Upload
alesiagian
View
285
Download
4
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Gandhi and the Indian Anti-Colonial Movement (Lecture 1)
British Rule in India
British Trading Presence from 1600o They established ports to trade spices and export opium to Chinao Engaged in debates with local rulers
Conquest (1757 onwards)o British begun to take land away and rent it out to farmers to make money and draw
avenue Consolidation (1820s onwards) Supremacy (1858 onwards)
o There was a major revolt against British rule which began with the dispute/ rumour that they used Cow/ Pig fats in gun cartridges
o Although it was put down in 1858, it was not fully resolvedo British set up civil service of the military and police – complex bureaucracyo Maintained some ties with the princely states
Dyarchy – split the functions of government into two. Although the central government remained wholly under British control, in provinces some areas, among them agriculture and education, along with responsibility for raising the necessary taxes were transferred to Indian ministers responsible to local legislatures
The Rise of Indian Nationalism
From 1880s among growing educated elites in large citieso Discrimination in higher position of government hence they wanted the some moderate
reforms of transfer of powero Hence the formation of Indian National Congress in 1885. Indian elites within the
Congress were to control pressure. British saw this as a social safety net and thus encouraged it
From 1905 onwards in the Indian middle classes & merchantso Division on Congress between the “moderate” and the “radicals”o B.G. Tilak emphasis greater national identification to the masses, not just educated oneso Radical demands included Self –Rule, Self-Reliance (no need to turn to British rule),
Boycotting foreign goods and Changing National Education (British’s education cast a negative image of India thus they wanted a national education system
o Partially successful, there were limitations in the rural areas as they were never able to penetrate the countryside
o Result: Congress split and divide between groups that are moderate and radical British Response
o ‘Divide and Rule’ – introduced special voting rights for Muslims, had certain seats reserved for Muslims in the parliament – in short, dividing India through religious lines
o Carrot-Stick Policy towards Nationalist Movement Repression of ‘Radicals’ Supporting moderate demands
o It worked as there were less conflicts and threats after World War I
Gandhian Nationalism
Backgroundo Left India to go England to study law. But upon return, he found out he could not
compete with the lawyers in Bombay and hence left for South Africa. There he was
deeply affected by feelings of racial discrimination in South Africa by the Whites and hence was determined to change the situation
Socio-political Ideaso Non-Violence & ‘Passive’ Resistance
Gandhi’s family’s close ties with Jainism – emphasis on non-violent form of Hinduism, emphasis on vegetarianism
Commitment to pacifism, critique of the ‘masculine West’ – Gandhi repudiated the idea of ‘feminine’ qualities as weak
This idea was a depiction of strength which won hearts of people who want to take over India
Gandhi thought of an Independent India but he must not just get rid of the British but also involve a change so India could develop according to their own ideas
o Notion of Indian unity, opposition to racial discrimination & religious equality This was shaped by his South African experience – provided insights into the
complexity and coherence of their homeland. He organized Indians against racial discrimination in South Africa
The emphasis on an overarching ‘Indian’ identity, over regional, religious and caste identities that were particularly salient in the Indian context
Emphasis on equality of religious ‘sarva dharma sambhava’ as an instrument to challenge religious bigotry
o Critique of ‘Western’ materialism & competition that led between individuals Beyond opposition to the purchase of English goods, against industrial
development. True independence was beyond simply replacing British with Indians but a moral transformation of Indian society
The ideal of a simple life – in his ‘imagined’ self-sufficient traditional village where each member unselfishly looked after other and the emphasis is on spiritual development
Hence he came up with homegrown produce of each individual spinning their own cloth (khadi) – united, disciplined and cohesive movement which took on organization form (All-India Spinners Association)
Eradicating distinctions of region along with those of caste, class and religion. It defines the wearer as a member of a universal Indian nation
o Saryagraha (‘Truth-Force’) – Look inwards Emphasis on ‘truths’ in settling disputes respect even love for one’s opponent Avoid violence at all cost Deeply personal – discipline of passions, advocated fasting of alcohol and
smoking, vegetarian diet, sexual abstinence Gandhi changed the different aspects of Indian society and try to create a
worthwhile India Gandhian Political Campaign
