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SOL REVIEWScientific Investigations

ObservationWhat you see

Hypothesiseducated guess or explanation based on observationControlled Experiment

Keep everything the same except the one thing you are testing

Use a control group for comparison

VariablesIndependent The one you change (often time)

Dependent The one you measureInformation SourcesScientific Journals (Magazines)For research

Field GuidesFor identifying organisms

Biochemistry andMacromoleculesWaterPolar Molecule Has positive charge on ears & negative charge on chin

WaterCohesion Sticks to itself (surface tension)

Adhesion Easily sticks to other molecules (sides of a glass)

CarbohydratesSugarsProvide energy

LipidsFatsStore Energy

ProteinsMade of Amino AcidsFunctions StructuralEnzymes Proteins that speed up chemical reactionsTheir job is determined by their shape Like a key in a lock

The CellCell TheoryAll living things are made up of cells

Cells are the basic unit of life

New cells come from other cellsTypes of CellsProkaryotes No nucleus

Eukaryotes Have a nucleus

Organelles in ProkaryotesCell Membrane Controls what enters & leaves cellCell Wall Rigid for supportRibosome Makes proteins (site of protein synthesis)

Organelles in Eukaryotes (Animals)Nucleus Control center; where DNA is foundCell Membrane Controls what enters & leaves cellRibosomes Make proteins (site of protein synthesis)Endoplasmic Reticulum Highway system/transportation networkRough ER has ribosomes; Smooth ER does notGolgi Apparatus Packaging center to get things ready to leave cellVacuole Storage areaMitochondria Power plant of energySite of Cellular Respiration

Organelles in Eukaryotes (Plants)All of those in animals plus the followingChloroplasts Site of photosynthesisCell wall Rigid for support

**Plants have one large vacuole instead of several smaller vacuoles

Movement of SubstancesDiffusion Movement of material from high to low concentrationOsmosis Movement of water from high to low concentration across a membraneActive Transport Requires cell to expend energy

Hypertonic Solution Has more salt than inside cellResults in water moving OUT of cell; cell shrivelsHypotonic Solution Has less salt than inside cellResults in water moving INTO cell; cell swells/burstsIsotonic Solution Salt inside cell equals outsideNo net movement of water

Photosynthesis and Cellular RespirationPhotosynthesisEquation: chlorophyll 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light -----------> C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Where it happens: ChloroplastsType of Organisms: AutotrophsWhat Happens:Converts light energy to chemical energyGlucose produced from light energy

Cellular RespirationEquation: enzymes C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -----------> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP

Where it happens: MitochondriaType of Organisms: Autotrophs and HeterotrophsWhat Happens:Releases energy in form of ATP from glucose

Cell DivisionDiploidCell with 2 of each chromosomeOne from mom, one from dadBody Cells SomatesHaploidCell with 1 of each chromosomeSex (Germ) Cells - Gametes

MitosisInterphase DNA doubles (replicates)Prophase Centrioles move to poles; spindle formsMetaphase Chromosomes line up in middle of cellAnaphase Chromosomes pull apart and move toward polesCytokinesis (cytoplasmic division) beginsTelophase Chromosomes at opposite ends; new membrane forms around them

MeiosisDivision of cells that results in 4 gametes (egg/sperm)Cells have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cellHas 2 stagesMeiosis IMeiosis IIMeiosis I

Meiosis II

GeneticsMendel - Father of GeneticsDid experiments with pea plants

Allele Different forms of a trait The information you get from a parent

Genotype genetic make-up of an organismHeterozygous both alleles or inherited genes are DIFFERENT (Rr)Homozygous both alleles or inherited genes are the SAME (RR or rr)Phenotype physical appearance of an organismDominants overshadow recessives If R = Red and r = White, a Rr organism will usually be Red as will be RR; rr will be white.Exception INCOMPLETE DOMINANCEWhen the heterozygous individual has a phenotype in between the 2 parents; red + white = pinkException CODOMINANCEWhen the heterozygous individual has a phenotype that is a mix of both parents; red + white = red and white

