Speaking out on Gender: Reflections on Women’s Advancement in the STEM

Disciplines

Faye Linda Wachs, Cal Poly Faye Linda Wachs, Cal Poly PomonaPomona

Jill Nemiro, Cal Poly PomonaJill Nemiro, Cal Poly Pomona

•In 2005, Caltech’s entire chemical engineering doctoral class was female (all six of them) (Reitman, 2005)

•Will these women become faculty, and if so, what can they expect to find? Will they advance at rates similar to comparable male counterparts? Will academia prove to be an attractive option compared to industry?

Undergraduate STEM Undergraduate STEM DegreesDegrees• Women are closing the gender gap at the lower levels of education, but are not moving into positions of authority in equal numbers, especially in the STEM disciplines.

• Women earn 58% of undergraduate degrees in life sciences (biology, chemistry, geology), 47% of math degrees, and 40% of degrees in physical sciences.

• Still, only 19% of undergraduate degrees in engineering are earned by women (NSF, 2000).

Graduate DegreesGraduate Degrees• For doctoral degrees, women earn over half of those awarded overall (Wilson, 2004).

• In 2003, in all STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) disciplines, women earned 37.5% of doctoral degrees, but only 17% of engineering and 26.5% of mathematics doctorates go to women (NSF, 2006).

• Physical science - 26.9% of doctoral degrees went to women), and only about a third of doctoral degrees awarded in Earth, atmospheric and ocean sciences, and agricultural sciences go to women. By contrast women receive the majority of doctoral degrees in psychology (68.1%), sociology (59.0%) anthropology (61.0%) and Area and ethnic studies (68.9%) (NSF, 2006).

Pipeline ProblemsPipeline Problems•The “Pipeline” explanation is the most common one given for the shortage of women in STEM disciplines. The “pipeline” explanation argues that women in agriculture, engineering and the physical sciences have thus far failed to achieve the critical mass required to enact institutional change (Kulis, Sicotte, and Collins, 2002; Etzkowitz et al., 1994). – Fails to acknowledge a need to unclog the Fails to acknowledge a need to unclog the pipespipes

– Fails to account for how the pipes became Fails to account for how the pipes became clogged.clogged.

– Tends to put the onus on women for failing to Tends to put the onus on women for failing to enter the pipeline regardless of barriers.enter the pipeline regardless of barriers.

Why Pipeline Explanations are Why Pipeline Explanations are InsufficientInsufficient

•Under-representation of women Under-representation of women relative to number of earned relative to number of earned doctoratesdoctorates

•Clustering of women in specific Clustering of women in specific fieldsfields

•Climate of DiscriminationClimate of Discrimination

•Parity tends to filter upParity tends to filter up

•Income Inequity makes academia less Income Inequity makes academia less appealing to womenappealing to women

Women in the STEM disciplines are under-represented relative to the proportion of women who earn doctorate degrees in many fields.

• While 17% of doctoral degrees in awarded in Engineering in 2003 went to women (NSF, 2006), only 9.5% of full time faculty and instructional staff in Engineering are women (DOE, 2004).

• While 42.9% of Science PhDs are women (NSF, 2006), only 22.9% of science faculty are female (DOE, 2004).

• Women with doctorates are approximately three times more likely to be underemployed than their male colleagues (NSF, 1999).

• Women are even more under-represented as tenured professors relative to their representation in the labor pool (Kulis, Sciotte, and Collins, 2002).

• Male assistant professors are more likely to earn tenure, and be named full professor, than their female counterparts (Wilson, 2004).

• In fields in which representation of women is close to parity, women are less likely to occupy tenure track lines (Kulis, Sciotte, and Collins, 2002). – This is true even in humanities disciplines, such as history, where only 18% of full professors are female, despite almost 40% of assistant professors being female by 1988 (Jaschik, 2005).

Women tend to clustered in specific fields in the life sciences, social sciences and psychology (Kulis, Sciotte, and Collins, 2002; NSF, 1998).

• While some have argued this clustering reflects innate abilities, it is far more likely that a combination of social structural variables account for such differences.

• Further, while blatant discrimination appears less frequently, more subtle forms of bias limit women’s access to top institutions (Wilson, 2004). – Lack of mentoring, subtle forms of Lack of mentoring, subtle forms of discriminationdiscrimination

Climate of Discrimination• MIT (1999) reported that “gender had probably caused their professional lives to differ significantly from those of their male colleagues.” (P.5)

• Vast disparity in how women are treated department to department- While the new forms of discrimination were difficult to quantify as the report states, “Once you “get it,” it seems almost obvious.” (MIT, 1999, p.11).