o Settled village-level issues Landlord taxation issues, Organised improvements of village facilities, schools
and hospitals. Encouraged village leaders to condemn untouchability and alcoholism
Organised civil-disobedience campaigns (protests and strikes) that were relatively successful in limiting revenue hikes and greater compensation for crops
o Non-Cooperation Movement (1912) Rowlatt Act (1919) – enabled the British to hold Indians in dentention without
trials – Congress leaders organized strikes against it
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) – British army soldiers begun shooting at an unarmed gathering of men, women and children without warning
Wreching loss of faith in Britain’s good intentions Gandhi in response, launched non-cooperative campaign where he joined hands
with Muslims supporters of the Khilafat campaign a pan-Islamic movement to protect the Ottoman Caliphate
Drew more Indians supporters, people withdrew from the government The campaign was suspended in 1922 when 23 policemen were killed
Wanted non-violent way to settle the issueo Salt Satyagraha
Dandi Salt March (1930) – protest against the British salt monopoly. It was impactful and caused much upstir
1931 – Gandhi-Irwin pact and Gandhi was invited to a roundtable conference in London
Tried to divert the issue but nothing came out of it
It’s Resonance & Limitations
Gandhi’s mass appealo Political programe – people felt more connectedo Political astuteness & style of agitationo The Gandhian image, Hindu symbols & popular belief in his magical abilities
People perceived him as a sainto Most committed followers were those closest to him in background and sentiment
Limitationso Little support in Princely states and in the Madras Presidency (because of his advocacy
of Hindi as a national language) The princes were determined to keep their states walled off from nationalism
o The ambivalent attitude of educated elites towards Gandhio Pan-religious unity between Hindus and Muslims difficult to sustain. Over time Gandhi
attacked by ‘communal’ leaders from both sides.
Cultural Traditions and Secularism aka Caste (Lecture 7)
The Normative Meaning of Caste
Caste is a form of social stratification determined by the social ranking of a person’s community based on ascribed status (born into it and hence inherited)
It is a closed social group – one cannot convert or be converted The word originated from the word “Casta” in Portuguese In Hindu Traditions, it is Varna and Jati
o Varna – major classification of social groups determined at birth Main yardstick for social classification It is a positional label imposed on different caste which tells socio-economic
information about them There are 4 varnas – Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Sudra Untouchables were not considered a Varna even though they were part of the
Hindu societyo Jati – normative professional status of that group – includes numerous/ thousands sub
groups and communities of Varna Hereditary profession Marriage rights Regional variations – do not speak the same language, eat the same food etc
Caste (Varna) Groups
Brahminso Keeper of knowledge, religions and traditionso Control religious and knowledge based industryo Practice strict self-discipline – purity, dietary (most were vegetarian depending on Jati)o Religious and moral authorityo According to the code of Manu, Brahmins had to attain spiritual perfection and maintain
religious ordero E.g. Priests and scholars
Kshatriyao Commanded to protect the people and provide gifts and land to the Brahmins as they
thought they would be blessed since the Brahmins were economically capableo Offer sacrifices and be heroic – Religious sacrifices to win the waro E.g. Rulers, kings, military, important political positions
Vaishyao Could trade, lend money and perform religious sacrificeso Could not marry women from upper casteso Kept the economy going and money flowing into societyo E.g. Traders, merchants, businessmen
Sudrao Provided very important manual labor function for the 3 other caseso Not allowed to marry up or perform Vedic ritualso Under the reservation system, they are now categorized mainly as backward casteso E.g. Artisan, peasant, agriculturalists, laborers
Untouchables/ Dalits (illegal to call anyone that anymore)o Renamed Harijans by Mahatma Gandhio Classified as scheduled castes under India’s reservation system
o Very poor, kept away from everyday social activities and did dirty and difficult jobs nobody wanted to do or were considered polluting
o They inherited their caste and were not able to climb the social ladder due to extreme and dire poverty and social exclusion
o Exception: Dr B R Ambedkar was the first Dalit to get a college degree. He wanted to improve his caste status and abolish the caste system
Wanted political and legal reform-solidarity. E.g. Separate electorate Mahatma Gandhi wanted social reform instead – ideological: united based on
nationalism instead of caste Poona Pact (1932) – no separate electorate for the untouchables instead
reservations for the backward caste
British & Caste
