Scientific Research 01 04

Introduction to Scientific Research

About the subject

• Lecturer– Attila Kajos – Assistant Lecturer– Email: [email protected]– Room: Sport Centre Room no. 10– Form of teaching: Lecture/seminar

• Assesment– Activity in class– Prepare of a class paper

mailto:[email protected]

About the subject

• Evaluation– Class paper 100% (via email till 30.11.2012)

• Own research plan according to the research plan sample discussed during the second class (in Portuguese!!!)

• Summary of 2 or 3 secondary litherature in maximum of 3 pages in English

• Brief summary of the research plan in English (min. 1 , max 3 pages)

• Marks– Excelllent (5) – 86% -– Good (4) – 76–85%– Satisfactory (3) – 66-75%– Pass (2) – 51-65%– Fail (1) – 0-50%

Course Objectives

1. About scientific research1. Types of research2. Basic Definitions3. Research plan

2. Research procedures1. Topic selecting2. Literature review3. Using of Databases4. Making Hypothesis(es)5. Conceptualization6. Operalization

3. Right before the research1. Sampling methods

Course Objectives

4. Research Methodology1. Qualitative methods2. Quantitative methods

5. How to do an interview6. How to prepare a survey7. How to prepare the presentation

Scientific research is

• A systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among observed phenomena.

• All research begins with a basic question or proposition about a specific phenomenon– Why people doing something?– How they think about something?– What will change, if I change something important or

seemly less important?– What are the people thinking about thing?– Etc.

Scientific Research

• Main Goal– Determination of a new, generally usable data, cnnection

os casuation

• Characteristics (Cseremely-Gergely-Koltay-Tóth, 1999)

– It can be generalised– Reproducable– Proveable– Coherent (without contradiction)– Analitical– Simple (compact, elegant)– Important (Useful)– Deepness, connectivity (to other subjects)

2023.04.19. Kajos Attila – tanársegéd - Testnevelés- és Sporttudományi Intézet

Traditional science model (Babbie)

1. Theory– Deduction– Induction– Hypothesis

2. Operationalization– The process of developing operational definitions, or

specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable.

– Identifying the data collection methods(quantitative or qualitative, and which)

3. Observation– Looking at aspects and making measurements on what

what is seen


Definitions

• Theory: proposition to explain social regularity• Hypothesis: expectation derived from theory• Method: translate into testable hypotheses• Deduction: using theory to derive hypotheses• Induction: reformulating theory

1. Defining the problem:– Any problem related to the society, nature, etc. which recognition is seems

important or necessary. Eg. The social reasons and causes of alcoholism.

2. Theoretical Hypothesis(es):– Hypothesis is a formal statement regarding the relationship between

variables, and it is tested directly. The predicted relationship between the variables is either true or false.

– In order to create a hypothesis we can use the collected secondary data, but we can develop new ones as well.

– E.g. Alcoholism is more typical around people with poor family background.

3. Operationalization:– This is simply the specification of the steps, procedures, or operations that

you will go through in actually identifying and measuring the variables you want to observe.

– How we measure alcoholism, how we measure the familiar background?

Step by Step(Popper)


4. Data collection methods– Secondary analysis of statistical data– Document analysis– Observation (from ouside or direct observation)– Case study– Experiment– Personal interview– Mélyinterjú, életrajzi módszer, kötetlen beszélgetés– Survey (questionaire)

5. Analysis– Every analysis should be carefully planned and performed according to

guidelines designed for that analysis. Once the computations have been completed, the researcher must "step back" and consider what has been discovered. The results must be analyzed with reference to their external validity and the likelihood of their accuracy.

6. Publishing the results


Types of research

• Basic research– Its goal is to collect knowledge, to make theretical research– It is coping with the knowing and lawfulness of a

phenomena– Mainly theoratical, but gives framework or basics of

empirical researches

• Applied research– Researching the practical implementation of the findings

of the basic researches

• Development research– Their main goal is to develop, improve the current

theories, knowledge, principles, methods, tools, etc.


What kind of logic we can use

• Deductive logic (or theory creation)– We are creating assumptions, hypothesises from

knowlidge already available. We are going from general to factual.

• Inductive logic– We are starting from an observation, and try to find the

general principles, theories behind that exact phenomena.


Deductive logic

1. Choose a question that you want to understand.2. Make a list (inventory)– Find out what is known about the relationships among

those variables.– The phase of secondary research.