• Interestingly, dissatisfaction, marginalization and exclusion appeared more as women progressed in their careers.

• Valian (2004) suggests that put simply, men have an easier time accumulating advantages than women. Over time, they are advantaged in the rtp process. Ie. Teaching small specialty courses versus large intro sections.

Parity appears to filter “up.”• As women make inroads, it is at the least prestigious institutions and in the lowest level positions.

• In 2001-2, while 15% of full professors, 31.2% of associate professors, and 41.5% of assistant professors are women at research level universities, at community colleges, 37.3% of full professors, 49.1% of associate professors, and 54.8% of assistant professors are female (Jacobson, 2004).

• The greater the prestige of the University, the fewer women it is likely to employ as faculty. The higher one goes within each university, the fewer women appear as well.

Pay Gap By GenderPay Gap By Gender• Female assistant professors teaching at doctoral degree granting institutions earn $5,687 less annually than their male colleagues. – Gap in pay actually increased by about $1,000 from ten years ago when calculated in today’s dollars (Wilson, 2004).

• The pay gap holds steady as women advance.– Median earnings of assistant professors by gender was approximately $6,000 (With men earning 1.1 times as much as women).

– Associates lost about $6000 for being female with men earning about 1.08 times what women earn.

– Full professor level - about $15,000 gap with men earning 1.15 times their female counterparts.

– The difference for administrators was $45,000 (with men earning 1.6 times what women earn).

Explaining the Pay GapExplaining the Pay Gap• Discrimination- parity filters up-

– Within the sciences, natural sciences, where women have come the closest to achieving equity, are the lowest paid of the group (DOE, 2004).

• Women are also more likely to teach at community colleges and teaching universities, places where the pay is usually lower.

• Further, mentoring is crucial for salary and benefit negotiation and women are less likely to have meaningful mentors, leaving them disadvantaged in this process (Leggon, 2006).

Work Family ConflictWork Family Conflict• The NSF reports that women in academia in the STEM disciplines are more likely to be employed in non-tenured positions, take longer to achieve tenure and are less likely to earn tenure, especially if they have children prior to earning tenure (NSF, 2004).

• 1) The real demands of family and community are more salient for women than men

• 2) Perceptions of women’s greater responsibility for family lead to a subtle form of “mommy tracking.”

Women have greater Women have greater responsibility for responsibility for Household LaborHousehold Labor•Women continue to be responsible for a disproportionate amount of home and childcare relative to their male counterparts.

•Though women do slightly less and men do slightly more than in the past, women still do more than double the housework and childcare than male partners (Coltrane, 2000).

Stay at Home SpouseStay at Home Spouse•Women were far less likely than men to have a full time homemaker or part-time worker as spouse. – Women with doctorates in STEM disciplines were reported to be twice as likely as their male counterparts to have employed spouses.

– Only 13% of married females with STEM doctorates had unemployed spouses, while 38% of male STEM discipline doctorate holders had spouses who were not employed outside the home (NSF, 2004b).

Mommy TrackingMommy Tracking

•Women as mothers and potential mothers face bias and discrimination in the workplace (Cummins, 2005). – Female scholars’ productivity assumed to be – Simple strategies, such as a tenure-clock-stop policies for people taking maternity or paternity leave were employed by only 32% of universities (Sullivan, Hollenshead & Smith, 2005).

– Women without children face “mommy tracking” and that “gender schemas” result in women having different, feminized expectations for service foisted upon them (Cummins, 2005).

Hierarchy, Gender and Hierarchy, Gender and PowerPower• One response was a celebration of the number of women who have opted out of top level research careers for community colleges or teaching centered universities. – Cited as reflecting improved teaching and as being a way for female academic’s to find balance.

– It is extremely disturbing that the response to the speed up in work and the second shift for women, is to opt out of competitive research environments for more marginalized, but emotionally fulfilling work.

– It is equally disturbing to have the normalization of devalued feminized labor • Two tiered system of teaching PhDs, and research PhDs.

• Did the Second Wave even happen?