Helped the untouchables to some extent – Srinivas (1962) – conferred economic benefits but it was more usual for these benefits to go to the upper castes
Reinforced the caste system by assigning Varna to Jatis 1931 Census: divide and rule policy solidified caste system of Varna and Jati – recognition castes
as endogamous groups
Changes in the Caste System after Independence
Influenced by secularism, democracy and constitutional rights of all Indians, caste was now more complex and varied across the nation
o Industrialisation, political parties and politics – made caste more complicated Class interfered with caste producing many challenges – inherited socioeconomic class Socio-economic status of Jatis are now under negotiation which meant new opportunities Dirks (2001) – caste remains the single most powerful category for reminding the nation of the
resilence of poverty, oppression, domination, exclusion, and the social life of privilege. Dirks (2001) – caste became the colonial form of civil society; it justified the denial of political
rights to Indian subjects and explained the necessity of colonial rule
Reservation
It is a type of affirmative action that tries to allocate fixed number of seats in educational and social institutions for various under-represented castes
o Meant to end discrimination but reinforces the caste system as it gave benefits on the basis of caste
o Srinivas (1962) – Heighten inter-caste tensions because of the way the Untouchables are able to raise their collective status
o Flaw: assumes that people in the upper castes are rich and people in the lower caste are poor hence there are hardly any reservations for the upper class – brain drain for the smarter people in higher caste because they would rather go overseas to study/work
o Flaw: Untouchables by and large seem to be unable to take advantage of it
Mandal Commission 1979
The commission estimated that 54% of the total population were backward There was a cap on reservation hence it was not proportional to the number of people – cannot
exceed 50% though people and political parties are fighting for higher quotas Srinivas (1962) – caste system is the greatest hindrance to progress towards an egalitarian
society and the recognition of the specified castes as backward may serve to maintain and even perpetuate the existing distinctions on the basis of caste
Caste & Religion
Caste has somewhat permeated into other religions Hindus who convert to other religions tend to retain the same caste. But new discriminations
emerge where they may lose their reservation privileges Dirks (2001) – caste I the sign of India’s fundamental religiousity, a marker of India’s essential
different from the West and from modernity at large.
Caste & Politics
Caste allow lower caste groups to attain political empowerment to get more reservations Provide a strong basis for mobilization
o Created their own parties and leaders e.g. DMK Party (Tamil Nadu); Communistso First empowered in South India and later in North India because there were more upper
and dominant castes. Also, Zamindari (Landlord) system existed. Lower castes in North India depended on the Congress Party till 1970s.
Caste & Economic Mobility
Dalits own less land that higher caste groups Industralisation has led Dalit villages in Uttar Pradesh to be better off than the rest – Business is
rising Building of roads all over India enabled castes to organize as they had never done before. Economic liberalization could be on its way
Reasons why the Caste System still Persist
Srinivas (1962) – Constitutional safeguards for the SC & ST – new lease of life to caste Mencher (1992) – Economic exploitation where upper caste needs lower casts to do jobs for
themo Srinivas (1962) – Occupational specialization stressed this interdependence to cooperate
with each other as each caste was dependent for its livelihood on the work done by the other castes.
Dirks (2001) – Central symbol of Indian tradition and basic form of Indian society. Defines the core of Indian tradition and is seen today as the major threat to Indian modernity
Education is also unable to end the caste divide even though India spends about 3-4% of GDP on education
o Elite bias in education policieso Family incomeo Formal education and jobso Poor are neglected - Srinivas (1962) – high castes had a tradition of literacy hence were in
a more advantageous position to exploit the new opportunities than those which did not
More Facts
Dirks (2001) – nevertheless, whether in relation to the history of gender, the victimization of Dalits, or the rise of anti-Brahman and backward-caste politics, caste has worked to compromite the easy affiliations of nationa unity and civilizational history. Caste has become the focus of progressive movements and of debates about the character of post-colonial politics. It serves as a reminder that community is always segmented by class, gender and region, that the nation might be threatened less by religious difference than by other pervasive grounds of different. It is a reminder that all claims about community are claims about privilege, participation, and exclusion.