3. Creating your own theory1. Specify the topic2. Specify the range of phenomena your theory addresses3. Identify and specify your major concepts and variables4. Find out what is known about the relationships among

those variables5. Reason logically from those relationships to the specific

topic you are studying


Inductive theory creation

• Start with observations and then develop a generalization the explains the relationships between the objects observed

• Example– Observe, collect data about crime situation– Analyze patterns explain how crime is encouraged or

discouraged.– opportunity blocking methods to reduce gain and increase

cost associated with crime act– Implement the plan– Evaluate the results


Scientific research by its goals

• Exploratory research– Determine all the crieria deciding …

• Descriptive research– Describe the population in order of a statistical variable

• Causal research


Exploratory research

• Its objective of giving a better understanding of the research problem

• This includes helping to identify the variables which should be measured within the study.

• When we have little understanding of the topic we find it impossible to formulate hypotheses without some exploratory research.

• The techniques of exploratory research include – reviews of secondary sources of data,– Informal interviews and – focus group interviews.


Descriptive research

• Descriptive research is concerned with describing the characteristics of the chosen group, sample or population.

• We are only watching from outside, we do not interrupt.

• Sometimes is helps the preparation of a latter causal research.

• Important part for the data collection methods• Main methods used– Survey– Observation


Causal research

• Causal research attempts to deal with the ‘why’ questions.

• This type of research is employed when there the objective is to understand to know why a change in one variable brings about a change in another variable.

• Types of causal relationships– No relationship– Deterministic relationship

• The change of a variable determines the change of another variable. The connection is exlusive, which means no other variable is determining the movement of the affected (dependent) variable.

– Stochastic relationship• Probability connection. The relationship is trend like, but not obligatory.

We can decide weather it is there, but it is not unequivocally determinable. More independent variables cause the changes in the moving of the dependent variable.


Researches by time dimesnions• Cross sectional research

– involve observation of all of a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time.

– Pros: Cheaper, Needs less time– Cons: Obscure, hard to make generalisations from it, results can obsole

• Longitudinal research– Research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables

over long periods of time — often many decades.– Longitudinal studies make observing changes more accurate, and they are

applied in various other fields.– Types– Non overlaping study

• Same questions, but the sample always changes

– Overlaping study• Same questions, and the some people is the same in the sample, but not everybody.

– Panel study• Sample a cross-section, and survey it at (usually regular) intervals.


Methods

• Secondary reserach– Data what was not collected in order to answer our

question, but somehow related to it.– Pros: Time efficient, easy, cheap, can help to evaluate the

problem, etc.– Cons: In can be out of date, not gives exact answer to our

questions, not collected by our standards, etc.

• Primary research– Data collected by the researcher in order to answer his/her

specific question, to fulfil the goal of the study– Pros: More proper, gibes answers to our problem– Cons: Harder, slower, can be expensive, conplex, needs

proper preparation and analysis.


Types of primary research

• Qualitative study– Observation– Questioning

• Interviews• Focus groups

– Experiment– Sociometric

• Quantitative research– Questioning

• Kérdőív (survey)

– Experiment


The typical empirical research

1. Select a problem.2. Review existing research and theory (when

relevant).3. Develop hypotheses or research questions.4. Determine the appropriate population and sample5. Determine an appropriate methodology/research

design.6. Collect relevant data.7. Analyze and interpret the results.8. Present the results in appropriate form.9. Replicate the study (when necessary).


The students scientific research: The thesis

• Process– Select a topic– Setting of research goal(s)– Literature search and review (for existing theory, methods

used before, etc.)– Making a scheme (draft or brief)– Secondary research (analyzing and evaluating the

literature)– Primary research (if necessary)– Writing the thesis– CHECKING AND CORRECTING!!!– Thesis Presentation and Defence


The Thesis• Usual build-up

– Title page– Table of content– List of Figures / Tables (if needed)– Introduction

• Why we choose the topic?• What it can be used for?• Whx is it something new?• Short introduction of the methods used, the logical build-up of the thesis, short abstract of the

chapters, acknowledgement

– Literature review– Methods– Empirical research– Results– Discussion– Coclusions– Recommendations– Acknowledgement– References– Appendices


Selecting the research topic

• Your own topic of interest• Personal motivation• Environmental factor (where sbody work)• An area well known• An interesting problem• Practical usability


We only choose the topic if…

• We are interested in the problem/topic/field

• If it is not very important for our consulent, but not for us

• We are knowing or willing to get know the topic or…

• We are working on that field or…

• We know the theoretical/literature background


What to do, when we are enable to choose

• Speak with– Experts of the selected topics (people we know, our

teachers, etc.)– Friends, other students

• Read– Academic journals– Periodicals– Newsweeklies– Everyday encounters


Literature review, methods, database

Kajos Attila – tanársegéd - Testnevelés- és Sporttudományi Intézet

Literature search• The review

– provides information about – what was done, – how it was done, and – what results were generated.– the literature review as one of the most important steps in the research

process because it not only– allows them to learn from (and eventually add to) previous research data – but also saves time, effort, and money.

