UNIVERSITY OF ZULULANDFACULTY OF ARTS

Department of Communication Science

Social Change and Development Communication

(ACOM311)

Lecturer:P. Moodley Arts Building

JANUARY – JUNE

2011

COURSE OUTLINE

Course DescriptionThe course focuses on theoretical analysis of the relationship between social change, development and communication. It will guide you through the principles of Social Change and Development Communication from various current sources from Public Relations, Media, Academic and Individual self-awareness of change and development around the community and workplace.

Learning Outcomes

After this course you should: Understand the relationship between social change,

development and communication

Be able to define social change

Be able to define development communication and the key circumstances in which development can take place

Understand the role of communication practitioners as change agents

Analyse/develop a development communication case study/strategy

Be able to define development challenges in South Africa

Table of Contents Pg

1. Welcoming of students 032. Course weekly outline 043. Lecture Time Table 05

2

4. Course rules 055. Referencing 106. Study Unit 1: Culture and Communication 147. Study Unit 2: How societies change & develop 188. Study Unit 3: Early theories of social change and development 219. Study Unit 4: Development communication 2410. Study Unit 5: The dominant paradigm in development 3011. References 34

1. Kind Wishes

Dear Student

The Department of Communication Science welcomes you to your third year of

study at the University of Zululand. This is the will be an exciting stage of your life

because you will be finalizing the goals you set for yourself two years ago will be

determining how they will be fulfilled. You will soon be a member of the academic

community; and you will be expected to live up to their high standards of

excellence! You will achieve this through dedication and commitment to the

academic programme set for you. Social Change & Development

3

Communication is challenging, exciting and dynamic; it is therefore the objective

of this course to provide students with the understanding of theory and practice

that makes ACOM311 A more efficient course. This guide is designed and

planned for you and contains information that will help you plan for the year.

Should you require any other information, please feel free to contact the staff

members in the Department. Prescribed books are available at the library and it

is important for you to obtain a copy because most of the work that will be done

is contained in the books.

2. Campus

This module is currently offered only at KwaDlangezwa, the University of

Zululand’s main Campus.

KwaDlangezwaPrivate Bag X1001KwaDlangezwa3886

Website: http://www.comsci.uzulu.ac.za

COURSE PLANNING OUTLINEWEE

KDATE & ACTIVITIES TICK

1. February 2010

Introduction: The First, Second & Third Worlds

Study Unit One

2. March 2010

Study Unit Two

1st Assessment (5%) 10 March 2010

4

Major Assignment (20%)

Study Unit Three

3. April 2010

Study Unit Four

2nd Assessment (10%)14 April 2010

4. May 2010

Study Unit Five

3rd Assessment (15%) 5 May 2010

5. (June) 2010

Examination (50%)

LECTURE TIME TABLEDAYS VENUE TIME

Monday NE026 08h30

Wednesday NE026 07h30

Thursday NE026 09h30

COURSE RULES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

1. Attendance to Lecturers

5

Attendance to lecturers is compulsory. An attendance register will be

taken at every lecture. Should you become ill, submit a copy of the

medical certificate to your lecturer. Any other reasons for your

absenteeism will have to be given to your lecturer in writing.

2. Assessments and tests These must be written according to the official time-table. If a

student is prevented from doing so, the student must inform the

lecturer before the commencement of the test

The student must also produce a medical certificate, covering the

full period of absence, immediately upon return.

Should the student not write that test for non-medical reasons, then

they will receive 0% (zero) for that test. There will be no re-

evaluation under these circumstances.

3. Assignments Assignments are to be submitted during the lecturer period

(unless otherwise stipulated by the lecturer)

Meet deadlines and due dates as stipulated in the course outline.

Marks will be deducted for each day that the assignment is not

late.

Submit original work, no plagiarizing or cheating. Abide by the

University’s policies on Plagiarism and Cheating.

4. Course MarkYou will be assessed on four different occasions during the learning

process of this course:

I. Major assignment (20%)

II. Assessment 1 (5%)

III. Assessment 2 (10%)

IV. Assessment 3 (15%)

6

V. Examination: (50%)

These will be based on the following:

continuous formative assessments

assignments

projects

oral presentations

group work/presentations

attendance to lectures

other class activities

5. Code of conduct Attend ALL lectures, seminars and practical work as stipulated in

subject outlines

Ensure prompt lecture attendance

SWITCH OFF cellular phone during lecture

No eating during a lecture

Conduct yourself in an orderly fashion and proper manner during the

lecture or in any other place where such activity will adversely affect

the working environment of others

Do not LOITER about within the lecture halls

Consultation with the academic staff should be done in an orderly

manner

6. Consultation TimesStudents are welcome to consult the lecturer regarding problems during

the times stipulated by the lecturer (See times on the lecturer’s office door)

7. General Guidelines Reading is the KEY instrument for successful completion of

assignments. Ensure that you read your key texts and other related

7

material found in the library and internet before attempting your

assignment.

Take notes while reading shaping a mind-map where you write

questions and then work out a structure as to how you are going to

answer the question.

Dates of assignments and assessments are provided in advance so

that you have adequate study and preparation time. If you miss an

assignment deadline, your assignment will not be accepted and you

will be given a ZERO. Should you experience problems, speak to

your lecturer before the assignment is due and not on the due

date.

Assignments must be TYPED.

Font size should be 12 and you should use either Arial/Times New

Roman.

Use 1.5 line spacing.

8. Cover PageEnsure that the following appears on the front page of every assignment:

Name and Surname

Student registration number

Due date

The Topic

Lecturer’s name

9. Content of written assignment Your written assignment should consist of the following:

Table of contents

An introduction – this should briefly explain how you intend to

answer the question (provide aims of the assignment)

The main section of your assignment will consist of all the readings.

This must be arranged in a logical way and should be the most

8

important part of your assignment. You should ensure that you have

answered the question.

Your conclusion should consist of a summary of the main points.

List of references/bibliography

10. Important terms to consider for your assignment analyse make a detailed examination of your topic and

focus on strengths and weaknesses

assess weigh up pros and cons and give your opinion

compare weigh up similarities and consider the difference

contrast analyse differences, but also comment on similarities

criticize express reasoned opinion of the validity of the

topic (emphasising the weakness)

define set out the exact meaning of concepts

discuss examine all aspects of the topic, point out strengths and weaknesses and come to

conclusion

evaluate means the same as the assess

explain show why a set of circumstances has arise. Do not just state the facts – give reasons for the

facts

illustrate make the concept clear by using examples and diagrams

justify give adequate grounds for your conclusion

list enumerate, name set your information out in

point form

outline get out the main points; leave out any detail

review critically survey the subject, highlighting the main points

9

trace state the development and the consequences of events from a given starting point

skimming read the text fast (without reading every word)

scanning headings, summaries, keywords, figures and graphs to give you a brief overview of

the material

REFERENCING YOUR WORK11. Referencing

is a standardized method of acknowledging printed or electronic

sources of information and ideas that you have used in your essay

or assignment. Direct quotations, facts and figures and ideas and

theories from published and unpublished works, must be

referenced. There are many acceptable forms/styles of referencing

and the reference list at the end of your essay gives full details of

all your in-text citations.

