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Scientific Thought in 1500• Based on ancient and medieval ideas
– Religion/Church• Based on Aristotle’s principles
– Belief in a motionless, static Earth at the center of the universe
– 10 crystal spheres moved around Earth– Difference b/w celestial spheres and Earth– Offered an understandable explanation for what people
saw– Fit in with Christian doctrine– Science is just a branch of religion, reinforced religion
Arguments for Aristotle• Heavens are in the realm of God – must be
perfect, no blemishes• Bible stories – state Earth is static• God created Earth in his own image – must
be center of universe, significant• Fixed stars are everlasting and unchanging –
others are optical illusions
Causes of Scientific Revolution• Medieval Universities provided framework
– Incorporated philosophy into the curriculum– Critically think about scientific problems
• Some monarchs supported science– Louis XIV and French Academy
• Renaissance stimulated science by rediscovering ancient mathematics– Patrons supported scientists
• Better ways of obtaining knowledge about the world– Navigation manuals – exploring
• Gresham College and Royal Society of London– Improved tools – telescopes, sextants– Improved the scientific method– Empirical, experimental research– Deductive reasoning– Graph equations
Role of Religion• All religions opposed Copernicus’ theories to some
extent• Initially – Protestant and Jewish leaders were more
hostile than Catholics– Exceptions: Netherlands, Denmark
• England – Royal Society • After Galileo’s trial – Catholics became more hostile• Many scientists thought their work exalted God
– Newton – devout Christian – believed he was explaining God’s message
Nicolaus Copernicus• Polish clergyman
and astronomer• Overturned the
Medieval view• Earth revolved
around sun • Heliocentric Theory
- sun is at the center of universe
• Conflicted with church
• Dedicated work to Pope
Tycho Brahe• Danish noble• Built an observatory
to study heavenly bodies
• Collected data on planetary movements
• Planets revolve around sun, sun and planets revolve around Earth
Johannes Kepler• German• 3 laws of planetary
motion:– Planetary orbits are
elliptical – Planets do not move at a
uniform speed– Time for orbit depends
on distance from sun• Proved mathematically
that sun is at center• Destroyed Aristotle
Galileo Galilei• Italian math professor • Discovered the laws of
motion using the experimental method– Acceleration experiment
• Law of inertia – object moves in continuous motion unless stopped by some external force
• Made his own telescope• 4 moons of Jupiter• Moon is not smooth• Tried for heresy but he
recanted
Newton• English• Synthesized the integral parts
into a whole• Integrated astronomy of
Copernicus with the physics of Galileo
• Stood on the “shoulders of giants”
• Set of mathematical principles to explain motion
• Law of Universal Gravitation– Every body in the universe
attracts every other body in a mathematical relationship
– Force depends on size of object and the distance between them
Francis Bacon• English politician and
writer• New knowledge =
empirical, experimental research
• Inductive reasoning –use logic, collect data, compare and analyze– Bring data together,
make conclusions
Rene Descartes• French philosopher• Analytic geometry• Cartesian Duality – world
is made up of the physical and spiritual
• Deductive reasoning –reduce to mind or matter
• Bacon + Descartes –scientific method
• Andreas Vesalius – founder of modern human anatomy
• William Harvey – blood is pumped through the veins by the heart
• Robert Hooke – founder of the “cell”• Robert Boyle – modern chemistry• Joseph Priestley – discovered oxygen• Antoine Lavoisier - Combustion• Zacharias Janssen – first microscope
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek – microbiology, bacteria in red blood cells
• Evangelista Torricelli - barometer• Gabriel Fahrenheit - mercury
thermometer• Anders Celsius – Celsius scale• Edward Jenner – vaccination for smallpox
Consequences
• Helped create the international scientific community – new social group
• New way of obtaining knowledge -Development of the scientific method
• Few economic/social consequences in the beginning – more of an intellectual revolution
IMPACT OF THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION• Before 1500, what was true or false was based on
ancient Greek/Roman authors or Bible• Scientists beliefs did not match ancient beliefs• Old ideas are replaced with new theories =
Scientific Revolution• Question Everything!• Use reason in the area of science –
now apply to all aspects of life
CRISIS IN EUROPEAN THOUGHT1) Crisis for the religious – Aristotle is disproved!
– Religious wars – is religious unity really necessary?