• Questions– 1. What type of research has been done in the area?– 2. What has been found in previous studies?– 3. What suggestions do other researchers make for further study?– 4. What has not been investigated?– 5. How can the proposed study add to our knowledge of the area?– 6. What research methods were used in previous studies?


Literature revies

• Criterions– The source must be the exact standard

• Adequate for the purpose (other sources are appropriate for a BSc(BA) or MSc(MA) thesis, an academic journal’s article or a PhD thesis

• Academic standard

– Reliability of the source• The author and/or publisher• Academic journals• Date of the publication (how fresh)


Literature research

• Every organized data collection activities in order of the given goal.

• Places of research– Historical archives– Library research (books, journals not online form)– Online database research (online database of books and

journals)– Statistic databases (e.g. Eurostat)


How to search for literature

• Keywords– Important to find the proper keywords– Keywords in the relevant articles– Keywords defined by us.

• First always go through the abstracts• Always look through the References (snowball

method)


Online sources

• Pros– Always reachable– Many free content (e.g. through university network)

• Cons– Not always verified– Everybody can upload information– The selection of the available literature is sometimes very

hard.


Source: O’Leary, 2004

Science Direct


Springer Link



Google Scholar


PuBMed

• http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed

Other important statistical databases

• Eurostat– http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/euro

stat/home

• Other EU databases– http://europa.eu/documentation/statistics-polls/index_hu.

htm

• Eurobarometer– http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/index_en.htm


http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/eurostat/home

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/eurostat/home

http://europa.eu/documentation/statistics-polls/index_hu.htm

http://europa.eu/documentation/statistics-polls/index_hu.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/index_en.htm

References

• Provides information about the author• It gives a hint– About the quality and understanding of the researched

topic– Professional authenticity– The freshness of the processed literature

• Referencing is important, because– Every view has history– Every statement and opinions must be proven– The original sources must be retrievable


Plagiarism

• "wrongful appropriation," "close imitation," or "purloining and publication"

• of another author's "language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions," and the representation of them as one's own original work

• Every form of plagiarism is forbiden.

• That is why we must avoid it by using proper bibliographic data and exact references to the original information source.


Types of references

• Inset reference– Word by word referencing

• „In these cases we put the sentence(s) between quotation marks and after it we name the author(s) and the year of the document” (Eusebio, 1966)

• It must not be more than few sentences.• We mainly use it for definitions, important statements.

– Content reference• We take the essence of a document, text or larger section.• We write the author into the sentence. E.g. In Luis Figo (2001)

opinion…• We write down the author and the year of publication e.g. (Vitor

Baia, 1996)


How we reference inset

• Individual works– (Liedson, 2010)

• Co-author works– (Tiago – Viana, 2000)

• With more than three authors– (Ronaldo et al. 1996)

• Edited book– (Velsos ed., 2002), (Abel Xavier-Nani, 2010)

• More publications from one author– Nuno Gomes (2005a), Nuno Gomes (2005b)

• Publication by an organization– (WTO, 1999)


References after the text

• Only those references which was also used in the text.


References

• Individual works– Author (Year): Title of the Book. Publisher, Place published.

• Works with two authors– Author –Author (Year): Title of the Book. Publisher, Place

published.

• Edited book– Editor(s) (ed(s).) (Year): Title of the Book. Publisher, Place

published.

• Part of work– Author(s) (Year): Title of the article. In: Editor(s) (ed(s).) (Year):

Title of the Book. Publisher, Place published. pages

• Book without authos– Title of the Book. Publisher, Place published


References

• Journal article– Author(s) (Year): Title of the article. Name of the Journal,

edition, number, pages (pp. From-to)

• Online Source– Author(s) (Year): Title of the article. Name of the

homepage, URL address, time of download


Figures and Tables

• The source always must be indicated• Every Figure and Table must have a Title, and the

original author and publications date – with page number – must stated below the figure or article– Source: Hilário, 1999

• If it is your own work, then– Source: Own construction/calculation/design/etc.

