed April 21, 2009. 15

Louvre. “Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities: Roman Art”. The Louvre, Paris, France.

http://www.louvre.fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_notice.jsp?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673225778&CURRE

NT_LLV_NOTICE%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673225778&FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500819

&baseIndex=26&bmLocale=en, Accessed April 21, 2009. 16

Ibid. 17


University Press, 2004. pg. 547. 18

Ibid. 19

Ramage, Nancy H. and Andrew Ramage. Roman Art: Romulus to Constantine. New York, Harry N. Abrams,

Inc., 1991. pg. 216-217. 20

Kleiner, Diana E. E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1992. pg. 276-277. 21


University Press, 2004. pg. 549. 22

Kleiner, Diana E. E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1992. pg. 328.

23

Kleiner, Diana E. E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1992. pg. 326. 24

Woodford, Susan. Images of Myths in Classical Antiquity. Cambridge, Mass: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

pg. 144-146.

Documents

Roman Imperial Artwork