Space Robotics Full Report

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space robotics full report

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ABSTRACTRobot is a mechanical bodywith the brain of a computer.Integrating the sensors andthe actuators and with thehelp of the computers, wecan use it to perform thedesired tasks. Robot can dohazardous jobs and canreach places where itsdifficult for human beings to

reach. Robots, whichsubstitute the mannedactivities in space, areknown as space robots. Theinterest in this field led tothe development of newbranch of technology calledspace robotics. Through thispaper, I intend to discussabout the applications,environmental condition,

testing and structure of spacerobots.CONTENTS

Chapter -IINTRODUCTIONRobot is a system with amechanical body, usingcomputer as its brain.Integrating the sensors andactuators built into the

mechanical body, themotions are realised with thecomputer software toexecute the desired task.Robots are more flexible interms of ability to performnew tasks or to carry outcomplex sequence of motion
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than other categories ofautomated manufacturingequipment. Today there islot of interest in this fieldand a separate branch of

technology roboticshas emerged. It is concernedwith all problems of robotdesign, development andapplications. The technologyto substitute or subsidise themanned activities in space iscalled space robotics.Various applications ofspace robots are theinspection of a defective

satellite, its repair, or theconstruction of a spacestation and supply goods tothis station and its retrievaletc. With the over lap ofknowledge of kinematics,dynamics and control andprogress in fundamentaltechnologies it is about tobecome possible to designand develop the advanced

robotics systems. And thiswill throw open the doors toexplore and experience theuniverse and bring countlesschanges for the better in theways we live.1.1 AREAS OFAPPLICATIONThe space robot applicationscan be classified into thefollowing four categories

1 In-orbit positioning andassembly: For deploymentof satellite and for assemblyof modules to satellite/spacestation.2 Operation: For conductingexperiments in space lab.3 Maintenance: For removal


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and replacement of faultymodules/packages.4 Resupply: For supply ofequipment, materials forexperimentation in space lab

and for the resupply of fuel.The following examplesgive specific applicationsunder the above categoriesScientific experimentation:Conduct experimentation inspace labs that may include Metallurgicalexperiments which may behazardous. Astronomical

observations. Biological experiments.Assist crew in space stationassembly Assist in deployment andassembly out side thestation. Assist crew inside thespace station: Routine crewfunctions inside the spacestation and maintaining life

support system.Space servicing functions Refueling. Replacement of faultymodules. Assist jammedmechanism say a solarpanel, antenna etc.Space craft enhancements Replace payloads by anupgraded module.

Attach extra modules inspace.

Space tug Grab a satellite andeffect orbital transfer. Efficient transfer ofsatellites from low earth


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orbit to geostationary orbit.1.2 SPACE SHUTTLETILEREWATERPROOFINGROBOT

TESSELLATOR

TessellatorTessellator is a mobilemanipulator system toservice the space shuttle.Themethod of rewaterproofingfor space shuttle orbitersinvolves repetitivelyinjecting the extremelyhazardous

dimethyloxysilane (DMES)into approximately 15000bottom tile after each spaceflight. The field roboticcenter at Carneige MellonUniversity has developed amobile manipulating robot,Tessellator for autonomoustile rewaterproofing. Itsautomatic process yieldstremendous benefit through

increased productivity andsafety.In this project, a 2D-vehicleworkspace covering andvehicle routing problem hasbeen formulated as theTravelling WorkstationProblem (TWP). In theTWP, a workstation isdefined as a vehicle whichoccupies or serves a certain

area and it can travel; aworkspace is referred to as a2D actuation envelop ofmanipulator systems orsensory systems which arecarried on the workstation; awork area refers to a whole2D working zone for a


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workstation.The objective of the TWP is1 To determine theminimum number ofworkspaces and their layout,

in which, we shouldminimize the overlappingamong the workspaces andavoid conflict withobstacles.2 To determine the optimalroute of the workstationmovement, in which theworkstation travels over allworkspaces within a lowestcost (i.e. routing time).

The constraints of theproblem are1) The workstation shouldserve or cover all workareas.2) The patterns ordimensions of eachworkspace are the same and3) There some geographicalobstacles or restricted areas.In the study, heuristicsolutions for the TWP, and a

case study of Tessellator hasbeen conducted. It isconcluded that the coveringstrategies, e.g.decomposition and otherlayout strategies yieldsatisfactory solution forworkspace covering, and thecost-saving heuristics cannear-optimally solve therouting problem. The

following figure shows asample solution of TWP forTessellator.