Test your knowledge?

10

What is the difference between a reference list and a bibliography?

Why include references? To demonstrate that you have read widely and have a broad

appreciation of the subject-matter for example naming

leading theorists in the field

To document the sequential development of knowledge and

understanding in a particular field

To provide illustrative examples of a particular theme

To introduce a discussion within your essay for example

using a quotation which summarises a point of view

To substantiate your essay arguments

12. Referencing examples12.1 Book references

Books with a single author

Steinberg, S. 2007. An introduction to communication studies. Cape Town: Juta & Company.

NB. The title of the book is always in italics

Books with two authors

Mersham, G. & Skinner, C. 2005. New Insights into Communication & Media. Cape Town: Heinnemann.

NB. Always cite both authors everytime the reference occurs.

Books with three or more authors

Platt, J., Richards, J. & Webber, H. 1992. Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics. Essex: Longman.

NB. Cite three or more authors the first time the reference occurs

in your text and in subsequent citations only the name of the first author followed by et al (‘and others’).

Books with unknown authors

11

DoE Strategic Planning. Pretoria 2007.

Books with editor/s and editions other than the first.

Trimmer, FJ. & McCrimmon, JM. 1988. Writing with a purpose. 9th

edn. Boston: Houghton.

Two books by the same author in the same year.

Silva, T. & Matsuda, PK. Eds. 2001a. On second language writing. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Silva, T. & Matsuda, PK. Eds. 2001b. On second language writing. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

NB. The date is followed by a or b.

Articles or chapters in edited books.

Skinner, C. & Mersham, G. 1998. Public relations: A vital communication function of our times (347-372). In De Beer, AS. Ed. Mass Media towards the millennium: The South African handbook of mass communication. Hatfield: J.L. van Schaik.

NB. The chapter page numbers can be given in brackets either after the chapter’s title or after the publisher. Bibliographic

detail of the book starts with In after the chapter details. The title of the book is in italics NOT the title of the chapter.

Encyclopaedias

Social relationships. 200. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 26: 543-556

NB. The place of publication and name of publisher are not necessary.

Dictionaries

Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary. 6th edn.. 2000. Oxford: OUP.

12.3 Journal, magazine and newspaper references

Articles with one to two authors.

12

Luckett, K. & Chick, JK. 1998. Linguistic description in the service of history. South African Journal of Linguistics, 16(3): 81-95.

NB. The name of the journal is always in italics, followed by the journal volume, number and page references. For citing of authors, follow the guideline for books.

Weekly and monthly periodicals

Corbet-Owen, C. 2007. December. It’s all in the mind. The Oprah Magazine. 79-80.

Articles in daily newspapers.

Waterworth, T. 2008. Crime Clout. Weekend Zululand Observer: 1-2. November 28.

NB. Treat newspapers like magazines or journals. A colon follows the title of the newspaper then the page reference is given. The month and day of publication follow the page reference.

12.3 Electronic references

World Wide Web (www) page references

Developing a strategic plan for educational leadership. 2004.Available from http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/CONF/EdPlan.html [Accessed 16 May 2004]

For further reference style refer to the following book:

Sandra, C. 2008. ed. Communication: A hands on approach. Lansdowne: Juta & Company.

13

STUDY UNIT 1

1. Culture and communication as a mainstreamYou studied the concept of communication in Steinberg’s (2007) Communication

studies: an introduction, which deals with various aspects of communication.

1.1 Culture

:  is a shared, learned, symbolic system of values, beliefs and attitudes that shapes and influences perception and behavior -- an abstract "mental blueprint" or "mental code."

Culture provides the context in which communication takes place, which proves

that communication does not occur in a vacuum. Communication allows culture

to develop, maintain and perpetuate itself and is the process through which

culture is transmitted (Faure, Parry & Sonderling, 2000:10). It has a multitude of

14

definitions like communication, from linear where the recipient is passively

accepting the message to negotiation of meaning to establish and maintain

relationship. Can you think of a definition of culture?

1.2 Cultural variables that influence our perception of others

1.2.1 Language;

Language is often the most difficult cultural variable because you use language

to convey your beliefs, values and norms. Language reflects a culture and

transmits meaning and moulds your patterns of thought. Your understanding of

language may differ, for example Westerners view speech as a way to express

ideas and thoughts, clearly and as logically as possible, while in some eastern

cultures words are only a part of and inseparable from the total communication

context. The link between language and culture can also lead to

misunderstandings, for instance translations from one language to another.

Example:

In the English the idiom “the grass is always greener on the other side ”will be

understood by English speakers to mean that prospects elsewhere always seem

more attractive, however this English idiom will not necessarily be understood by

South Africans who have other languages as their mother tongues.

1.2.2. Non verbal communication

While language is usually expressed through your cognition, your nonverbal

communication is spontaneous and ambiguous and is often misinterpreted. Non

verbal communication includes categories, such as kinesics ( body movement,

posture and gestures) proxemics (the distance between people ), haptics (touch),

chronemics (time) and paralanguage ( how loudly or softly you speak). The

greatest barrier in nonverbal intercultural communication is that you do not

always understand the nonverbal communication of people from other cultures.

Example

For instance, direct eye contact when you talk to a superior (kinesics) is a sign of

respect for certain Westerners, however in some traditional African cultures

15

lowering your eyes in conversation with a superior is often regarded as a sign of

respect.

1.2.3 Cultural world-view

In order to understand the role of cultural world-view, you must distinguish

between the three general cultural world-views, namely the Afrocentric,

Eurocentric, and Asiocentric world views, which are also applicable to South

Africa. The Afrocentric world view is sometimes described as personalistic

intuitive and based on the ubuntu philosophy. The Eurocentric world view is

often viewed as individualistic, rational and goal- oriented in nature. The

Asiocentric world view sees materialism as an illusion and claims reality is linked

to the spiritual. Your cultural world view includes your specific cultures

interpretation of the world and how your life is influenced by interpersonal

relationships, the period in which you live and your natural surroundings.

Example

For example, a South Africa some cultures which have an Afrocentric world view

will consult a sangoma. For cultural groups who have an Asiocentric or

Eurocentric world view the consulting of a sangoma may seem strange and

unfamiliar.

1.2.4 Perception

Your perception of people and objects is mainly culturally determined. In other

words how you experience the universe and the people living in it is formed by

the culture you identify with. Perception is an internal process by which you

select, evaluate and organize stimuli from your external environment. Your often

biased perception of people from other groups or cultures can lead to conflict and

ineffective intercultural communication.

Example

Perception can play a part in the organisation where you work. For example,

how many male secretaries or data typists work for the managing director of a

company or organisation? The chances are that there are not many. Is this due

to the perception that women are better suited to secretarial work?

