Stages of LiteracyStages of LiteracyRos LuggRos Lugg

Beginning readers in the USABeginning readers in the USA

Looked at predictors of reading success or Looked at predictors of reading success or

failurefailure

PrePre--readers aged 3readers aged 3--5 yrs5 yrs

Looked at variety of abilitiesLooked at variety of abilities

�� IQIQ

�� Speech and language abilitiesSpeech and language abilities

�� Attention spanAttention span

�� Motor skillsMotor skills

�� Phonological processingPhonological processing

Most effective predictors (in Most effective predictors (in

order of importance)order of importance)

1.1. Phonological awarenessPhonological awareness

2.2. IQIQ

Knowledge of letter/sound correspondence Knowledge of letter/sound correspondence

also importantalso important

(Bond & Dykstra 1969, (Bond & Dykstra 1969, ChallChall 1967)1967)

Bryant & Bradley (1983)Bryant & Bradley (1983)

�� 400 4400 4--5 year old (non5 year old (non--readers) tested on readers) tested on

ability to:ability to:

��Detect alliterationDetect alliteration

��Detect rhymeDetect rhyme

ChildrenChildren’’s reading and spelling were s reading and spelling were

tested again 4 years later (age 8tested again 4 years later (age 8--9)9)

Rhyme detection ability at 4Rhyme detection ability at 4--5 years of 5 years of

age most effective predictor of age most effective predictor of

literacy progress 4 years later.literacy progress 4 years later.

Phonemic awarenessPhonemic awareness

Phonological awarenessPhonological awareness

Phonemic awarenessPhonemic awareness

Skills include:Skills include:

�� Ability to identify initial, medial and final Ability to identify initial, medial and final

soundssounds

�� Tell the difference between individual Tell the difference between individual

sounds (auditory discrimination)sounds (auditory discrimination)

�� Phoneme manipulation/transpositionPhoneme manipulation/transposition

�� Segmentation and blendingSegmentation and blending

Phonological AwarenessPhonological Awareness

Much broader term incorporating phonemic Much broader term incorporating phonemic

awareness + the following:awareness + the following:

�� Awareness of sounds and sound patterns Awareness of sounds and sound patterns

in language, e.g. rhymein language, e.g. rhyme

�� Awareness of the rhythm of languageAwareness of the rhythm of language

�� SyllabificationSyllabification

�� Word retrievalWord retrieval

Development of Phonological Development of Phonological

AwarenessAwareness

RhymeRhyme

Gradual development from earliest stagesGradual development from earliest stages

SyllabificationSyllabification(previous understanding)(previous understanding)

Sentences Sentences �� WordsWords

Words Words �� SyllablesSyllables

Words/syllables Words/syllables �� SoundsSounds

Syllabification Syllabification (Current understanding)(Current understanding)

Sentences Sentences �� WordsWords

Words Words �� SyllablesSyllables

Words Words �� Onset + rimeOnset + rime

Syllables Syllables �� SoundsSounds

((GoswamiGoswami & Bryant (1990)& Bryant (1990)

““The majority of preschoolers can segment The majority of preschoolers can segment

words into syllables. Very few can words into syllables. Very few can

readily segment them into phonemesreadily segment them into phonemes””

The more sophisticated stage of phoneme The more sophisticated stage of phoneme

segmentation is not reached until the segmentation is not reached until the

child has received formal instruction in child has received formal instruction in

letterletter--sound knowledge.sound knowledge.””

Predicting reading and spelling difficulties (Predicting reading and spelling difficulties (SnowlingSnowling & Backhouse 1996)& Backhouse 1996)

Why is the onset + rime approach so Why is the onset + rime approach so

important?important?

It utilizes an awareness of rhyme (sound It utilizes an awareness of rhyme (sound

patterns) to enable the child to patterns) to enable the child to recogniserecognise

spelling patterns.spelling patterns.

It simplifies the task It simplifies the task –– word families instead word families instead

of individual words.of individual words.

It develops analogical transfer It develops analogical transfer –– the ability the ability

to apply knowledge learned in one to apply knowledge learned in one

context to a different context.context to a different context.

Enables the child to work with word Enables the child to work with word

families: families:

““If I can spell If I can spell ‘‘ballball’’, then I can spell , then I can spell ‘‘wallwall’’..””

Cuts the processing load:Cuts the processing load:

stringstring

s / t / r / i / s / t / r / i / ngng

(5 elements to sequence and remember (5 elements to sequence and remember –– a a huge load on sequencing and working huge load on sequencing and working

memory)memory)

It avoids confusion over vowel sounds:It avoids confusion over vowel sounds:

Teach Teach ‘‘aa’’ sound as in sound as in ‘‘catcat’’

Then meet Then meet ‘‘aa’’ in in ‘‘allall’’, , ‘‘--awaw’’, , ‘‘--arkark’’, etc, etc

Most importantly:Most importantly:

It teaches at a level of natural phonological It teaches at a level of natural phonological

developmentdevelopment

Moral:Moral: Early spelling or work with a Early spelling or work with a

learner with learning difficulties needs to learner with learning difficulties needs to

be based on onset + rime.be based on onset + rime.