Path of tessellator on 2Dworkspace of space shuttle1.3 ROBOTS TO REFUELSATELLITES


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The US department ofdefense is developing anorbital-refueling robot thatcould expand the life span ofAmerican spy satellites

many times over, newscientists reported. Therobotic refueler called anAutonomous SpaceTransporter and RoboticOrbiter (ASTRO) couldshuttle between orbiting fueldumps and satellitesaccording to the DefenseAdvance Research ProjectsAgency. Therefore, life of a

satellite would no longer belimited to the amount of fuelwith which it is launched.Spy satellites carry a smallamount of fuel, calledhydrazine, which enablethem to change position toscan different parts of theglobe or to go into a higherorbit. Such maneuveringmakes a satellites position

difficult for an enemy topredict. But, under thecurrent system, when thefuel runs out, the satellitegradually falls out of orbitand goes crashing to theearth. In the future therefueler could also carry outrepair works on faultysatellites, provided the havemodular electronic systems

that can be fixed by slot inreplacements.Chapter IISPACEROBOT CHALLENGESIN DESIGN ANDTESTINGRobots developed for space


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applications will besignificantly different fromtheir counter part in ground.Space robots have to satisfyunique requirements to

operate in zero gconditions (lack of gravity),in vacuum and in highthermal gradients, and faraway from earth. Thephenomenon of zero gravityeffects physical action andmechanism performance.The vacuum and thermalconditions of spaceinfluence material and

sensor performance. Thedegree of remoteness of theoperator may vary from afew meters to millions ofkilometers. The principleeffect of distance is the timedelay in commandcommunication and itsrepercussions on the actionof the arms. The details arediscussed below

2.1 ZERO g EFFECTON DESIGNThe gravity freeenvironment in which thespace robot operatespossesses both advantagesand disadvantages. The massto be handled by themanipulator arm is not aconstraint in the zerog environment.

Hence, the arm and thejoints of the space robotneed not withstand theforces and the moment loadsdue to gravity. This willresult in an arm which willbe light in mass. The designof the manipulator arm will


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not sag as on earth. Unlikeon earth the position of thearm can be within the bandof the backlash at each joint.

2.2 VACUUM EFFECTAND THERMAL EFFECTThe vacuum in space cancreate heat transfer problemsand mass loss of the materialthrough evaporation orsublimation. This is to betaken care by properselection of materials,lubricants etc., so as to meetthe total mass loss (TML) of


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distortion in structuralelements and jamming of themechanism. This calls forthe proper selection of thematerials whose properties

are acceptable in the abovetemperature ranges and theselection of suitableprotective coatings andinsulation to ensure that thetemperature of the system iswithin allowable limits.2.3 OTHER FACTORSOne of the primerequirements of spacesystems is lightweight and

compactness. The structuralmaterial to be used musthave high specific strengthand high specific stiffness,to ensure compactness,minimum mass and highstiffness. The other criticalenvironment to which thespace robot will be subjectedto are the dynamic loadsduring launch. These

dynamic loads are composedof sinusoidal vibrations,random vibrations, acousticnoise and separation shockspectra.The electrical and electronicsubsystems will have to bespace qualified to take careof the above environmentalconditions during launch andin orbit. The components

must be protected againstradiation to ensure properperformance throughout itslife in orbit.The space robots will haveto possess a very highdegree of reliability and thisis to be achieved right from


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the design phase of thesystem. A failure modeeffect and critical analysis(FMECA) is to be carriedout to identify the different

failure modes effects andthese should be addressed inthe design by Choosing proven/reliabledesigns. Having good designmargins. Have design withredundancy.2.4 SPACE MODULARMANIPULATORS

The unique thermal, vacuumand gravitational conditionsof space drive the robotdesign process towardssolutions that are muchdifferent from the typicallaboratory robot. JSC's A&RDivision is at the forefrontof this design effort with theprototypes being built for theSpace Modular Manipulators

(SMM) project. The firstSMM joint prototype hascompleted its thermal-mechanical-electrical designphase, is now underconstruction in the JSCshops, and is scheduled forthermal-vac chamber tests inFY94.FY93 was the SMMproject's first year, initiating

the effort with a MITRECorporation review of theexisting space manipulatordesign efforts (RMS andFTS) and interaction withongoing development teams(RANGER, JEM, SPDM,STAR and SAT). Below this


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system level, customcomponent vendors formotors, amplifiers, sensorsand cables were investigatedto capture the state-of-the-art

in space robot design. Fourmain design drivers wereidentified as critical to thedevelopment process:1. Extreme ThermalConditions;2. High ReliabilityRequirements;3. Dynamic Performance;and4. Modular Design.