Methods- Focus GroupsMethods- Focus Groups• Conducted six ~ 2 hour focus groups during the Fall 2004 and Winter 2005 Quarters. – 1) six tenured female faculty in the STEM disciplines; 2) six “new” tenure track female faculty in the STEM disciplines; 3) seven female tenure track faculty in the STEM disciplines who were approaching their tenure review; 4) 9 chairs of programs in STEM disciplines; 5) five female chairs from a range of disciplines; and 6) Five “Bigwigs”- high ranking female administrators.

• Held on campus.• Participants were offered a box lunch as compensation.

• Data was aggregated and identifying markers have been deliberately excluded or altered to protect the identity of the participants.

Three Key Areas of Three Key Areas of AnalysisAnalysis

•The Speed UpThe Speed Up

•Work Family Conflict and Work Family Conflict and SolutionsSolutions

•Climate as Key Determinant of Climate as Key Determinant of SatisfactionSatisfaction

WorkloadWorkload

•Across the board, Across the board, administrators and faculty administrators and faculty agreed that junior faculty were agreed that junior faculty were asked to do more research and asked to do more research and service, with no reduction in service, with no reduction in teaching.teaching.

• Big Wig “The work load is a problem. It’s too heavy. For the junior faculty, we keep adding on responsibilities, but expect them to keep teaching as much.”

• Big Wig- “Overall, we need to do something about the work load. Its just too much pressure. We are adding research pressure, but not reducing teaching, and there’s more service. There’s not enough release time for people who have families, It’s just not easy.”

• Faculty- “The work load is increasing. Class size is increasing, there’s less release time, there’s no longer any research release time, all the reports we have to write take to much time.”

Increasing Workload Means Increasing Workload Means Tough ChoicesTough Choices

•Faculty- “I can only do two out of three things well (teaching, research, service). I cannot do my research during the week. Just a little in short breaks I have from teaching. That leaves evenings and weekends for research. I am scared for research.”

RepresentationRepresentation• Because of the dearth of women in some Because of the dearth of women in some fields, to provide representation (on fields, to provide representation (on search committees etc) the few female search committees etc) the few female faculty had to do a disproportionate amount faculty had to do a disproportionate amount of service.of service.

• As one Big Wig put it, “I think part of the problem is that when there are many fewer women, and you want to have female representation on al l the committees, then the women end up having to do more. Sometimes there was only one woman available, so she’s on everything...” – Much of the literature framed this as a Much of the literature framed this as a responsibility. This is troubling as once again responsibility. This is troubling as once again the onus is put on the marginalized to carve out the onus is put on the marginalized to carve out a space for itself.a space for itself.

– Time constraint that limits more valued Time constraint that limits more valued activities.activities.

Women Do the Scut WorkWomen Do the Scut Work• Advising- women did the disproportionate Advising- women did the disproportionate amount of student advising, regardless of amount of student advising, regardless of the gender of the students.the gender of the students.

• Service and Reports- chairs noted that a Service and Reports- chairs noted that a disproportionate amount of department disproportionate amount of department service was done by female faculty.service was done by female faculty.– Chairs noted they knew women were more likely Chairs noted they knew women were more likely to volunteer, and to get the work done.to volunteer, and to get the work done.

• Cummins (2005) notes that women without Cummins (2005) notes that women without children were often expected to do the children were often expected to do the “mommy work” of the department. “mommy work” of the department.

• Feminized labor- Gender Schemas- Valian 2004 uses the concept of gender schemas to account for this. The culture of femininity makes volunteering to help seem more obligatory to women.

Like “Family”Like “Family”

• As noted by Valian (2004), gender schemas come into play in the work place such that women take on additional unrecognized labor. This is normalized as a female attribute, undermining it’s status as work.

• One Big Wig noted, “I think women are more likely to see the department like family. They treat it like family, they invest in it.” Her colleague added, “And the students treat us that way too. They see us as more nurturing, as mothers, they come and tell us their problems. That workload alone can’t be underestimated.”

Missed OpportunitiesMissed Opportunities

•The primary way that junior faculty The primary way that junior faculty deal with the increasing workload is deal with the increasing workload is to stop attending functions on campus, to stop attending functions on campus, and to cut down on faculty development and to cut down on faculty development activities.activities.– Negative affect on mentoring. Ironically, Negative affect on mentoring. Ironically, senior faculty and big wigs noted the senior faculty and big wigs noted the critical importance of this type of critical importance of this type of networking for building campus networking for building campus relationships and networking.relationships and networking.

– Effective mentoring is eliminated by the Effective mentoring is eliminated by the time crunch.time crunch.