1.2.5 Values and attitudes

16

Your values are formed after an extensive period of considering the value of

ideas, people, places and practices. Values also look at qualities, such as

morality, usefulness and pleasure and are linked to the desired objectives of

social life. Many of your opinions and attitudes towards people from other

cultural groups reflects your deep-rooted and fundamental value system.

Cultural values are based on fixed rules and are often normative, they inform

members of a specific culture about what is “moral”, immoral”, “true” and “false”.

Your cultural values point to which behaviours are important in your culture and

which must be avoided in your culture.

Example

For example, in a Western culture, you may learn the value that the individual is

more important than the group. Conversely in an African culture, you may learn

that there is more concern with ubuntu values, which focus on mutual

understanding and on the individual as well as the group.

1.2.6 Attitudes

While cultural values tend to be long-lasting , attitudes are somewhat more

flexible. The culture of which you are a member teaches you its attitudinal

framework, in other words how to evaluate people, events or ideas from your

environment. Attitudes therefore provide you with a framework of how to react

when you meet people who are froma different cultural background. You should

take into account that different cultural goups attitudes towards the same stimuli

may differ considerably.

Example

For instance, the attitude of some communications students towards abortion

might be that it is a form of murder, or conversely others may feel that a woman

has the right to decide whether or not she wishes to have an abortion.

1.2.7 Prejudice

Prejudice refers tot eh emotional component or to your reactions to members of

other cultural groups. Prejudice includes the prejudging of other cultural groups

based on limited knowledge, minimal contact and ignorance. Prejudice can be

viewed as a rigid attitude based on mistaken perceptions and inflexible

17

generalizations. Prejudice can be directed towards a group as a whole or

towards an individual as a member of that group. Prejudice towards groups that

differ from your own group as a universal aspect of human behaviour and is often

learnt during the socialization process.

Example

Part of your prejudice may be the issue of language. For instance if you are Zulu

speaking you may have a white friend who cannot speak Zulu or any other

African language – rather than being prejudiced you could assist him or her to

learn Zulu.

1.2.8. Stereotypes

Stereotypes refer to beliefs about people, or generalizations that people make

about others or pictures in your head tht you have of people from other cultural

groups. During intercultural communication you come into contact with people

who have unknown characteristics and who are different from you. You

consequently develop general categories, according wot which you classify

people and thus attach stereotypes to certain groups. Stereotypes often have

negative consequences which can hamper positive reaction with a negatively

stereotyped group.

Example

For example, in South Africa you may stereotype all white people as racists,

which is certainly not the case when you meet and get to know them. Think for

instance of Bram Fischer the Afrikaans speaking advocate who was detained

and jailed by the former “apartheid” regime because he worked for the ANC.

1.2.9 Group identity

Group identity can be seen as the way in which an individual identifies with and is

accepted into a group that has shared norms, rules, meaning and symbols.

Group identity thus refers t a personal affiliation with people with whom you share

certain things, such as language, nonverbal communication and world view. T eh

type of group to which you belong can be involuntary or voluntary. Involuntary

identity groups are groups that you belong to but have no control over. For

example, men regardless of culture race or language are physically

18

distinguishable from women. On the other hand a cultural identity group is based

on cultural rather than biological differences. In some instances cultural identity

groups can be voluntary.

Example.

For example, if Xhosa speaking, Zulu speaking, Tswana speaking or Afrikaans

speaking South Africans become members of either the ANC or the IFP, they

thus identify with their chosen political party. In other words, although they may

belong to different cultural groups, their identification is therefore with the specific

party of their choice.

1.3 Uncertainty Reduction Theory

reduction uncertainty in behavior

1.3.1 History and Orientation

Uncertainty reduction theory (URT) was initially presented as a series of axioms

(universal truths which do not require proof and theorems (propositions assumed

to be true) which describe the relationships between uncertainty and several

communication factors. URT was developed to describe the interrelationships

between seven important factors in any dyadic exchange: verbal communication,

nonverbal expressiveness, information-seeking behavior, intimacy, reciprocity,

19

similarity, and liking. This theoretical perspective was originated by C.R. Berger

and Calabrese in 1975; they drew on the work of Heider (1952).

 

1.3.2 Core Assumptions and Statements

Core: Uncertainty is unpleasant and therefore motivational; people communicate

to reduce it. Uncertainty reduction follows a pattern of developmental stages

(entry, personal, exit). During the entry stage information about another’s sex,

age, economic or social status, and other demographic information is obtained.

Much of the interaction in this entry phase is controlled by communication rules

and norms. When communicators begin to share attitudes, beliefs, values, and

more personal data, the personal stage begins. During this phase, the

communicators feel less constrained by rules and norms and tend to

communicate more freely with each other. The third stage is the exit phase.

During this phase, the communicators decide on future interaction plans. They

may discuss or negotiate ways to allow the relationship to grow and continue.

However, any particular conversation may be terminated and the end of the entry

phase. This pattern is especially likely to occur during initial interaction, when

people first meet or when new topics are introduced later in a relationship.

Besides the stages in uncertainty reduction patterns makes Berger a distinction

between three basic ways people seek information about another person: (1)

Passive strategies - a person is being observed, either in situations where the

other person is likely to be self-monitoring* as in a classroom, or where the other

person is likely to act more naturally as in the stands at a football game. (2)

Active strategies - we ask others about the person we're interested in or try to set

up a situation where we can observe that person (e.g., taking the same class,

sitting a table away at dinner). Once the situation is set up we sometime observe

(a passive strategy) or talk with the person (an interactive strategy). (3)

Interactive strategies - we communicate directly with the person.

20

People seek to increase their ability to predict their partner’s and their own

behavior in situations. One other factor which reduces uncertainty between

communicators is the degree of similarity individuals perceive in each other (in

background, attitudes and appearance).

Statements: the axioms in URT follow the “If… then…” statements typical of the

law-governed approach. For example: “If uncertainty levels are high, the amount

of verbal communication between strangers will decrease.”

*Self-monitoring is a behavior where we watch and strategically manipulate how

we present ourselves to others.

 1.3.3 Conceptual Model

 

Uncertainty Reduction Model

Source: Heath & Bryant (1999)

 1.3.4.Summary

The basic assumptions :

1. there is anxiety due to inability to predict the outcome of a situation

2. a stranger is a member of an outgroup

3. the ïn ”group is problematic, for instance language and nonverbal

communication are different

4. there are stereotypes

21

5. adaptation is traumatic

6. This theory attempt to articulate the relationship between intercultural

encounters, culture shock and adaptive transformation.

7. intercultural communication may be interpreted as either negative or as a

growth experience

8. Patterns of encoding and decoding are different because of culture

differents.

9. culture is viewed as the collective life-patterns shared by people in

different groups.

10. There is a change in cognitive behaviour patterns

11. there is stress due to accommodation and adaptation

12.culture shock is part of the process of learning

13. there is tolerance of cultural differences

14. individualism triumphs over stereotypes.