While these design issuesare strongly coupled, mostrobot design teams havehandled them independently,resulting in an iterativeprocess as each solutionimpacts the other problems.The SMM design team hassought a system levelapproach that will bedemonstrated as prototypes,

which will be tested in theJSC thermal-vacuumfacilities.The thermal-vacuumconditions of space are themost dramatic differencebetween typical laboratoryrobot and space manipulatordesign requirements.Manufacturing robotsoperate in climate

controlled, \|O(+,-)2Kfactory environments, wherespace manipulators must bedesigned for \|O(+,) 75Ktemperature variations with1500 W/m2 of solar flux.Despite these environmentalextremes, the technology to


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model and control robotprecision over a widetemperature range can beapplied to terrestrial roboticoperations where the

extreme precisionrequirements demand totalthermal control, such as insemiconductormanufacturing and medicalrobot applications.Thermal conditions impactreliability by cyclingmaterials and components,adding to the dynamicloading that causes typical

robot fatigue and inaccuracy.MITRE built a customisedthermal analysis model, afailure analysis model usingFEAT, and applied the faulttolerance research funded byJSC at the University ofTexas. The strategy is tolayer low level redundancyin the joint modules with ahigh level, redundant

kinematic system design,where minor joint failurescan be masked and seriousfailures result inreconfigured arm operation.In this approach, all fourdesign drivers wereaddressed in the selection ofthe appropriate level ofmodular design as a 2-DOFjoint module.

The major technicalaccomplishments for theFY93 SMM project are:1 Conceptual and detaileddesign of first jointprototype;2 Detailed design andfabrication of thermal-


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vacuum test facility;3 Custom design of thermal-vac rated motors, bearings,sensors and cables; and4 Published two technical

papers (R. Ambrose & R.Berka) on robot thermaldesign.Chapter-IIISYSTEM VERIFICATIONAND TESTINGThe reliability is to bedemonstrated by a numberof tests enveloping all theenvironmental conditions(thermal and vacuum) that

the system will be subjectedto. Verification of functionsand tests will be conductedon subsystems,subassemblies and finalqualification and acceptancetests will be done oncomplete system. The mostdifficult and the nearlyimpossible simulation duringtesting will be zero g

simulation.The commonly usedsimulations for zero gare1 Flat floor test facility: Itsimulates zero genvironments in thehorizontal plane. In thissystem flat floor concept isbased on air bearing slidingover a large slab of polished

granite.2 Water immersion:Reduced gravity is simulatedby totally submerging therobot under water andtesting. This system providesmulti degree of freedom fortesting. However, the model


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has to be water-resistant andhave an overall specificgravity of one. This methodis used by astronauts forextra vehicular activities

with robot.3 Compensation system:Gravitational force iscompensated by a passiveand vertical counter systemand actively controlledhorizontal system. Thevertical system comprisesthe counter mechanism and aseries of pulleys and cablesthat provide a constant

upward force to balance theweight of the robot.However, the countermechanism increases theinertia and the friction ofjoints of rotatingmechanism.3.1 PERFORMANCEASSESSMENT ANDCALIBRATIONSTRATEGIES FOR SPACE

ROBOTSPredictable safe and costefficient operation of arobotic device for spaceapplications can best beachieved by programming itoffline during thepreparation for the mission.Computer aided designtechniques are used to assurethat the movement of the

robot are predictable. Asoftware model of the robotand its work cell is made andthis must be compatible withthe model of theenvironment in which therobot must perform. Costefficiency requirements


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dictate that a robot becalibrated, after which itsperformance must bechecked against specifiedrequirements.