• You must reference every Figure or Table used in the text!– E.g. As Figure no.3 suggests…– The population of Hungary droped in the last ten years

(Table no.3)


Right before data collectionKajos Attila – Egytemi tanársegéd

Course Objectives

• Hypothesis• Conceptualization• Operationalization• Sampling

Hypothesis

• Based on– Experience– Literature research– Observing the research problem

• A hypothesis is an idea or proposition that can be tested by observations or experiments, about the natural world.

• In order to be considered scientific, hypotheses are subject to scientific evaluation and must be falsifiable, which means that they are worded in such a way that they can be proven to be incorrect.

The hypothesis• A good hypothesis is based on sound reasoning.

– Your hypothesis should be based on previous research.– The hypothesis should follow the most likely outcome, not the exceptional

outcome.

• A good hypothesis provides a reasonable explanation for the predicted outcome.– Do not look for unrealistic explanations.

• A good hypothesis clearly states the relationship between the defined variables.– Clear, simply written hypothesis is easier to test.– Do not be vague. (unsure)

• A good hypothesis defines the variables in easy to measure terms.– Who are the participants?– What is different or will be different in your test?– What is the effect?

• A good hypothesis is testable in a reasonable amount of time.– Do not plan a test that will take longer than your class project.

Conceptualization

Conceptualization

• In conducting a study according to the scientific method, researchers need to have a clear understanding of what they are investigating, how the phenomenon can be measured or observed, and what procedures are required to test the observations or measurements.

• Conceptualization of the research problem in question and a logical development of procedural steps are necessary to have any hope of answering a research question or hypothesis.

Conceptualization• How to do it?• First define and then operationalize (which is one way of

defining concepts). 1. Definition by synonym or linguistic definition (What is democracy?), 2. Definition by classification, (example: classification of political

cultures)3. Definition by enumeration (What is OPEC?), 4. Definition by example, Ex. Consolidated democracy such as Britain…5. Definition by exclusion, Ex. By 'research' I do not mean going to the

drugstore, picking up a magazine, and copying the ideas and words of the first article you see that looks like it might acceptable enough to make into a speech." This statement obviously means that such practice is forbidden.

6. Definition by measurable indicators (operationalization). Ex. "intelligence" is often defined as the score one gets on an intelligence test.

Conceptualization

• Second step– Creating dimensions– The dimensions means the main factors of our concept.– It is important, that these divisions should have no

overlaps.

• The dimensions of the society– Place of work– Economic cicumstances– Education– Place of living

Conceptualization

• Third step– Creating indicators (variables)– Dimensions can be interpret through indicators– The higher the nuber, the better

• The indicators of a persons economic circumstances– Level of income– Standard of living– Owned property– Etc.

Other example

Social Status

Power Privilege Prestige

Indicators

O E I G R E A B R

IncomePossessions, Fashion, Teeth, Self-Report, Jewelry, etc.

Operationalization

Operationalization

• The process of specifying the operations that will indicate the value of cases on a variable

• The Measure (Or observation scheme)• The Application – Self administered questionnaire

• Male • E-Mail

– Interview• Face-to-face• Phone

• Scoring/ Coding/ Scaling

Exapmle

• Operationalize the effects of “Sending Flowers and Get well cards” to a Patient, as a method of “Increasing Health.”

• How will we measure “Increasing

• Health”of Patients ?• Shorter hospital stays – Operationalized as “Days spent in the hospital”• Normal heart rates and blood pressures –

Operationalized in “Beats per minute” and “Diastolic and systolic pressures”.

• Increased morale – Operationalized by asking patients a series of questions about their attitude, current outlook, emotions

Another example

• Economic circumstance (dimension)– Income (indicator)

• Q: How much is your monthly wage?• A: ………….. EUR

Sampling

Definitions

• Population– a group or class of subjects, variables, concepts, or

phenomena(pl. Population of Portugal, The students of University of Coimbra, the players of a sport club, etc.)

• Sample– is a subset of the population that is taken fromthe entire

population

• Parameter– A decisive characteristic of the population(pl. Partition of

sex, age, educational, etc. In the population)

• Estimate– The opinion developed in virtue of the sample.