2) No real truths – can religion truth ever be known with absolute certainty?3) Travel Literature – shows many different beliefs and customs – who is right or wrong?4) Locke – human development is shaped by education and social institutions
– Humans are not born with certain ways of thinking
THE ENLIGHTENMENT(LATE 1600S TO 1700S)• Age of Reason – an
intellectual revolution• Geared toward upper and
middle classes3 CONCEPTS• Science and reason can
explain everything– Nothing accepted on faith– Rationalism
• Scientific method – explains society and nature
• Progress
WHY DOES IT MATTER NOW?• Freedoms and some forms of government in many countries today are a result of Enlightenment thinking
• Era where man transitioned – from being chained by the accepted beliefs of the church to being free to think for themselves!
Old Way ofThinking
New Way of Thinking
• Superstition
• Rituals
• Accepted beliefs of Church
• Ignorance
• Reason
•Creativity
• Progress
• More opportunities for the talented, hardworking, intelligent
BEGAN IN FRANCE – WHY?• French was the international language of
the educated classes– Cultural leader, wealth, more people
• Not as many restraints• Philosophes asked many fundamental
philosophical questions about life– Spread messages through satire and double
meanings– Novels, plays, histories, dictionaries, etc.
• “The Public” – educated upper and comfortable middle classes
THOMAS HOBBES
• All humans are naturally selfish and wicked
• Without government to keep order, there would be a war of every man against every man
• Leviathan
THOMAS HOBBES (CONT).• Social Contract – agreement between
people and government, involving rights and responsibilities
– To escape war, people need to give up rights to a ruler
– In exchange for rights, people get law and order
– People DO NOT have the right to rebel, no matter how unjust
– Monarch’s responsibility to protect people from themselves
JOHN LOCKE• People are naturally
reasonable and moral• Tabula Rasa – “blank
slate” – at birth– Learn from experience– Essay Concerning Human
Understanding• Second Treatise of Civil
Government - People have natural rights belonging to all that govt should protect– life, liberty, property
JOHN LOCKE (CONT).• Social Contract – needed to keep order
– Government’s responsibility to protect natural rights
– People’s right to make sure government is limited and powers are acceptable to all citizens
– If government fails in duties, people’s right to overthrow
• People can choose their government – power comes from the consent of the people –foundation of democracy
BERNARD DE FONTENELLE(FRENCH) • Stressed the idea of
progress – don’t look back to ancients
• Made science witty and entertaining for a broad nonscientific audience
• Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds
• Skeptical of absolute truth and organized religion
PIERRE BAYLE (FRENCH)
• French Huguenot expelled by Louis XIV
• Historical and Critical Dictionary
• Skeptic– Nothing can be known
beyond all doubt – especially religious truth
– Humanity's best hope –open-minded toleration
MONTESQUIEU(FRENCH)• Persian Letters
– Persian travelers who criticize European customs and practices
• Spirit of Laws– Compared governments
– Separation of powers
– Checks and balances
– Liked England’s govt
FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET “VOLTAIRE”
• Imprisoned in the Bastille• Royal historian in France• Humans cannot govern
themselves• Best hope – a good monarch• Challenged Catholic theology
– God - Great Clockworker –built it, then let it run
• Freedom of religion and speech
• Candide
MADAME D’CHATELET
• Companion to Voltaire
• Passion for science
• Excluded because of her sex
• Translated Newton’s work into French
DIDEROT AND D’ALEMBERT
• Editors of the 17 volume Encyclopedia– Collection of articles
– Summed up the new world-view
• Banned by Church – put on Index– Anyone who read or bought it -
excommunication
THE LATER ENLIGHTENMENT• More rigid, dogmatic systems• Baron Paul d’Holbach – humans are machines
completely determined by outside forces– System of Nature– Atheist– Free will, God, immorality of soul – foolish myths
• David Hume – human mind is a bundle of impressions – senses
– Undermines Enlightenment use of reason
• Marie-Jean Caritat and Jean Jacques Rousseau
MARIE-JEAN CARITATTHE MARQUIS DE CONDORCET
• Fought slavery – Society of the Friends of Blacks
• Progress of the Human Mind
• 9 stages of human progress had already occurred
• 10th - perfection
ROUSSEAU• Attacked Enlightenment
ideas
• Reason and civilization destroys the individual
• Must also rely on emotion and instinct
• Social Contract– General will – interests of