Proper use of miniaturizedsensing technology isneeded to produce a robot ofminimum size, powerrequirement andconsumption and mass. Thisoften requires minimizingthe number and the type ofsensors needed, andmaximizing the information(such as position, velocity,

and acceleration) which isgained from each sensor.The study of methods ofassessing the performance ofa robot, choosing its sensorsand performing calibrationand test, ESA passed acontract with industry.Results of this work areapplicable to any robotwhose kinematics chain

needs accurate geometricalmodeling.3.1.1 ROBOTPERFORMANCEASSESSMENTThe objectives of robotperformance assessment are To identify the mainsource of error whichperturb the accuracy of thearm.

To decide if the arm orthe work cell must becalibrated. To compare the expectedimprovement in accuracy incalibration.The performance of therobot is assessed by making


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mathematical model of thecharacteristics of the errorsource in each of its subsystem such as the joint, therobot link or its gripper.

From these the effects oferrors on the positioningaccuracy of end effector (thefunctioning tip of the robotarm) can be evaluated.Error sources are identifiedby a bottom up analysis,which tale account of thecapabilities of state of the artproduction technology. Foreach robot subsystem error

sources are identified andare sorted into threecategories. Systematic error whichdo not vary with time, suchas parallelism, concentricityand link length. Pseudo systematic error,which are time variant yetpredictable such astemperature induced effects.

Random errors, whichvary with time and cannotbe, predicted such asencoded noise.Once the error source havebeen classified and itsmagnitude defined, variousstatistical methods may beused to evaluate its effectswhen they work incombination. Simply adding

all the errors, take noaccount of their statisticalnature and gives an estimatewhich is safe but undulypessimistic; misapplicationof statistics can produce anestimate, which is toooptimistic.


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Accuracy of some paintingmechanism is frequentlyestimated by separatelyeliminating the root meansquare value of each of the

three error types identifiedabove and adding them. Inthe case of AMTS project,all error sources wereconsidered as statisticalvariables and a single rootmean square error at the endeffector was of interest. Thebottom up approach used toestablish the contribution ofeach power source error

source was validated takingthe case of manipulator forwhich a worst case accuracyof 2.7mm was predicted.This was very close to itsaverage accuracy of 2mm.3.1.2 ROBOTCALIBRATIONIf the performanceprediction has shown thatcalibration is needed to

compensate for errors, aproper calibration approachis required.Ideally, all calibration mustbe done on ground. In orbitcalibration proceduresshould be limited tocrosschecking the validity ofmodel developed on groundand if necessary correctingfor errors such as microslip

page or pressure gradient.To keep the flight hardwaresimple, the in orbitcalibration should beachieved using sensorsalready available in therobot.Calibration is performed in


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five steps: Modeling, in which aparametric description of therobot is developed,introducing geometric

parameters such as linklength and non geometricparameters such as controlparameters. Measurement, in which aset of robot poses (positionand orientation) and encoderdata are measured using realrobot to provide inputs to theidentification test step. Identification, which

uses the parametric modeland the measured data todetermine the optimal set oferror parameters. Model implementation,which may be done either byupdating the root controllerdata or by correcting therobot pose with expectedstandard deviation of theerror.

Verification, that theimprovement in thepositioning accuracy of therobot in all three axes havebeen achieved.A method for calibratingeach axes independently hasbeen successfully developedin the frame of the contract.This method usesindependent measurements

of motions along each of thethree axes. Advantage of thisapproach compared to otherssuch as those requiring allrobot joints movesimultaneously is that itsubdivides the generalproblem of robot calibration


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into a set of problems oflower complexity, thusachieving good stability andnumerical precession. Thecalibration software is

parametric and is suitable forcalibrating any open robotkinematics chain.3.1.3 PERFORMANCEEVALUATIONAs part of a verificationprocedure, specificperformance tests werecarried out on a robot byKrypton under contract toESA. The first was an

accuracy test in which therobot had to adapt aspecified pose and aim at apoint, key characteristics forpredictable offlineprogramming. The secondtest evaluated therepeatability with which therobot could reach a pose ithad been taught to adopt.This is essential for

performing repetitive androutine tasks.Finally, the multidirectionalpose accuracy was tested toestablish the effect ofrandom errors and toestablish the limits ofcalibration procedure. Theperformance of the robotwas measured before andafter calibration.