• Keim and Erikson (1998) reported the importance of interdisciplinary teaching groups as a source of support and of ideas for improvement, and our participants confirmed this, while lamenting their inability to continue participation.

• While faculty reported that many such groups existed on campus, their participation was severely limited by increasing workloads.

• Others noted that their research suffered from the lack of time to confer with colleagues and to find others with similar research interests in the region or even on campus.

• Because chairs and administrators in our study reported that they believe women are easier to approach to fill in the gaps, women are more likely to end up doing work that may be valued by specific individuals at the university, but do little to improve the curriculum vitae. – This effectively also undercuts female faculty members’ ability to leave or to obtain other offers necessary to renegotiate salaries and support.

The Loss of MentoringThe Loss of Mentoring

• While formal mentoring programs have met with limited success, acquiring a “portfolio” of mentors created through informal networks is critical to success in academia (de Janasz and Sullivan, 2004; Sabatier et. al, 2006; Sheridan et al, 2006). Our findings were consistant with such research.

• While none of the faculty at any level had anything positive to report about formal mentoring programs, senior faculty and administrators reported that their most important mentoring experiences came through informal networks.

Solutions or Trickle Down Solutions or Trickle Down ExploitationExploitation• One interesting solution proposed by the Big Wigs is to create seminars that involve students in faculty research.

• While this would undoubtedly prove to be beneficial for students, it is also unpaid labor.

• As resources disappear, student assistantships that would fairly compensate students for working on a research project are being replaced by unpaid labor in the form of units or practical coursework.

• It also seems a bit disingenuous to turn students into a pool of uncompensated labor as their fees rise and the rewards for attaining a degree decline.

Family and WorkFamily and Work

•This speed up was particularly difficult for women with children. During the chairs focus group, one of the two female chairs had remained fairly quiet, until one of the other chairs remarked that he thought the speed up must be hard on women with children as they have “two full time jobs.” (Referring to teaching and research). “Three” she interjected wryly.

Work and FamilyWork and Family

• The NSF reports that for women, being married or having children reduces the likelihood of having a tenure track line, whereas, being married and/or having children does not similarly impact men’s careers (NSF, 2004). The NSF similarly reports that having children later in one’s career increased the likelihood of a woman earning tenure. This implies, having a family is incompatible with an academic career. On the other hand, Cummins (2005) noted that women with children actually outperformed women without children in the academic marketplace.

Wide Range of Wide Range of AccommodationsAccommodations

•Accommodations for faculty Accommodations for faculty ranged widely department to ranged widely department to department.department.

•Some departments worked with Some departments worked with faculty to adjust schedules and faculty to adjust schedules and provide a full quarter of provide a full quarter of maternity leavematernity leave

Variation in Leave Variation in Leave Policies and ClimatePolicies and Climate

• One faculty member recounted being by a former dean that she saw no reason the person could not be back at work three days after having given birth. Another recounted feeling she could not take the risk of having a family prior to tenure.

• “It depends on the chair. I had two kids and they wouldn’t let me take the whole quarter off, I had to come back after six weeks and work as an advisor and they said I had to be there 8-5, but I talked to my chair and got that changed, but still 8-5.”

• Another asked for a reduction in service for a short period of time after having a baby and was denied it on the basis that all faculty must be treated equally. “I felt this was a mistake... Not to consider my situation... It showed, ‘we don’t care about you.’”

•Others reported a department that encouraged them to take maternity leave and worked with their schedules. For example, compressed schedules and maternity leave were made readily available to some. One was given the quarter off, and allowed to make up the remaining days by working on a report during the summer.

Administrative Support Administrative Support a Musta Must•Currently, maternity leave is Currently, maternity leave is paid out of department funds. paid out of department funds. This places an undue burden on This places an undue burden on departments. A University policy departments. A University policy and supporting funds could and supporting funds could relieve the pressure from relieve the pressure from departments and make some more departments and make some more likely to adjust schedules for likely to adjust schedules for faculty.faculty.

Continued SupportContinued Support

• One Junior faculty member noted the effect her long teaching days had on her family. (She was teaching a night class twice a week, meaning she often did not return home until 10 PM). One evening she returned home to find her pre-schooler sitting at the table with papers spread around her. When the faculty member inquired what her daughter was doing, the child stuck out her hand in a typical go away gesture and responded “Don’t bother me, I’m grading papers.”