Gender in Contemporary India (Lecture 8)
Sex and Biology
Primary Sex Characteristics: Those that we are born with Secondary Sex Characteristics: Those that develop during adolescence These differentiate men from women – main purpose is to facilitate reproduction of the species Biology – interfere with social roles: are there really only 2 sexes?
Gender
Socially expected behavior of men and women hence discrimination happens. It is complicated but changeable.
Gender Roles – a set of perceived behavioral norms associated and expected of males and females in a given social group
In India, the poverty shows gender inequality where women are more likely to be poor Third Gender, Hijras
o In plural India – shows how India still accepts out of the norm despite harsh gender roleso Used to protect harem by performing neo-religious ritualso 2009: legalized the third gender, categorized as “other”o New religion, caste? Not traditional but has their own identity
Social Norms of Sex & Gender
Chastity-venerated – traditional despite modernization. It is a controversial and sensitive topic as chastity is highly valued in society hence no pre-marital sex unless they are very westernized.
Arranged marriages are the norm in India – Institute of Arranged Marriage is still important and significant even amongst urban educated people.
o Familyo Procreation – expectation of forming a family unit hence most marry before 30o Patriarchal values – male-dominance, women expected to perpetuate this fact. Males are
expected to be providers regardless of marital statuso Legality of marriage – all marriages must be registered with the court to protect womeno Dowry (illegal) – “selling your daughter”o Fertility – pressure for females to bear male children and a lot of themo Women and the power of sacrifice – For family etc to protect the family and elevate the
social status of the family
Measuring Gender
Gender Power Ratio – relative power of women within societies: the more developed, the greater the equality of men and women
Sex Ratio – number of female births per 1000 maleso Males>Females men unable to find wives and hence migrate or import wives
Gender Inequality
Key Challenges (Amartya Sen in 2001)o Mortality – women live longer than men in general yet in India mortality rates are higher
because they get less urgent care, less resources allocated to them and less nutrition in their food
o Natality – technology sexism where sex selected abortion takes place either because a family wants a boy or because a female child has to take more burdens hence parents refuse
o Basic Facility – education are given to boys>girls because needs of females are ignored. Expenditure on female vocational students comprises less than 1& of the education budget which highlights how limited and constrained women are and explain much of their invisibility in the economic sphere in particular.
o Professional – India women need to catch up with Westerners – lowest literacy rateso Special opportunity – tertiary education which is required for social mobility and to rise
up ranks are even mostly to boys especially if the family has less resources as boys tend to pay off more
o Household – double shift jobs where they hardly get help, even if they do, domestic help are also females. Economic contribution is scarcely acknowledged at the national level.
o Ownership – land and property rights are given mostly to males Poverty, violence and political participation were identified as the priority issues of concern for
SN. Other issues include trafficking of women and girls, disability, ageing, regugee women and the girl child.
Gender inequality is reinforced by gender stereotypes by men and mother in laws, and patriarchy that is occurring in India
Women largely study the arts and the humanities for social mobility – to migrate and find a better husband
In order for women to find a way out they need: equal access to resources and networks, property rights, political rights (Muslims v.s. Christians), cultural rights (cultural normal must change & women must fight for their rights), fertility rights (the right to contraception), economic rights and education rights (National Plans of Action)
NGOs help by providing education and resources but women are scared to come out and face the fact that change is possible
Patriarchy
Marx and Engels – men want to control women in order to determine their true offspring Patriarchal ideologies and practices pervade political, economic, legal, socio-cultural and
religious structures around the world. Limits women’s ownership and control of property and other economic resources hence
constraining her mobility and hindering their access to education and information. Women became victims of oppression/ seen as a liability
o Dowry girl child is very expensive to raiseo Infanticide thus happeno Sati – when Hindu husband dies, the wife would emulate on her husband’s grave. This is a
highly respected ritual Male is seem as an asset as they bring in wealth and have economic value
Matriarchy
Female power. In Hindu culture, women are reversed as wives, mothers and saints. There are many female Gods and worship of the feminine. E.g. Kali, Saraswati etc.