1.4 Global cultureA world market for new goods, material and nonmaterial is developing very

rapidly. This market is not restricted to material goods only. There is also an

electronic highway in the nonmaterial world, an infrastructure that enables

individual consumer to watch films and television programmes, consult libraries,

go shopping whilst relaxing at home at any moment of the day. The telephone,

television and computer is the transport in this electronic highway. We don’t go to

the world but the world will come to us. Information will reach virtually all corners

of the world for both education and amusement. A world culture is in the making,

influenced by the West.

1.5 Culture of exclusionOpportunities are there but who can grasp them? To what extent are people

likely to participate? The picture is very grim, numbers of the poor are on the

increase, while at the same time, a minority of the population with access to

22

knowledge and capital is becoming richer, in both the developed and third world

countries alike.

The poor are faced with tantalizing visions of wealth that are broadcasted all over

the world. But like mirages, they retreat when you approach them. Human

communication worldwide is commercialization and consumerism. Advertisement

manufacture needs: they exploit the desire individuals feel to define a distinctive

identity. They fuel rising expectations for poor people.

The poor are also excluded from cyberspace which was originally designed for

scientists, communication, this medium only reaches an educated audience.

Exclusion is not only an economic phenomenon, it has social and political

consequences as well. It also has a major cultural dimensions. “Thinking people

away”, people being objects rather than human beings. This leads to a culture of

disdain – blaming people for their fate, poverty, their foreignness rather than

blaming the system. Blame the system not the victims of the system itself.

The result is a culture of alienation people not belonging to a community, not

being taken care of. This may breed a culture of violence and oppression which

is one of the major dangers of this century.

1.6 Loss of cultureIn this divided world the social fabric of many communities is being destroyed.

The main culprits are the differences in access to the global culture and the loss

of cultural values due to commercialization of the channels of information. When

people are displaced, production systems are dismantled, kinship groups are

scattered, long-established settlements are disorganized.

People’s lives are affected in very painful ways. Many jobs and assets are lost,

healthcare tends to deteriorate. Links between producers and their customers

are severed, and local labour markets are disrupted. Informal social networks are

23

dissolved. Traditional community and authority systems can lose their leaders,

Symbolic markers, such as ancestral shrines and graves are abandoned,

breaking links with the past and with peoples’ cultural identities.

Urbanization is destructive in the developing countries. People are drifting away

from their social moral and cultural moorings. In the midst of this flux, society is

failing to create new structures and rules to replace the old ones. The West has

been passing through a period of rising crime and family breakdown for many

decades, but the West has been able to absorb many of the stresses and strains

placed on its social fabric by creating sophisticated services, institutions,

counseling, advice centres and hotlines to help at least some of those in need.

In countries like India, urban society is going through such an accelerated stage

of transition that even sociologists have not quite mapped out the new

landscape, there is no provision at all for such strains. It is in this grey area

between the loss of the old and the absence of anything new that anger,

unchannelled and unfocused, is exploding with little to contain it.

Communities feel threatened by rapid societal changes with which they cannot

cope. They may disintegrate and dissolve into bigger entities or they may search

for and return to old values and traditions. The scope of interest narrows down to

the family, the clan or the tribe and an effort is made to preserve cultural

identities. Those who wish to do so deserve support and ensure that cultures

survive. The interaction between cultures should never become a one-way street,

in which Western norms and values are a predominant force.

1.6 Toward an open societyThe biggest challenge that face today’s leaders is steering between the global

culture and traditional cultures at regional and local levels. If globalization does

not respect regional and local variations in the global pattern, it would be like a

body without a soul. The ultimate goal should be an open society, based on

individual freedom, in which different cultural communities can peacefully coexist.

24

A society in which, neighbours respect each other even if they do not belong to

the same “tribe”.

The best way is to strengthen the social fabric and remove fear. People should

give direction to their own lives, not excluded from society but being part of it.

Harvest crops in their little plot of land or earn a salary, or have access to credit

to create their own income. Education should be a valuable tool in increasing

mutual understanding, as well as literature, music and sport. Finally, human

rights should be respected, while conflicts cannot be prevented, they should be

managed and limited so that they do not escalate to violence

Culture is like a river which is a source of life where we bathe and drink its water.

The river is fed by little streams which provide fresh water, they should not be cut

off for then the river would become turbid and stagnant, without the river, the land

goes barren. If the river develops into a torrent or flood, it can be a devastating

force. It should then be canalized to save lives. We must steer cautiously and

slowly in the middle and be aware that culture, although not a panacea, should

always be mainstream.

Study unit 2

Globalisatin and interntional communication: an introduction

Overview:

In this study unit, we cite practical examples to illustrate the implications of

glovalisation and provide a borad definition. We also show that globalisation is a

complex process with two discernible dimenstions: one horizontal, the other

vertical. We go on to explain how the process of globalisation may be observed

in the economic, social, cultural and political domains. Then we discuss the

25

concept “international communication”and its role in globalisation. Finally we

demarcate the field of staudy of international communication.

Learning Outcomes

After completing this study unit you should be able to show how globalisation and

international communication

Affect your personal, social and work environment

Are changing the world we live in.

2. 1. Introduction

Scenario A: An academic is researching community life in Central African

villages. While doing fieldwork in a remote area she is invited to the home of a

local resident for an evenings entertainment. She is very excited at the prospect

of experience ing the traditional culture of this remote, isolated community. To

her disappointment they spend the evening watching a video of Basic Instinct- a

film which was not yet showing in London movie houses at that stage

( Giddens1999:1)

Scenario B: It is ten o’clock in the evening. At Berlins Tegel airport a friendly

voice informs the weary passengers that they can board their flight to Hamburg.

But the announcers voice is not coming from within the airport building, or

anwhere in the vicinity. The speaker is a woman sitting at a console in California.

After 18:00 Berlin, time, thanks to modern communication technologies, Tegel

announcements are made from California. The reasons are obvious:

announcers in California do not require overtime wages, for it is still daytime

there. Besides, indirect labour costs are cheaper in the USA than in Germany.

( Beck 1999:1)

Scenario C: A member of PeaceNet Swedens staff was sitting at a computer

terminal when an urgent message flashed on the screen; Soviet tanks are

advancing on Leningrad! The alarming news of the coup in Russia came from

26

journalists of the Northwest news Service, a tiny news agency in St Petersburg.