Punnett Squares - StepsIdentify the genotype of the parents

Draw the empty square

Put the parents on the top and left of the square

Fill in the offspring

Nucleic AcidsDNACarries genetic information and found in the nucleusShape Double HelixMade of nucleotides Form a ladder5 carbon sugar deoxyribose Side Phosphate group - SideNitrogen Base - RungsAdenine pairs with ThymineGuanine pairs with Cytosine

RNASingle strandVarious JobsMessenger mRNA Transporter tRNAStructural rRNA BasesAdenineUracilCytosineGuanine

DNA ReplicationProcess of making 2 identical strands of DNADNA unzippedComplementary bases match upA with TG with C

Protein SynthesisMaking proteins from code in DNATranscription in nucleusDNA mRNAA pairs with UC pairs with GTranslation at ribosome mRNA (codon) forms pattern for tRNA (anticodon) to pair with its attached amino acidAmino acid determined from chart

EcologyEnergy in an ecosystem flows from producers (autotrophs) to consumers (heterotrophs)Food chain Producer primary consumer secondary consumerFood Web series of interconnected food chainsFollow arrows to see who eats whom FOOD WEB Hawk Snake Lizard Mouse Bird

Grasshopper Rabbit Grass

Ecological SuccessionProcess of replacing existing organisms with new organismsTypesPrimary Succession in new environment island formed by volcanoSecondary Succession in environment where organisms used live after a fireStages of SuccessionPioneer Species First species to grow in a new location (moss, algae, etc.)Developmental (Seral) Species gradually larger species (grasses, ferns, shrubs, small trees, etc)Climax Community Stable community established by succession in Virginia Oak/Hickory Forest

Population Growth CurvesJ shaped Curve shows lag and exponential phasesS shaped Curve shows lag, exponential, and stabiliztion phasesCarrying Capacity the number of organisms in a population that can be supported by the available resources

EvolutionEvolutionTheory that describes changes in living things and links them to environmental changes

Early life on earth was probably:ProkaryoticHeterotrophicAnaerobic

Development of Eukaryotic CellsEndosymbiotic Theory prokaryotes lived together as a small colony became cell organellesMitochondria anaerobic bacteriaChloroplasts Blue-Green BacteriaEvidence used in EvolutionFossils remains/traces of once living organismsUsed to help date eventsAnatomical use structural similarities as evidenceHomologous Organs Similar function/Similar originVestigial Organs Reduced in size/no useEmbryological similarities of embryosCommon features gill slits; notochordBiochemical similar proteins mean similar DNALamarcks TheoryInheritance of Acquired Traits developed characteristics could be passed to offspringGiraffe stretches neck, babies have longer necks

Darwins TheoryWorld is not static but changingLiving things change through time (mutations)Organisms with common characteristics have common ancestorChange is result of natural selectionBest suited survives to reproduce and pass on changes

Processes of EvolutionGene Mutations DNA changesAdaptation Shifts change in frequency of genes as environment changes Peppered MothMigration movement of organism in or out of populationIsolation separation of organisms from othersEvolutionary PathwaysDivergent become different from common ancestorAdaptive Radiation species adapts to set of environmental conditionsDarwins Finches common ancestor; filled different habitats and niches on Galapagos Islands (Desert)Convergent unrelated species develop similar characteristicsBirds and Bats wingsStreamline body of fish, whales, etc.

The KingdomsArchaebacteriaProkaryoticUnicellularLive in extreme environments

EubacteriaProkaryotic UnicellularNormal Bacteria

ProtistaEukaryoticUnicellular, some multicellularThe Junk Drawer Kingdom

FungiEukaryoticMostly multicellular Heterotrophic by absorptionChitin in cell walls

PlantaeEukaryoticMulticellularNonmotileAutotrophicCellulose in cell walls

AnimaliaEukaryoticMulticellularMotileHeterotrophic Ingestion