Women’s movementso Maitreye: questioned the existence of patriarchy thus was respected and treated wello Female celibate: received less attention as women are meant to get marriedo 1850-1915: Colonial ideas of freedom and democracy and equality to all. Women were
treated in the same category as the disadvantaged castes. Issues such as sati, child marriage, property rights were addressed
o 1915-1947: Nationalism helped improved lives. Mahatma Gandhi – supported women and encouraged them to use their attitudes of sacrifice and service for the nation, not just family. Groups such as the All India Women’s Conference and National Federation of Indian Women emerged.
Gender & Post Independence
The Indian Constitution granted equality and freedom from discrimination based on gender or religion, and guaranteed religious freedom.
7 5-Year Plans were developed to provide health, education, employment and welfare to women. India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh have had female leaders. These women came from
political families which had power and influence. 7% of SN parliamentarians are women. Even so, they face tokenism and exclusion from certain partfolios that are still male bastions.
o Indira Gandhi: 3rd Prime Minister of India (4 times), daughter of Nehru, studied in England (upper caste women never left the house), married someone of a different caste, suspended the Constitution for a while.
o Mayawati: Bahujan Samaj Party leader which represents the Dalits. 4th term as Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh.
o Phoolzn Devi – Scheldued caste, joined a gang and shot many guys (molested many times), wanted to gain more respect for her caste women hence became a politician
Issues faced by educated and middle class women
Have greater negotiating power because they are able to get degree – break jati Can become quite a force to reckon with for the male partner Unmarried women and divorced women may face stigma. Arranged marriages still prevail Beauty Pageants – heavily criticized because of the Western notions (wearing bikinis and
fair>black)
Indian Movie Icons: From Stars to Gods aka Cinema (Lecture 9)
Indian Cinemas
One of the largest film producers in the world – not only those of Bollywood - ~ 13 million daily patrons and ~ 800 films produced every year. Carved a big niche in the global arena of cinema
o There is no economic sense in this business, it runs of glamour, on its own solipsistic appeal and its self-generated aura.
The industry is divided according to language and region and exports films to over 100 countries – significant impact and is increasingly with the advent of technology
Cinema came to India almost as soon as it had started in the USA and Europe.o Colonial leaders brought cinema as it brought entertainment even though films were
silent. European and Indian elites watched it for social gatherings despite movies being jerky because of poor technology then
o Found out cinema had mass value and can attract a lot of crowd therefore the Indians mass produced and made it affordable
o The first films made in India were short newsreels Nandy (1998) – popular cinema creates a space for the global, the unitary and the homogenizing,
but does so in terms of a principle of plurality grounded in traditions Films produced were on religious, social, political and historical subjects which were changing to
suit local culture and used as a tool for nationalism Popular themes were adapted from plays – Parsi drama – because they had fabulous plots and
draw large groups (commercialism) In the 1920s and 30s, Indian cinema spread to the Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. Hollywood
influenced Indian cinema in the early years but changed over the years as they didn’t want to copy and hence came up with their own stars
Move stars were created because they could effectively communication emotions through the screen – made audience cry. Dance were also integrated to fascinate audience
Audience likes to watch a spectacle-grand show everything packed into 3 hours with emotional outbursts
Cinema & Social Issues
Realism in Indian cinema – Savkari Pash (1925): moneylenders exploiting the poor rural and also the urban people
o Such social films appealed more to the educated upper class who did not necessarily want to watch religious or mythological films
o Western collaborations in order to bring in technology for movie making to make it real Indian audience had a huge memory for songs – Indrasabha (1932) had 70 songs Hindi films challenged actors in a way. Once they played a “God” on screen, they can no longer
play normal roles again. They also challenge genre of films, making less commercialized films.
Postcolonial Cinema
1950so Neo-Realistic – cinema audience and producer were quite euphoric to be independent but
the country had to deal with many issues and hence brought out such problems in filmso Socialisto Nehruviano Modernist – challenging different aspects of society
o Parallel – serious content that are real, a more elite class of viewer was sought, one that would be familiar and more likely to be influenced by critical reviews and word-of-mouth reports.