Procedures for calibratingrobots on ground and inorbit have been developed,and the performance of therobotic devices has beensuccessfully tested. Therobot calibration procedureproved to work well


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resulting in an improvementin performance by a factorof ten in some cases. Thecalibration software isversatile and it can be used

to calibrate and evaluatemost kinematics chainsranging from a simple twoaxes antenna gimbalsmechanism to a ten axesmanipulator. These softwareprocedures are now used byKrypton for applications inmost motor industry andelsewhere.Chapter-IV

STRUCTURE OF SPACEROBOTS4.1 DESCRIPTION OFSTRUCTURE OF SPACEROBOTThe proposed robot is ofarticulated type with 6degrees of freedom (DOF).The reason for 6 DOFsystem rather than one withlesser number of DOF is that

it is not possible to freeze allthe information aboutpossible operations of thepayload/racks in 3D space toexclude some DOF of therobot. Hence, a versatilerobot is preferred, as thiswill not impose anyconstraints on the design ofthe laboratory payload/racksand provide flexibility in the

operation of the robot. Asystem with more than sixDOF can be providedredundancies and can beused to overcome obstacles.However, the complexitiesin analysis and control forthis configuration become


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multifold.The robot consists of twoarms i.e. an upper arm and alower arm. The upper arm isfixed to the base and has

rotational DOF about pitchand yaw axis. The lower armis connected to the upperarm by a rotary joint aboutthe pitch axis. These 3 DOFenable positioning of the endeffector at any required pointin the work space. A three-roll wrist mechanism at theend of the lower arm is usedto orient the end effector

about any axis. An endeffector connected to thewrist performs the requiredfunctions of the hand.Motors through a drivecircuit drive the joint of thearm and wrist. Angularencoders at each jointcontrol the motion abouteach axis. The end effectoris driven by a motor and a

pressure sensor/strain gaugeson the fingers are used tocontrol the grasping force onthe job.4.2 DISCRIPTION OFSUBSYSTEMSThe main subsystems in thedevelopment of themanipulator arm are Joints Arm

Wrist Gripper

4.2.1 JOINTSA joint permits relativemotion between two links ofa robot. Two types of jointsare


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1 Roll joint rotationalaxis is identical with the axisof the fully extended arm.2 Pitch joint rotationalaxis is perpendicular to the

axis of the extended arm andhence rotation angle islimited.The main requirements forthe joints are to have nearzero backlash, high stiffnessand low friction. In view ofthe limitations on thevolume to be occupied bythe arm within theworkspace, the joints are to

be highly compact and hencethey are integrated to thearm structure. To ensure ahigh stiffness of the joint theactuator, reduction gear unitand angular encoders areintegrated into the joint.Each joint consists of Pancake type DC torquemotors (rare earth magnettype) which have advantage

over other types of motorswith respect to size, weight,response time and hightorque to inertia ratio. Harmonic gear driveused for torqueamplification/speedreduction. These gear driveshave near zero backlash, canobtain high gear ratios inone stage only and have high

efficiency. Electromagneticallyactuated friction brakes,which prevent unintentionalmovements to the arms. Thisis specifically required whenthe gear drive is not self-locking. In space


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environment, where thegravity loads are absent(zero g environment)brakes will help to improvethe stability of the joint

actuator control system. i.e.the brake can be applied assoon as the joint velocity isless than the threshold value. Electro optical angularencoders at each axis tosense the position of the endof the arm. Space qualifiedlubricants like molybdenumdisulphide (bondedfilm/sputtered), lead, gold

etc. will be used for the geardrives and for the ballbearings.4.2.2 ROBOT ARMSThe simplest arm is the pickand place type. These maybe used to assemble parts orfit them into clamp orfixture. This is possible dueto high accuracy attainablein robot arm. It is possible to

hold the part securely afterpicking up and in such a waythat the position and theorientation remainsaccurately known withrespect to the arm. Robotarms can manipulate objectshaving complicated shapesand fragile in nature.4.2.3 WRISTRobot arm comprises of

grippers and wrist. Wrist isattached to the robot armand has three DOF (pitch,yaw, and roll). Wristpossesses the ability todeform in response to theforces and the torques andreturn to equilibrium


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position after the deflectingforces are removed.4.2.4 GRIPPERGripper is attached to thewrist of the manipulator to

accomplish the desired task.Its design depends on theshape and size of the part tobe held.Chapter-VOPERATION5.1 SPACE SHUTTLEROBOT ARM (SHUTTLEREMOTE MANIPULATORSYSTEM)5.1.1 USE OF SHUTTLE

ROBOT ARMThe Shuttle's robot arm isused for various purposes. Satellite deployment andretrieval Construction ofInternational Space Station Transport an EVA crewmember at the end of thearm and provide a scaffold

to him or her. (An EVAcrew member moves insidethe cargo bay in co-operation with the supportcrew inside the Shuttle.) Survey the outside of theSpace Shuttle with a TVcamera attached to the elbowor the wrist of the robot arm.