Unable to contact the West telephonically, they forwarded the report via local

computer lines to a computer noticeboard in Estonia which is linked to PeaceNet

Sweden, PeaceNet Sweden, instantly sent the message to Green-Net their sister

company in London from where the news was distributed to news networks

throughout the world ( Frederick 1993:2)

These anecdotes reflect something of our modern world. We are living in a

constantly transforming world and this affects every aspect of our lives. Whether

we like it or not, we are increasingly part of a global order which even the most

knowledgeable experts understand only partially. Nontheless nobody can

escape the consequences and implications ( Giddens 1999:1)

This is what is known as globalisation. The fact that the term has become a buzz

word all over the world reflects some of the processes and developments to

which it refers. Because the term “globalisation”has become so popular an is so

widely used there is a lot of confusion about its exact meaning and the processes

involved. Often peoples perception of globalisation depends on their profession,

field of study or interests. Thus business people or students of the economic

sciences will se it in exclusively economic or financial terms. A computer fundi

on the other hand will be thinking of the role of modern computer technology, and

a sociologist or professor of media studies of the impact of the mass media on

cultures and social relations around th world. In a way each of these views has

some truth, for globalisation is a complex, involved phenomenon which affects

different facts of life. On the other hand globalisation in any one field relates

closesly to globalisation in other fields and the term in fact refers to an integrated,

“global “process- one which affects society as a whole, involves all contemporary

economic, social, cultural and political phenomena, and whose manifestation isn

one domain meshes intricately with manifestations in other fields.

2.2. Globalisation

27

“Nothing will be done any more without the whole world meddling in it “( Paul

Valery quoted in Featherstone 1990:15)

The term “globalisation” generally refers to a rapidly evolving process entailing

the establishment of complex power and communication relations on a global

basis between societies, cultures, institutions and individuals. A hallmark of this

process is the transformation of temporal and spatial limitations, that is the

shrinking of distance as a result of a dramatic reduction in disparities of distance-

whether personally or by way of messages, images or graphics. Hence

“globalisation” implies that the world is in effect becoming “smaller”and that

people are drawing closer to each other. This process has reached virtually

every corner of the world. Time and labour saving production techniques ( eg

robot technology) and information and communication technologies to bridge

temporal and spatial disparities have helped to spread modern ideas,

technologies, and organizations from European and North American centres to

the furthest corners of the earth.

The compression of temporal and spatial disparities has also led to keener

awareness of the world as a whole. Hence apart from the objective fact of

globalisation there is also a subjective dimension which relates to peoples

greater awareness that they are part of a global scene.

As mentioned in the introduction, globalisation is a complex, composite process.

In the first place one can distinguish between two dimensions: horizontal and

vertical. The horizontal dimension entails a progressive compression of temporal

and sptial disparities, culminating in the fact that the world is becoming one

place, a single system. The vertical dimension compreises two processes. The

first is a trnd towards homogeneity, snchronisation, integration , unity and

universalism. The other is a trend towards localization, heterogeneity,

differentiation, diversity and particularism. Although several analysts

acknowledge the existence of these apparently contradictory processes, little is

know about their interrelationship. Nonetheless, it is widely accepted that they

28

are intrinsically connected and like the two sides of a coin, actually represent two

manifestations of a single process ( Servaes, Lie & Terzis 2000:58)

For this reason, Braman and Van Staden (2000: 3) prefer to speak of

“globalisations”in the plural, indicating that it is a multiple process which can be

observed in various fields, is experienced differently in each field and manifests

itself in diverse- even contradictory ways. The pluriform nature of globalisation

becomes clearer if we look at how it manifests itself in different domains.

2.3 The economic domain

Some people consider economic globalisation to be the driving force behind the

entire globalisation process. Others believe that economic globalisation would

not have been possible without rapid developments in information and

communication technologies. Either way, economic globalisation is an important

and mammoth phenomenon. In this section we explore the history of economic

globalisation, the driving forces behind it and two of its main facets. We also deal

with the role of international organizations and trade blocs, the hazards and

challenges associated with it and criticism of economic globalisation theory.

2.3.1Definition and history of economic globalisation

Economic globalisation may be defined as a process through which economic

activities are increasingly conducted at an international level. Economic

globalisation is characterized by an increasingly liberal approach to international

trade in goods and services and international capital flow. This implies reducing

obstacles in the form of trade restrictions and , in some instances, lifting them

altogether.

Economic globalisation is creating an integrated, transborder market for all

commodities. This integration does ot mean that there is just one global market

but that national ecnomies and markets are increasingly interdependent. No

market or economy can function in complete isolation any more. Because of the

29

rapid development of information and communication technologies, geographical

boundaries and temporal disparities are no longer a factor in international trade

and finance: a transborder or virtual market has come into being. Commodities

are anything that can be exchanged, borrowed, bought or sold; they include

money, physical products and services and information. Hamelink (1994:110)

describes economic globalisation as the emergence of global consumers who

insist on global services and products supplied by global distributors.

2.3.2. Globalisation of financial markets

In the present- day borderless economy capital flow is to longer restrict by

geographical or temporal limitations. Increasingly money is circulating outside

the jurisdiction of national governments ( Hamelink 1994:108). One could call it a

virtual financial market. Rastogi (1997:48) identifies three driving forces behind

the globalisation of financial markets:

World – wide deregulation of trade and financial markets: Deregulation

means that countries are abolishing various regulations that restrict the

flow of both commodities and capital to and from other countries. In other

words, countries are “opening up” their economies making them more

accessible.

Progress in information and communication technologies: Transactions

on financial markets are based on information flow. Modern information

and communication technologies facilitate information flow at tremendous

velocities. Information on financial markets is available world wide 24

hours a day and when there are new developments it is updated instantly.

Diverse developments such as the establishment of free trade zones, the

fall of communism and the switch to fluctuating exchange rates, the aging

of the world population, the growth of a middle class in developing

countries, and the revamping of pension schemes all contribute to a

growing supply of and demand for capital. There are still some obstacles

which the transborder economy has to overcome, such as legislative,

accounting and fiscal differences between countries. In addition not all

30

countries are equally keen on deregulating their economies. Although

these obstacles may delay the globalisation of financial markets they

cannot prevent it.

ACTIVITY: 1

What are the driving forces behind economic globalisation?

2.3.3 Hazards and challenges attached to economic globalisation

A major hazard attached to the borderless economy is that if one country or

region experiences an economic crisis the effects can spread across the

world. An example is the recent economic and political crisis in Zimbabwe. It

not only crippled the Zimbabwean economy but had a highly adverse effect

on the South African economy. The rand weakened considerably against the

dollar and the British pound and investor confidence in Southern Africa

declined.

Howard (1998:50) mentions other dangers attached to economic globalisation :

Overproduction

One of the challenges presented by increasing international trade is to balance

demand and supply. More and more companies are focusing their production on

international markets but are concentrating on ly on supply. As a result global

supply is exceeding global demand. Ne example is the motor industry. By the

year 2000 the total supply of car manufacturers world-wide would have reached

79 million vehicles. Whereas the global demand would be for 57 million only.

Competition.

The greater openness of the borderless economy stimulates competition and the

economic hegemony of the USA and Europe is increasingly threatened by

emerging countries in Aia and South America

31

Labour

One of the ideas behind multinational corporations is to shift production to

counries where labour is cheap. In the process there is a large scale exploitation

and there is growing pressure on multinational corporations from various quarters

to improve working conditions in their overseas plants.