Onset + rime can and should be used with Onset + rime can and should be used with

more advanced learners. Otherwise they more advanced learners. Otherwise they

will not develop analogical transfer. will not develop analogical transfer.

It need not be used exclusivelyIt need not be used exclusively

SummarySummary

�� Rhyming skills at 3Rhyming skills at 3--5 years are the single 5 years are the single

most accurate predictor of later reading most accurate predictor of later reading

success.success.

Therefore: developing rhyming skills is a Therefore: developing rhyming skills is a

high priority.high priority.

�� Rhyme awareness leads to the ability to Rhyme awareness leads to the ability to

use onset + rime.use onset + rime.

Link awareness of sound patterns with Link awareness of sound patterns with

later awareness of spelling patterns later awareness of spelling patterns ––

teach word families.teach word families.

�� Onset + rime awareness is a natural Onset + rime awareness is a natural

stage of phonological development.stage of phonological development.

Use onset + rime approach particularly in Use onset + rime approach particularly in

the early stages to simplify the task and the early stages to simplify the task and

aid memory.aid memory.

�� Phonemic awareness does not develop Phonemic awareness does not develop

naturally, but as a result of literacy naturally, but as a result of literacy

teaching.teaching.

Teach and develop phonemic awareness Teach and develop phonemic awareness

as part of your spelling programme, but as part of your spelling programme, but

be aware of the stage your child is at be aware of the stage your child is at ––

provide appropriate scaffolding as provide appropriate scaffolding as

necessary.necessary.

�� Poor early readers often have poor Poor early readers often have poor

syllabification.syllabification.

Develop the sound skills of syllabification. Develop the sound skills of syllabification.

Check that your learner can divide Check that your learner can divide

sentences into words and clap rhythms sentences into words and clap rhythms

first.first.

�� Onset + rime awareness leads to Onset + rime awareness leads to

analogical transfer analogical transfer –– the most important the most important

reading/spelling skill.reading/spelling skill.

Use the word family approach, even with Use the word family approach, even with

more advanced learners, to develop more advanced learners, to develop

analogical transfer. Take every analogical transfer. Take every

opportunity to teach your learner to draw opportunity to teach your learner to draw

analogies analogies –– spelling and reading.spelling and reading.

Early phases of literacy Early phases of literacy

developmentdevelopment

Logographic phaseLogographic phase

Alphabetic phaseAlphabetic phase

Orthographic phaseOrthographic phase

((FrithFrith, 1985) , 1985) ‘‘Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexiaBeneath the surface of developmental dyslexia’’

Logographic PhaseLogographic Phase

Basic sight vocabulary Basic sight vocabulary –– high frequency words or high frequency words or

words with special significancewords with special significance

Words Words recognisedrecognised holistically holistically –– from overall from overall

shapeshape

Similar looking words confusedSimilar looking words confused

No understanding of letter/sound No understanding of letter/sound

correspondencecorrespondence

Alphabetic PhaseAlphabetic Phase

Recognition of sound/letter correspondenceRecognition of sound/letter correspondence

Decoding and encoding take placeDecoding and encoding take place

Phonic knowledge usedPhonic knowledge used

Pupil can spell simple, regular wordsPupil can spell simple, regular words

Errors are phonetic (Errors are phonetic (coffcoff))

Lacks sophisticated understanding of word Lacks sophisticated understanding of word

structurestructure

Reading slow and Reading slow and labouredlaboured –– limited fluencylimited fluency

Orthographic PhaseOrthographic Phase

Rapid whole word recognition Rapid whole word recognition –– holisticholistic

Words become sight vocabularyWords become sight vocabulary

Reading fluency achievedReading fluency achieved

Understanding of sophisticated spelling patterns Understanding of sophisticated spelling patterns

((--oughough))

Logographic phaseLogographic phase

Alphabetic phaseAlphabetic phase

Orthographic phaseOrthographic phase

Neurological Basis

Brain Systems for Reading A Neural Signature for Dyslexia

Compensatory Systems Conclusion – reading systems

Dyslexic Learners have:

� An impaired occipito-temporal (word form

area)

They therefore:

� Over-rely on the wrong areas – Broca’s

area and Parieto-temporal area

Broca’s area and the parieto-temporal areas therefore develop as instruction progresses.

Wrong strategies being employed.

Wrong areas being developed.

Consequence:

Reading fluency never develops correctly.

Correct process

� Learner analyses and correctly reads

the word several times

Uses the word analysis systems

� Neural model of word is formed

Stored in the occipito-temporal

� Word can now be activated

automatically – fluency achieved!

Teaching Implications

Teachers need to:

� Practise and develop word analysis strategies

� Provide the right activities/practice to transfer the word into the occipito-temporal

In other words – make the word into sight vocabulary

How?

� Speed reading

� Sight vocabulary games

� Word flash activity (Steps)

� Targeted reading practice – geared

towards developing reading fluency, not

decoding ability!