Shuttle robot arm observed

from the deck5.1.2 ROBOT ARMOPERATION MODESRMS is operated inside theSpace Shuttle cabin. Theoperation is performed fromthe aft flight deck (AFD),right behind the cockpit;


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either through the window orby watching two TVmonitors. To control theSRMS, the operator uses thetranslational hand controller

(THC) with his or her lefthand and manipulates therotational hand controller(RHC) with his or her righthand.

THC RHC5.1.3 HOW SPACESHUTTLE ROBOT ARMGRASPS OBJECTHow does the Space Shuttle

robot arm grasp objectsMany people might think ofhuman hand or magic hand,but its mechanism is asfollows.At the end of the robot armis a cylinder called the endeffector. Inside this cylinderequipped three wires that areused to grasp objects. Theobject to be grasped needs to

have a stick-shapedprojection called a grapplefixture. The three wires inthe cylinder fix this grapplefixture at the centre of thecylinder.However, a sight is neededto acquire the grapple fixturewhile manipulating a robotarm as long as 45 feet. Thegrapple fixture has a target

mark, and a rod is mountedvertically on this mark. Therobot arm operator monitorsthe TV image of the markand the rod, and operates therobot arm to approach thetarget while keeping the rodstanding upright to the robot


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arm. If the angular balancebetween the rod and therobot arm is lost, that canimmediately be detectedthrough the TV image.

End effector and grapplefixture

Robot arms payloadacquiring sequence5.2 FREE FLYING SPACEROBOTSThe figure below shows anexample of a free flyingspace robot. It is called ETS

VII (engineering testsatellite VII). It wasdesigned by NASDA andlaunched in November 1997.In a free flying space robot arobot arm is attached to thesatellite base. There is a veryspecific control problem.When the robot arm moves,it disturbs the altitude of thesatellite base.

This is not desirablebecause, The satellite may startrotating in an uncontrollableway. The antennacommunication link may beinterrupted.One of the researchobjectives is to design robotarm trajectories and to

control the arm motion insuch a way that the satellitebase remains undisturbed orthat the disturbance will beminimum.

Free flying space robots


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5.3 SPACE STATIONMOUNTED ROBOTSThe international spacestation (ISS) is asophisticated structural

assembly. There will beseveral robot arms whichwill help astronauts inperforming a variety oftasks.

JEMRMSThe figure shows a part ofISS including the JapaneseExperimental Module(JEM). A long manipulator

arm can be seen. The arm iscalled JEMRMS (JEMRemote ManipulatingSystem). A smallmanipulator arm calledSPDM (Special purposedexterous Manipulator) canbe attached to JEMRMS toimprove the accuracy ofoperation.

SPDM5.4 SPACE ROBOTTELEOPERATIONSpace robotics is one of theimportant technologies inspace developments.Especially, it is highlydesired to develop acompletely autonomousrobot, which can workwithout any aid of the

astronauts. However, withthe present state oftechnologies, it is notpossible to develop acomplete autonomous spacerobot. Therefore, theteleoperation technologiesfor the robots with high


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levels of autonomy becomevery important. Currently,the technologies where anoperator teleoperates a spacerobot from within a

spacecraft are already inpractical use, like thecapture of a satellite with theshuttle arm. However, thenumber of astronauts inspace is limited, and it is notpossible to achieve rapidprogresses in spacedevelopments with theteleoperation from withinthe spacecraft. For this

reason, it has become highlydesired to develop thetechnologies for theteleoperation of space robotsfrom the ground in the futurespace missions.CONCLUSIONIn the future, robotics willmake it possible for billionsof people to have lives ofleisure instead of the current

preoccupation with materialneeds. There are hundreds ofmillions who are nowfascinated by space but donot have the means toexplore it. For them spacerobotics will throw open thedoor to explore andexperience the universe.

Reference:http://seminarprojects.com/Thread-space-robotics-full-report#ixzz1vgDghEZ0
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Space Robotics Full Report