Global leadership

In the discussion of the driving forces behind economic globalisation we referred

tot eh dwindling influence of the nation-state. Despite the fact that the world

economy is dominated by a handful of giant multinational corporations, they do

not do so in an ethical framework. Most of them operate purely in their own

interests.

The Social Domain

In the past social relations and the concept of community were largely confined

to face to face communication and interaction between people in the same

geographical space. Such communication centred mainly on issues of local

importance and was facilitated by a common local culture. Examples of this kind

of interaction are encounters in a coffee bar, interaction in the village square,

shaking hands when signing a contract where all the parties attend in person.

Emergence of the “Global village”

Nowadays neither dialogue and interaction nor the community is confined to just

one geographical space. The compression of time and space awhich

accompanies globalisation is causing a restructuring of social relations as well, in

the sense that they are extended globally. This means that communication

relations are no longer restricted to a particular place but are dispersed globally

or spatially. In effect, we have all become part of a nonspatial, unrestricted

community. The existence of such a community unconfined by distance, national

borders or other physical obstacles is made possible by modern information and

32

communication technologies which maintains communication relations

irrespective of time and space.

Social globalisation implies that the communication scholar Marshall McLuhan

STUDY UNIT 3

What is Social Change? Change that occurs from within a society

Members of a society are exposed to outside influence and new ideas;

gradual changes overtime in every society, since people increase their

ability to live a more satisfactory life through exploiting natural resources.

What does development refer to? Social change that is mainly directed and caused from outside a

society;

33

Change that is planned by persons that intentionally seek to introduce

new ideas into a society to achieve predefined goals;

A break from tradition and disruption of existing social relationships;

Imposing new ideas, practices and technologies on a society from the

outside.3. How societies change and developWestern societies are highly developed when compared to the underdeveloped

Third World countries. It is important to know how societies change and develop

as this would be valuable for the development of the Third World. About 20 000

years ago, people lived in hunter-gatherer societies where people collected fruit

and vegetables that grew naturally and hunted animals for their survival.

Gradually societies began to develop and change. However the development

pace was not the same for example, in Europe societies advanced faster than in

Africa, Asia and the Latin America, where advancement was more slowly.

The European societies developed through four historical periods of change or

revolutions known as agrarian, commercial, industrial and information

revolutions.

3.1 Agrarian revolutionThe early hunter-gatherer societies were nomadic and traveled in search for

food. Gradually, certain groups started to settle in fertile areas and started to

grow crops and tamed animals and began to depend on themselves rather than

on nature. This kind of development brought stability and improved the quality of

life.

More advanced methods and agricultural techniques helped to produce more

food and generated profits for these societies. Towns and villages were built and

a new economy based on exchange of goods developed. There was a great

increase in the value of land which became an important commodity, and society

was divided into groups of land owners and non-owners.

34

3.2 The commercial revolutionVoyages of discovery started between the 15th and 16th centuries during which

explorers traveled to far off lands. They were searching for knowledge and the

development of science and technology. Around the 17 th and 18th centuries,

improvement in transport and communication lead to more innovation and

promoted new economic ideas.

Merchant and entrepreneurs started to expand trade and commerce on

international scale and powerful European nations began their conquest and

colonization of other parts of the world.

3.3 The industrial revolutionDuring the 18th century, great technological innovations began to transform

economic and social structures of society. Small-scale farming communities were

suddenly replaced by large-scale factory production systems. There was a

decline for labour in agriculture and an increase in demand for labour in the

factories and this resulted in rapid growth of towns and cities. This process is

called urbanistion.

New social groups or classes emerged:

3.3.1 The bourgeoisie – comprising rich capitalists and the professional middle

class, and the

3.3.2 The proletariat – the new industrial working class consisting of the

landless people who depended on earning wages.

The new industrial system made production possible on a large scale. Mass

production of goods at a low cost for large markets was on the increase. Mass

production improved the overall living conditions of many people.

35

3.4 The information revolutionDuring the 19th and 20th centuries the mass media, such as books, newspapers,

and magazines expanded. Telecommunication developed and radio and

television became popular. During the second part of the 20 th century new

developments in communication and information technology such as computers,

telecommunication satellites, and new forms of media began to transform the

social and economic structures of the highly-developed societies.

Information became the central commodity that was produced, sold and used in

the commercial and industrial sectors of the economy. Occupational roles began

to change as more people were employed in the information and communication

industries. The increase in the availability of information and communication

technologies began to transform the culture and politics of many countries.

Given such a history of social change, social scientists began to develop theories

to explain these social changes. Early theories of social change emerged during

the 19th century.

STUDY UNIT 4

4. Early theories of social change and developmentPhilosophers and social theorists took interest in the rapid social change that was

taking place during the 18th and 19th centuries and tried to understand and

explain what was happening. Their ideas about the causes of social change laid

foundation for the scientific study of human society that became known as social sciences.

These social theorists assumed that all societies progressed from simple

systems to complex and developed systems. They suggested that human society

resembles a living organism such as plant or animal. They believed that societies

36

grow, progress and evolve over centuries of their existence basing this on the

biological evolution theory of Charles Darwin.

Species that best adapt to their environment survive and flourish, while those that

do not adjust become stagnant or die out. Extending this view to explain human

society, social theorists such as Marx, Durkheim, and Weber assumed that

European societies adjusted to their environment successfully and progressed,

while societies in other parts of the world remained in a more primitive stage of

development.

4.1 Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857)He is considered as the founder of modern sociology, suggested that Western

societies evolved through a series of fixed transformations and that such

progress and evolution were the result of intellectual effort by the members of

those societies. That is, through the force of ideas, people adjusted to their

circumstances and improved their living conditions.

4.2 Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)Explained why social change took place. He believed that societies evolved fom

simple, primitive or traditional societies to become more complex organized

modern societies.

4.3 Ferdinand Tonnies (1855 – 1936)He suggested that modern society was transformed from a Gemeinschaft, which

is a traditional, close knit community, to a Gesellschaft – a modern society

characterized by the impersonal associations of its members.

4.4 Karl Marx (1818 – 1883)

37

He saw social change as an evolutionary process in which a society passed

through several stages, each stage marked by specific modes of production.

Marx identified distinctive stages in which the development of Western societies

from slavery, through feudalism, capitalism, socialism and finally resulting in

communism. Each stage was a reflection of the various economic relationships

or modes of production that existed within these societies.

For Marx, social change was founded upon, and determined by, the system of

material economic relations that exist in a society at a particular time in history

and the class conflict that these relationships bring into play. Marx was also one

of the first theorists to consider relations between Western and non-Western

societies and suggested that the spread of capitalism throughout the world would

result in economic growth and development of the stagnant non-Western

societies.

4.5 Max Weber (1864 – 1920)He considered development as a transition from traditional to modern society,

which was caused by the rise of industry. Industrialisation brought new modern

forms of social organization based on rationalism and replaced traditional

customs and superstitions that hindered development. The development of the

modern capitalist manufacturing industry was based on the rational organization

of industrial production and business that established a steady profit and

accumulation of capital.

