EDU5900 AB. RAHIM 1

SOURCES OF KNOWLDGE

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Where do we get information we want?(Source of knowledge) 1. Experience 2. Authority 3. Deductive reasoning 4. Industive reasoning

1. Experiences, what does it mean?

But, what’s the problem?

• Overgeneralization • Selected observation.• Premature closure • Halo Effect

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Authority/expert opinionPeople sometimes seek opinion form someone who has the experience or knowledge.We see physician for health problems, we see stockbrokers for investment etc.

Who are the authoties?Parents, teachers, expert, booksQuick, simple and cheap way to learn something

Is the answer or solution valid and reliable?It depends on the credentials of the experts. They give opinions based on what the person knows

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Tradition

That is the authority of the pastMisalnya: kenapa buat begini? Orang dah biasa buat begini, sakitnya baik

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Common sense

Kalau hukuman tak berat, penagih makin ramai

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Media myth

Apa yang digambarkan oleh media semuanya betul

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Deductive reasoning (Proses Logik)

Reaching conclusion through logic

From general to specific

A system of organizing known facts in order to reach a conclusion through a logic process

Bermula dengan premis [supporting evidence] (major dan minor) dan berakhir dengan rumusanUntuk membolehkan rumusan itu benar, maka premis mestilah benar.

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Contoh deductive reasoning

ORANG MALAYSIA ADALAH ORANG ASIA. (major premise)AHMAD ADALAH ORANG MALAYSIA. (minor premise)OLEH ITU AHMAD ADALAH ORANG ASIA. (Conclusion)

All human beings are mortalSally is a human beingTherefore, Sally is mortal

every mammal has lungsAll rabbits are mammalsTherefore, every rabbit has a lung

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** both mojor and minor premise must be true to come to a true conclusion**

** if either one is fall the conclusion may not be true**

As long as the first two statements are true, the third statement must be true.

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Inductive reasoning-empirism

Conclusion is reached by observing examples and generalizing from example to the whole class

In deductive, premise must be known and true before a true conclusion can be reached. But, how one is to know if the premises are true?

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Untuk lebih pasti lagi mengenai ketepatan rumusan , kita mesti cerap semua contoh. Dan ini dikenali PERFECT INDUCTION

Tetapi dalam keadaan sebenar, pencerapan ke atas semua unit adalah tidak praktikal, maka kita akan buat imperfect induction berdasarkan pencerapan yang tidak lengkap.

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Kita hanya mampu buat perfect induction bagi kumpulan kecil sahaja. Sesuatu rumusan yang kita buat untuk suatu kumpulan kecil tidak semestinya benar untuk kumpulan lain.

Oleh itu kita biasanya buat imperfect induction di mana kita cerap sample kemudian kita infer kepada keseluruhan kumpulan.

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Example of inductive reasoning

Every rabbit that has ever been observed has lungTherefore, every rabbits has lungs

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KAEDAH SAINTIFIK- empirical approach

Ialah kombinasi deduktif dan induktifSebabnya : pengumpulan data secara induction alone (isolated knowledge) tak banyak memberi sumbangan kepada kemajuan pengetahuan dan banyak masalah tidak dapat diselesaikan secara induction semata-mata

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A process in which investigators move inductively from their observation to hypothesis and then deductively from hypothesis to the logical implication of the hypothesis.

The use of hypothesis is a principal difference between scientific approach and inductive reasoning. In inductive-one makes observations first. Scientific-hypothesis than make observation

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Scientific Method

• “ Science is a way of thinking that involves continuous and systematic interplay of rationale thought and empirical observation

• The 6 Basic Components of Science• Understanding a topic and prior research on that topic.• Develop a research question or theory.• Developing procedures to answer the question or test

the theory.• Planning for, and then making appropriate empirical observations.• Rationally interpreting the empirical observations.• Publishing/disseminating findings and interpretations.

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The Empirical Approach

The “WHY”, “WHOM”, “HOW”, and “WHEN” of research!

WHY: establishes the need for the study, and generates a series ofexpected results, or hypotheses.

WHOM: what population, and whether the population or a sample

HOW: selection of variables to observe, and how to statisticallyanalyze them

WHEN: establishes the need for the study

Acquired data may be numbers or narrative, depending on the type ofResearch

Quantitative Qualitative

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The 4 Basic Assumptions of Science

1. A true, physical universe exists.2. The universe is primarily an orderly system.3. The principles of this orderly universe can be discovered,

particularly through scientific research.4. Our knowledge of the universe is always incomplete.

a) new knowledge can, and should, alter current ideas and theories. Therefore,` b) all knowledge and theories are tentative.

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5 steps of a typical scientific inquiry

1. Identify the problem-disturbance in schools2. Define the problem – make it clear what exactly the problem is3. Formulate hypothesis- will …this is the possibility4. Project consequences-what if? what would

happen if we… 5. Test hypothesis

Rumusan

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Proses of mainting motosikal.

Goes over the bump: misfire, go again misfire again, several times.Go over smooth stretch- nothing happen, go over bump- misfire again, then we can conlcude that misfiring was caused by bump. This is inductive Iaitu kita mula dengan pemerhatian baru kita buat keputusan.

Katakan kita tak boleh start engine kereta. Kita tahu to start a car you need power which is powered by the battery. Dengan itu jika batery mati, maka kereta tak boleh dihidupkan. Dan ini adalah deduction. Start with general knowledge and predict specific observation.

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Kekangan kaedah saintifik dalam sosial sains

Complexity subject matter with human subject.Variables

Difficulty in making generalizationKesukaran pencerapan/pemerhatianSubjective interpretationKesukaran mengulangi kajian

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Limitation of scientific approach

Complexity of subject matter

Human beings (various charcteristics)

Difficulty in Observation Less objective. Own values and attitudes may have some influence

Difficult in replication Location, researcher, subjects experience and values

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Interaction of observers and subjects

May think that X causes Y. It may be their present that cause Y. Hawthorne experiment

Control problems Lots of variable may influence the findings. Rigid control in impossible. Work under condition that is less precise, has to deal with many variables at one time

Measurement problems Deals with validity and reliability of measurement

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Designs and methodological problems

Limitations of findings

Impose of values Subjective interpretation

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Attitudes of scientistsDoubters who maintain a highly skeptical attitude toward the data of science

Finidngs are tenttative. Need verification. Need replication

Objective and impartial No perosonal bias. May discard the theory if enough eveidence to do so

Deals with facts not values Do not make decision about what is good or bad. They provide data concerning the realtionship among events but you must go a step further to make decision

Not satisfied with isolated facts but seek to integrate and systematize their findings

Put things in an orderly system. Bring together the findings into a meaningdful pattern

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Role of Theory In Research

Theories explain relationships between discrete observations.

• Not all research tests or develops theories

• Most research relies on theories to develop hypotheses.

• Theories can be:

Deductive Inductive.

Theory leads to development Theory formulated from

Hypothesis discrete observation

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What is a theory?

A set of interelated constructs (concepts), defination, and propositions that presents a systematic view of of phenomena by specifing relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena. Theory knit together the results of observations, enabling scientist to make general statements about variables and the relationships among variables

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Purposes of theories

– Explain why……– Predict what will…– Suggest control…