Questions of sampling

• The size of the population– In small populations the questioning of the entire

population is available

• Time, human resource and money available for the research– If the entire population is diffused or not available, than it

could be impossible or expensive.

• Purpose and method of the research– Survey – asking as many individual as possible– Interview – Trying to ask the most significat ones

Concept

• Representative sample– A subset of a statistical population that accurately reflects

the members of the entire population. A representative sample should be an unbiased indication of what the population is like.

• For this, we must know– The characteristics of the population– The exact composition of the population

• Do we have these information?– If yes, we use probability samples– If no, we use non-probability samples

Research errors

• Sampling error– Too small sample– We do not inspecting the original population, but only a

fraction of it (Martian)

• Non sampling error– Errors in the data entry

Probability sampling

• Simple Random Sample – Each subject or unit in the population has an equal chance of

being selected. If a subject or unit is drawn from the population and removed from subsequent selections, the procedure is known as random sampling without replacement — the most widely used random sampling method.

– Advantages• 1. Detailed knowledge of the population is not required.• 2. External validity may be statistically inferred.• 3. A representative group is easily obtainable.• 4. The possibility of classification error is eliminated.

– Disadvantages• 1. A list of the population must be compiled.• 2. A representative sample may not result in all cases.• 3. The procedure can be more expensive than other methods.

Probability sampling• Systematic Sample

– We are providing the equal chances by selecting every e.g. 10th element of the population.

– But if we are sorting the sample in some criteria, then representativity is not fulfiled.– Advantages

• 1. Selection is easy.• 2. Selection can be more accurate than in a simple random sample.• 3. The procedure is generally inexpensive

– Disadvantages• 1. A complete list of the population must be obtained.• 2. Periodicity may bias the process

• Stratified sample– A stratified sample is the approach used when adequate representation from a sub

sample is desired. – The characteristics of the sub sample (strata or segment) may include almost any

variable: age, sex, religion, income level, or even individuals who listen to specific radio stations or read certain magazines.

– The strata may be defined by an almost unlimited number of characteristics; however, each additional variable or characteristic makes the sub sample more difficult to find.

Probability sample

• Cluster Sample – Select the sample in groups or categories.– With cluster sampling, one can divide the state into

districts, counties, or zip code areas and select groups of people from these areas.

Nonprobability sample• Not representative sample method• Available sample (also known as convenience sample)

– Is a collection of readily accessible subjects for study, such as a group of students enrolled in an introductory mass mediacourse, or shoppers in a mall.

– Although available samples can be helpful in collecting exploratory information and may produce useful data in some instances, the samples are problematic because they contain unknown quantities of error.

– Researchers need to consider the positive and negative qualities of available samples before using them in a research study.

• Quota Sampling– a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher ensures equal

or proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is considered as basis of the quota.

– For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs equal representation, with a sample size of 100, he must select 25 1st year students, another 25 2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students. The bases of the quota are usually age, gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.

Nonprobability sample• Judgmental (purposive) sampling

– In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in mind.

– With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are more fit for the research compared to other individuals. This is the reason why they are purposively chosen as subjects

• Consecutive sampling– Very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to include ALL

accessible subjects as part of the sample. – This non-probability sampling technique can be considered as the best of

all non-probability samples because it includes all subjects that are available that makes the sample a better representation of the entire population.

• Snowball sampling– Snowball Sampling is a method used to obtain research and knowledge,

from extended associations, through previous acquaintances, – “Snowball sampling uses recommendations to find people with the

specific range of skills that has been determined as being useful.”

When to use non-probability sampling• This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a

particular trait exists in the population.• It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a

qualitative, pilot or exploratory study.• It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the

population is almost limitless.• It can be used when the research does not aim to generate

results that will be used to create generalizations pertaining to the entire population.

• It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and workforce.

• This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out again using a randomized, probability sampling.

Sample size

• Always depends on the data collection method used

• Qualitative– In case of depth interview

• Few. Important that every group should be involved.

– Professional interview• We should ask as many professionals as we can, in order to have

the most adequate results.

– Not more than 100 individuals

Sample size

• Quantitative

– A sample under 30-40 is not statistically significant.

– More than 100 (a sample of 400 is satisfactory).

Sample size

• The size of the sample required for a study depends on at least one or more of the following seven points: – (1) project type, – (2) project purpose, – (3) project complexity, – (4) amount of error willing to be tolerated, – (5) time constraints, – (6) financial constraints, and– (7) previous research in the area.

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Scientific Research 01 04