What Continued Support What Continued Support MeansMeans

•Day Care on CampusDay Care on Campus

•More Services for facultyMore Services for faculty

•Compressed Schedules, Compressed Schedules, telecommuting, flexible meeting telecommuting, flexible meeting timestimes

Benefits of SupportBenefits of Support

• “My department bent over backwards to accommodate me when I had my baby. They gave me a compressed work schedule, maternity leave. They made my schedule work for me. By accommodating me, I was happier and therefore more productive.”

• Flexibility was precisely what made academia appealing to them compared to the jobs in industry. For those in flexible departments, the lower pay of academia was worth the ability to work a schedule that better suited her needs. These findings are consistent with other studies as significant to worker satisfaction (Estes, 2005).

ClimateClimate

•Related to previous issues.Related to previous issues.•Satisfaction varied widely and Satisfaction varied widely and seemed to hinge on the overall seemed to hinge on the overall climate of the department.climate of the department.

•Those in departments that “got Those in departments that “got it.” reported greater it.” reported greater satisfaction than those in satisfaction than those in departments that “did things the departments that “did things the way they have always been done.”way they have always been done.”

““The Demise of the Good The Demise of the Good Old Boys Network”Old Boys Network”

• Long time faculty noted the demise of the “good old boys network” on campus, and the positive changes this has meant for them. (Women’s Studies Books can move off the hidden bottom shelf)

• Numerous specific incidences citing positive support of leadership when issues of gender discrimination came up were cited.

• Administrative commitments to diversity are critical to changing Universities today (Wilson, 2004).

Collegial EnvironmentCollegial Environment

•Being in a department where one Being in a department where one felt accommodated, valued and felt accommodated, valued and respected was critical. respected was critical. Faculty reported similar work Faculty reported similar work loads, but those who worked in loads, but those who worked in a positive climate department a positive climate department were far more satisfied. were far more satisfied. – Scheduling was key.Scheduling was key.

Change at Every LevelChange at Every Level

• As noted by one administrator, “The dean’s attitude, what they tolerate, filters down through leadership.” Bilimoria et. al. (2006) suggest that the institutional leadership plays a significant role in climate, especially immediate superiors including college deans and department chairs. Faculty at all levels cited the support of administration as important to success in the RTP process and to job satisfaction.

• Being empowered in decision making is crucial to a positive instrumental environment for female faculty (Callister, 2006).

• Many faculty noted that their needs could not always be accommodated, but allowing them to be active participants in a negotiation process facilitated productivity. Faculty who had schedules that respected their needs, and whose family commitments were prioritized expressed higher levels of satisfaction. Those for whom these things did not occur expressed resentment.

• One faculty member remarked that she had been unable to take her own children to scout meetings, but was expected to come in for weekend scouting events on campus. While others complained of being unable to pick up children on time, or having childcare issues while meetings were arranged to suit someone’s tee times. Others complimented their colleagues for helping them be able to attend children’s soccer games, or being able to make it to daycare on time every day.

Conclusions- Gender Conclusions- Gender SchemasSchemas

•Valian’s (2004) concept of gender schemas helps explain continued gender discrimination. While overt discrimination is largely a thing of the past, the cumulative impact of gender schemas remains salient. – Work load, support, mentoringWork load, support, mentoring

How this Affects RTP for How this Affects RTP for WomenWomen

•Recognition of a wider range of Recognition of a wider range of publications, and community service publications, and community service ie. Articles related to gender, ie. Articles related to gender, newsletters, activismnewsletters, activism

•Recognition of women’s Recognition of women’s disproportionate service burden disproportionate service burden along with effects to create equityalong with effects to create equity

•Accommodations for working parents Accommodations for working parents ie. Option to stop the tenure clock ie. Option to stop the tenure clock for maternity/paternity leavefor maternity/paternity leave

ConundrumsConundrums• How does one institutionalize flexibility?How does one institutionalize flexibility?

– Ritzer’s McDonaldization thesis- Irrationality of Ritzer’s McDonaldization thesis- Irrationality of rationalityrationality

– Precisely what was valued was a flexible system, but Precisely what was valued was a flexible system, but this meant that not everyone had equitable access.this meant that not everyone had equitable access.

• How does one institutionalize “climate?”How does one institutionalize “climate?”

• Participants made it clear that having others who “got it” was central to the climate for women, GLBT faculty and under-represented minority groups. – Many long time faculty specifically noted the improved climate on campus as the “good old boys network” retired and a more diverse faculty replaced it.