1960so Era of hairspray – had cool hairdos like big hairo Foreign and Indian locales (exotic)o Twist and Rock and Roll – Musico Women in traditional clothing but more glamorous and colorful
Movie Stars
Amitabh Bachchan (1970s)o Instant revolutionary success – came up with movies of 2 people finding/ chasing each
othero New role of angry young meno Fight scenes & drunken scenes – brought him to stardom; emotionalo Were quite tall compared to others – image presento Now play a fatherly role with romantic heroo 1969: Saat Hindustani; 1973: Zanjeer (catapulted to fame); 1977-82: Amar Akbar
Anthony, Muqaddar ka Sikander, Trishul, Don, Mr. Natwarlal, Coolie (Major Hits); 21st Century: Sarkar, Baghbaan, Cheeni Kum (Return to Stardom)
Sharukh Khano Grew to enormous stardom due to his charm on screeno Television actor films e.g. Darr, Dilwale Dulhaniya etc.o Matched the ideas of the new middle class and the NRI Indian (bridged the gap)o Broke the mould of good v.s. evil – challenged the notion that heros should always be a
good guyo Addressed India middle class and rising middle class through his movieso Very famous in Malaysia and Indonesia – have non-Indian fans as well
Bollywood
Hindi cinemas only, made in Mumbai People see movies over and over as a result of the songs Movies became the medium to enforce moral values – good v.s. evil Fights where the brave hero saves the troubled girl Lost and found – separated twins, brothers Addressed social issues:
o Conflict between the rich and pooro Caste warso Gender issues
Love and romance Tragedy and sentiments Sex-glamour but no kissing on screen in the past
Diasporic Indian Film
Made for foreign audience and may/ may not represent India culture accurately In English but there are local and global influence Distance, nostalgia, time warp E.g. Bride and Prejudice, Bend it like Beckham
There are films that appeal to the diaspora – for NRI and wider global markets which illustrate family values, glamour, love, conflict, emotionalism
o Try to put NRI in the forefront to show successes of NRI. Glorify Indian weddings
Tamil Films
2nd largest after Bollywood Industry operates out of Chennai since the 1950s Mass influence on politics and the poor Influences on nationalism – language as a political tool Tamil Superstar - Rajanikanth
o Was a bus conductor but because he flicked cigarettes in style, was advised to join film industry
o Iconic status: fans said there is no social issues he can’t solve
Masculinity and its Expressions
Protect woman from villain Get the poor and the weak justice Willing to suffer for the right cause Both strong and romantic at the same time In newer films, there is some blurring of the villain and the hero
Iconization of Stars
The celluloid idol is larger than life – used to be capsulated in posters but now on media platforms as well
Films provide a scope for “escape” from harsh realities of poverty and social injustice Charm and screen personality help actors to make it big in the industry – unique identity and win
the hearts of millions of fans world wide
The New Heroes
Sensitive, metrosexual, urban, great physique Play rich & spoilt, disgruntled hero
Bollywood Women
Required to dance – some were ex-models or ex-beauty queens Long hair and have different styles, dress glamorously Thin and skinny Influence diets, workouts and fashion In current films, breakups, divorce and dating is accepted – is society changing?
Men Versus Women
Men WomenLonger acting careers Shorter careersOlder man but female co-stars get younger Tend to become mothers and aunts when they get
olderTend to become directors and mentors Paid less than menIconization – “Gods” Tend to retire when they get marriedMarriage has little or no effect on their careers
Cinema and Social Gaps
A temporary relief from the harsh realities of poverty – promote fantasy Social justice Social inadequacies Poetic justice – solve everything in 3 hours Political reforms Voices of the subaltern – poor, females and the voiceless Romance across class, caste and culture Address social taboos and culturally sensitive topics Foreign locales to many who cannot afford to travel Time and space compression – modern technology bring audience to different time periods
Bollywood Music and Dialogues
Music can influence either success or failure of the film Song and dance is essential as it promotes a sense of fantasy Bollywood music has become a must in many celebrations hence more expensive weddings
Cinema’s Influence on Popular Culture in India
Ray (1976) – Indian films need to be more reflective of life in India rather than copy the West Nandy (1998) – Films affect lower middle class aspirations and views of social life and politics –
glorification of vigilantism Traditions are changed to accommodate Bollywood weddings