the people (not necessarily the majority)
– Govt should make decisions based on general will
THE SPREAD OF IDEAS• Market for books grew
– Popular titles on various subjects
– Illegal book trade – books that denounce political figures or are pornographic
– Reading Revolution - nature of reading changes –individual and silent
– Call for autonomy of the written word – no censorship
• Salons – social gatherings of intellectuals– In the homes of rich women – Madame Geoffrin
– Involved discussion and debate
ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM
• Most Enlightenment thinkers thought political change came from above – from the king/queen
– Monarchy so deeply rooted – can’t get rid of it completely
• Absolute rulers had “mixed” results ruling in an enlightened manner
FREDERICK THE GREAT OF PRUSSIA• Not like his father the Soldier King
• Liked poetry and the arts
• Tried to run away with best friend at age 18
• Caught and was forced to watch as his best friend was beheaded
FREDERICK THE GREAT OF PRUSSIA
• Built on the accomplishments of his father• When Maria Theresa became Empress of Austria, others
swarmed her land – War of Austrian Succession– Frederick won Silesia from Maria Theresa during the War of
Austrian Succession (1740-1748)• Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
– Doubled population and made Prussia powerful• He fought successfully to defend Prussia from external
threats. – 7 Years War (1756-1763) – everyone attacked Prussia (except
England who defended them)• Peter III of Russia called off attack
FREDERICK THE GREAT OF PRUSSIA• Allowed religious freedom
• Promoted education-no censorship
• Legal reform – laws simplified, no torture, judges decided cases quickly and impartially
• Reconstructed agriculture and industry
• He was unwilling to change Prussia’s social structure
• Rejected calls for civil rights for Jews
– Moses Mendelssohn – spoke out for Jewish rights, reason can strengthen religion
– Jews lived in ghettos, couldn’t participate in activities, could be expelled at any moment
CATHERINE THE GREAT OF RUSSIA• German princess but related to the Romanovs of Russia
• Chosen to be wife of Peter III
– Was quiet in the beginning and studied Enlightenment thought
• Peter came to throne and ordered off attack of Frederick II (Prussia) during 7 Years War
• Catherine conspired with military leaders to depose Peter III in a palace revolution
– Her lover, Gregory Orlov, and his brothers then murdered Peter
CATHERINE THE GREAT OF RUSSIA
• Imported Western culture to Russia– Imported Western architects, sculptors, musicians and
intellectuals– Patronized philosophes –Voltaire, Diderot
• Domestic reform – better laws, no torture, religious toleration, improved education, strengthened local govt.
– The Pale of Settlement – region set aside for Jews to live
RUSSIA• Pugachev’s rebellion – Emelian Pugachev
(Cossack) led uprising of serfs – Proclaimed himself the true tsar and declared
serfdom, taxes, and army service abolished– Slaughtered landlords & officials– Captured and savagely executed– Put an end to Catherine’s efforts to reform
serfdom – gave nobles absolute control over serfs
• Expansion of Russia – Split up Poland between Russia, Prussia, Austria
AUSTRIAN HABSBURGS• Maria Theresa (1740-1780)
– Limited power of papacy in her realm– Administrative reforms, revamped tax system– Improved agricultural population (serfs)
• Joseph II (1780-1790)– Joseph II pursued reforms aggressively
• Religious toleration to Protestants and Jews• Abolished serfdom
– His rapid reforms sent Austria into turmoil and, after Joseph’s death, his brother Leopold II was forced to repeal his radical edicts.
ABSOLUTISM IN FRANCE• Louis XV – Louis XIV’s great-grandson – 5 years old
– Duke of Orleans rules in the meantime– Nobility made a comeback – High courts of France (parlements) became a check on absolute
power• Evaluated monarch’s laws before they are given force
• Financial difficulties (wars) forced French monarchs to tax people – regardless of social class
– Parlement of Paris – rejected taxes– Louis had to Absolutely demolish them!
• Hired Rene de Maupeou as chancellor to crush the judges– Abolished Parlements and exiled judges
• Created a new docile parlement
• Louis XVI – weak and eager to please – all reforms taken back
OVERALL INFLUENCE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT• French absolutism declined - weak
• Eastern and east-central Europe – ruler must make reforms
• Absolutist monarchs wanted reforms that would strengthen the state
– Humane laws = productive people = better country• Stronger state = more power internationally
– Catherine – nobility
– Frederick – status quo
– Joseph – peasants