Rationalism was a particular cultural characteristic that developed in western

European societies. Rationalism was further encouraged by the religious

ideology of Calvinism, which urged its followers to commit themselves to hard

work, discipline and diligence, which were essential for success in business and

steady accumulation of capital through careful investment. As European societies

developed, an increasing number of their members began to act in ways that

were guided by the principles of rationality.

38

These ideas formed the foundation for an approach to development that is known

as modernization theory and is considered to be the dominant paradigm in the

study of development. A paradigm is a grand theory or a common view that is

shared by a group of theorists and directs research and practice in a particular

field of scientific inquiry.

Modernization theory

Modernization Theory is a theory of development which states that the

development can be achieved through following the processes of development

that were used by the currently developed countries. Scholars such as Walt

Rostow and A.F.K. Organski postulated stages of development applying to every

country. Samuel Huntington considered development to be a linear process

which every country must go through. Modernization Theory, in contrast to

Classical Liberalism, viewed the state as a central actor in modernizing

"backward" or "underdeveloped" societies. The Action theory of Talcott Parsons

defined qualities that distinguished "modern" and "traditional" societies.

Education was viewed as key to creating modern individuals. Technology also

played a key role in this development theory because it was believed that as

technology was introduced to lesser-developed countries it would spur economic

growth. Another author who has written on the process of modernization is David

S. Landes but not so much as a sheer theory but rather as a set of powerful

propositions of the direction of world history.[citation needed]

One key factor in Modernization Theory is the belief that development requires

the developed countries to aid developing countries to learn from their own

progress. In addition, it was believed that the lesser developed countries could

then grow faster than developed countries and catch up; and that it is possible for

equal development to be reached

39

Dependency theory

Main article: Dependency theory

While Modernization Theory understood development and underdevelopment as

a result from internal conditions that differ between economies, dependency

theory understood development and underdevelopment as relational. It saw the

world's nations as divided into a core of wealthy nations which dominate a

periphery of poor nations whose main function in the system is to provide cheap

labour and raw materials to the core. It held that the benefits of this system

accrue almost entirely to the rich nations, which become progressively richer and

more developed, while the poor nations, which continually have their surplusses

drained away to the core, do not advance. Developed in the 1950s, dependency

theory shared many points with Rosa Luxembourg's and V.I. Lenin's earlier,

Marxist, theories of imperialism; and dependency theory was embraced by many

Marxists and neo-Marxists. Dependency theorists held that for underdeveloped

nations to develop, they must break their ties with developed nations and pursue

internal growth. One type of policy crafted from this insight was Import

substitution industrialization. Modernisation theory failed to explain some critical

issues patterning the underdeveloped nations such as demographic trends,

difference in culture, geographical position, etc.

[edit] World systems theory

Main article: World systems theory

In response to some of the criticisms of Dependency Theory came World Systems Theory, which the division of periphery and center was further divided

into a trimodal system consisting of the core, semi-periphery and periphery. In

this system, the semi-periphery lies between the core and periphery and is

exploited by the core and exploits the periphery. This division aims to explain the

industrialization within lesser developed countries. World Systems Theory was

initiated by Immanuel Wallerstein in, among other writings, World Systems

Analysis (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 2004), and focuses on inequality

40

as a separate entity from growth in development and examines change in the

global capitalist system. One distinguishing feature of this theory is a distrust for

the state and a view in which the state is seen as a group of elites and that

industrialization cannot be equated with development. Out of this theory stem

anti-systemic movements which attempt to reverse the terms of the system's

inequality through social democratic and labor movements.

STUDY UNIT 5

5. Development communicationAccording to Torado (1977:62):

development must be seen as multi-dimensional processinvolving major changes in social structures, popularattitudes, and national institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction ofinequality and the eradication of absolute poverty.

In its essence, development must represent the entire gamut of change by which

the whole social system is tuned to the entire basic needs and desires of

individuals and social groups within that system. It should move away from

41

‘unsatisfactory’ condition to a condition of life regarded as materially and

spiritually ‘better’

Development aid is the assistance offered by the First World countries to improve

the standard of living in the Third World counties. Communication can often be

difficult because the participants in development come from different lifeworlds.

The purpose of development communication is to find ways to avoid the one way

transmission of (usually) patronizing messages from developers to recipients,

and to engage recipients in a two-way transactional process in which they

participate in the development projects that are planned.

5.1 Historical overviewAt the end of the Second World War the United Nations (UN) was formed. One of

its major tasks was to encourage the richer First World countries to provide

development aid to the poorer, underdeveloped countries of the Third World.

Third World countries lack physical infrastructure, agriculture, economic

performance and the social and political spheres of life.

In 1949, the newly elected President of the USA, Harry S. Truman believed that

poor countries could become prosperous if they follow the example of the more

developed countries. He proposed the Point Four Programme on which the USA

was going to develop its foreign policy:

1. support for the UN

2. European recovery programme for rehabilitating the damages and

destruction of World War 11

3. providing military defense assistance to countries friendly to the Un

against the expansion of Communism

4. a new programme for providing development to the underdeveloped areas

of the world

42

This policy speech was the beginning of the UN, European and American

programmes for the development of the Third World. Development became a

new language in international politics to describe the relationship between the

West and the poor countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America which were then

called the developing countries.

These poor countries adopted development as a matter of national policy.In

1994, the newly elected South African government made the Reconstruction and

Development Programme (RDP) the central cornerstone of its policy. This policy

gained support from international development agencies, such as the UN,

European Union (EU) and the World Bank and funding for development became

available to solve the problems of the poor and disadvantaged communities in

South Africa.

5.2 Development and social changeBroadly defined, development is a particular type of social change that is aimed

at improving the material and human conditions of the people and societies of the

Third World by helping them to gain grater control over their environment.

5.2.1 Social change- is change that happens from within a society such as when members of a

society with no outside influence create a new idea. Every human society

changes over time because people have the capacity for increasing their ability

to live a more satisfactory life through exploiting natural resources. It is an

evolutionary and continual adaptation of existing social conditions through a

progression of small steps and stages.

5.2.2 Development

43

is a type of social change that is directed or planned and caused from outside the society by persons or agencies that internationally seek to introduce new

ideas in order to achieve predefined goals. It’s a break from tradition and

disruption of existing social conditions and their replacement with new ideas,

practices and technologies that are communicated and imposed on a society or a

community from outside.

5.2.3 Development communicationDevelopment and social change depend on contact and communication between

the developed and underdeveloped societies. Development communication can

be defined as communication that promotes development, by promoting for

example, education and literacy, providing information to improve health care,

family planning, agricultural practices and better industrial production, and so on.

5.3 Development problems of the Third WorldUnderdeveloped countries of the Third World in Africa, Asia and Latin America

are different from each other, have different climates, different resource potential

and different cultures. However, they share many common problems. It is

important to know these problems because such knowledge is the first step in

finding solutions. In this sense development t can be considered as a process for

finding solutions for the problems of the Third World.

Problems of the Third World are based on the following: poverty, population

growth, health, literacy and education, inequality, economics and inadequate

knowledge, information and communication.

5.3.1 Poverty problem 20% of the world’s population lives in poverty with no food, shelter,

clothing, medical care and education facilities

poverty is measured in terms of economic indicators: “per capita

income” which means “per head” or “per person”, per capita

44

Gross National Product (GNP), and per capita Gross Domestic

Product (GDP)

GNP is calculated by adding the value of economic output

resulting from the use of resources such as labour, land and

capital owned by members of society

The GNP is calculated by dividing the total GNP by the total

number of people in the country

The GDP is calculated by adding together all economic activities

taking place within the country. The GDP pr capita is calculated

by dividing the value of GDP by the total number of the

population.

The GNP and GDP provide an indication of the average income of

each member of the population for example in many countries in

Africa it is R8 500 ($1 400) while in developed countries it is

R120 000 ($20 000) per annum.

5.3.2 Population problem High birth rate and fast population growth, high number of inhabitants

Decrease per capita GNP or GDP because of division of resources

Family planning programmes aim at reducing the birth rate

5.3.3 Health problem Well-being of a society is measured by the physical state of its people

In underdeveloped countries people suffer from ill health as a result of

malnutrition caused by poverty

Shortage of health care facilities such as clinics and hospitals including

doctors, nurses and medicines

Lack of sanitation and the availability of clean fresh drinking water

increase the high infant mortality (children who die during the firat year of

45

their life) and maternal mortality (mothers who die during pregnancy or

after giving birth)

5.3.4 Literacy and education problems Poor education systems and large number of illiterate people

Shortage of media, such as books, newspapers and magazines and lack

of technology for producing printed material

5.3.5 Inequality problem Inequality between rich and poor people

Inequality between rural and urban dwellers

Unequally distribution of resources

Gender inequality

Other inequalities like those based in age and differences in etnic

affiliation and of social class membership

5.3.6 Economic problem Lack of natural resources

No developed industrial sectors

External debt to international institutions due to heavy borrowing

Developed countries cutting back support for development

5.3.7 Knowledge, information and communication problem Less knowledge which makes people different from rich countries

New technologies such as computers and computer networks, mobile

telephones receivers and telecommunication systems have the potential

to stimulate development

46

STUDY UNIT 6

6. The dominant paradigm in developmentIn the 50s and 60s underdevelopment in the Third World was blamed on

traditionalism with its cultural, social and political structures that were seen as

obstacles to the growth of efficient economic development and modernization.

Modernisation was seen as forward-looking, innovative and free from

superstition.

47

Definitions of development emphasized the modernization, or westernization of

underdeveloped communities by replacing traditional ways of life with more

complex and technological advanced ways of life. This is the dominant paradigm. It was thought that if underdeveloped societies became

industrialized and urbanized, developed a western-style democratic politics and government, modernization would follow. Traditional society members were

seen as having an emotional, superstitious and fatalistic view of the world while

modern society is forward-looking, innovative and free from superstition.

6.1 Approaches to development communicationIn the dominant paradigm the two main approaches to development

communication were diffusion of innovation approach and the mass media and modernization approach.

Diffusion is the process by which new ideas (innovation) are spread (diffused)

among members of a community for example the purification of drinking water to

prevent disease. The mass media and modernization approach emphasized the

all powerful role of the mass media in assisting the process of modernization.

Mass media would transmit ideas from First World to Third World and from urban

centres to rural areas. It was assumed that mass media have powerful effects

over their recipients who accept their messages uncritically. By introducing mass

media into the Third World countries, new ides to encourage modernization

would easily be accepted.

Criticism of the dominant paradigm was directed at the ignorance of the Third

World realities. Researchers had inadequate knowledge of the living conditions

and cultural background of the recipients. Insufficient attention was not paid to

factors such as inavailability of mass media in rural areas, selective exposure,

people might to choose to listen to music rather than educational programmes,

accessibility of the message in terms of language use and production techniques.

48

Communication was top-down – one way transmission of messages from

specialist communicators to passive recipients. People were not consulted about

their needs and priorities.

In the 70s, a new group of theorists, mainly from South America suggested an

alternative paradigm – that the problems of the Third World did not arise from

within the society but were caused by the domination of the Third World countries

by Western capitalist ideology. That the Western countries used communication

and mass media imperialism to create underdevelopment in the Third World and

thereby increase their dependency on the West, the dependency theory. Dependency theorists proposed that governments in the Third World promote

their own form of development independently.

Many Third World governments adopted the approach known as development journalism, that Third World governments should establish their own mass

communication systems as a major development resource for national

development. Mass media should give priority to news and information about

national, cultural and language issues and encourage national autonomy.

Criticism of the alternative paradigm was that while it provided new ways of

thinking about development, it failed to address internal causes of

underdevelopment in Third World countries, like the modernization paradigm, it

overemphasized the role that the mass media could play in development.

In the 1980s, there was a move towards a more equitable approach to

development and communication. The new paradigm emphasizes participation of

recipients in development programmes and communication as a two-way

process between communicators and recipients. Participation in significant

activities of the community is seen by the new paradigm as a basic human right

and as means of self actualization.

49

Participation implies a higher level of public or community involvement in

communication systems. It includes the involvement of the public/community in

the production process and also in the management and planning of

communication systems. It may be no more than representation and consultation

of the public in decision making. On the other hand, self-management is the most

advanced form of participation. Decision making within communication

enterprises and is also fully involved in the formulation of communication policies

and plans.

Communication is used primarily as an instrument of conscientisation – the

transfer of knowledge to members of the community, especially an awareness of

the conditions of their existence. Through discussion, the needs of the

community are identified, a plan of action formulated, and the community then

implements the plan. The emphasis is on self-development and cultural growth

rather than on purely material assistance.

In the new paradigm, the mass media are still seen as important carriers of

development messages, but the mass media alone are not sufficient. Culture is

seen as important in the development process. They look at indigenous channels

of communication known as folk media or “people’s communication”. These

include folk theatre, puppet shows, oratory, folk dances, ballads and mime.

Community is familiar with them, they can discuss the message conveyed in a

puppet show or dance routine with communicators and among themselves

The sharing of knowledge between communicators and recipients gave rise to

the idea of development support communication (DSC). While this new

approach appears to offer the ‘best’ approach to development in that it is people-

centred, it has not entirely replaced the other two paradigm which still influence

the approach to development.

50

REFERENCESFaure, C. Parry, L. & S. Sonderling (2000). Intercultural, Development and Health Communication. Pretoria: UNISA.

Servaes, J. (2002). Communication for development: one world, multiple cultures. Cresskill: Hampton Press, Inc.

Steiberg, S. (2007). An introduction to communication studies. Cape Town: Juta.

51

52