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Contents INDIAN HISTORY GEOGRAPHY- PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC THE SCIENCES INDIAN POLITY THE POTPOURRI INDIAN HISTORY

• ANCIENT INDIA o THE HARAPPAN CULTURE o THE RIGVEDIC CIVILZATION o THE LATER VEDIC TIMES o JAINISM o BUDDHISM o THE FIRST MAGADHAN EMPIRE o IRANIAN AND MACEDONIAN INVASIONS o THE INDO-GREEKS o THE SATVAHANAS o THE GUPTAS o HARSHA AND HIS TIMES o SCIENTIFIC LEGACY OF ANCIENT INDIA o MAJOR PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS IN ANCIENT INDIA o MAJOR TERMS USED IN ANCIENT LITERATURE o SOME MAJOR ANCIENT CLASSICS o MAJOR MONUMENTS

• MEDIEVAL INDIA o THE CHOLA EMPIRE o THE CIRCA 1000-1200 AD o THE DELHI SULTANATE- I – THE CIRCA 1200-1400 AD o THE DELHI SULTANATE- II – THE CIRCA 1200-1400 AD o VIJAYANAGARA KINGDOM AND THE PORTUGUESE – CIRCA-1350-1365 o THE SUFI AND THE BHAKTI MOVEMENTS o THE MUGHALS AND THE AFGHANS o THE GREAT MUGHALS o CLIMAX AND DISINTEGRATION OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE-I o IMPORTANT CLASSICS WRITTEN DURING MEDIEVAL TIMES o SOME FAMOUS BHAKTI POETS o IMPORTANT TERMS AND MEANINGS THEREOF o IMPORTANT FOREIGN VISITORS o IMPORTANT TITLES AND HOLDERS THEREOF



• MODERN INDIA

o THE EAST INDIA COMPANY -1600-1714 o THE PERIOD-1765-1856 o THE REVOLT OF 1857 o THE POST-1857 SCENARIO o THE ROLE OF THE PRESS o THE WORK IN LEGISLATIVE COUNCILS o THE SWADESHI MOVEMENT o THE CONGRESS SPLIT AND THE REVOLUTIONARY TEERORISTS-I o THE GHADAR o THE HOME RULE MOVEMENTS o GANDHIJI’S ACTIVISM – THE EARLY PHASE o THE NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT -1920-22 o THE REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISTS-II o THE CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT o THE YEARS AFTER o THE CRIPPS MISSION o SOCIAL REFORM AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS o GOVERNOR-GENERALS AND STEPS/ INITIATIVES o REGIONAL & TRIBAL UPRISINGS AND LOCATIONS o IMPORTANT TITLES AND HOLDERS THEREOF o IMPORTANT PRESIDENTS o BOOK/NEWSPAPER/JOURNAL- AUTHOR/EDITOR o MISCELLANEOUS

GEOGRAPHY- PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC

o ASTRONOMICAL TERMS o SOME GEOGRAPHICAL FACTS o GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS o THE MINERAL WEALTH OF INDIA o MAJOR TOURIST MONUMENTS IN INDIA o MAJOR INDUSTRIAL CENTRES IN INDIA o MAJOR CITIES ON RIVER BANKS (INDIA) o CHANGED NAMES OF SOME CITIES/ COUNTRIES o CONTINENTS, POPULATIONWISE o MAJOR PORTS IN INDIA o MAJOR CITIES ON RIVER BANKS (WORLD) o DEMOGRAPHIC FACTOIDS (1991 CENSUS) o MISCELLENEOUS DEMOGRAPHIC FACTFILE o COMPARATIVE LITERACY LEVELS ACROSS INDIA o GEOGRAPHICAL EPITHETS



• PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

o THE EARTH o ROCK TYPES o HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE o WATER MOVEMENTS o THE BIOSPHERE o FACES OF THE LAND o WEATHERING o DEGRADATION AND AGGRADATION o RIVERS o GLACIERS o WINDS o WAVES o PLATE TECTONICS o VOLCANOES o EARTHQUAKES o TEMPEARTURE ZONES o LATITUDINAL ZONES o TEMPERATE ZONES o LAND AND SEA CONTRASTS o PREVAILING WINDS o OCEAN CURRENTS o DIURNAL AND SEASONAL CYCLES o PRESSURE AND WINDS o SEASONAL MIGRATION o LAND AND SEA BREEZES o PRECIPITATION o FOREST TYPES

THE SCIENCES

• THE PHYSICAL WORLD

o MATTER o SOLID o LIQUID o GAS o CHARLES’S LAW o MASS o WEIGHT o MASS AND WEIGHT o DENSITY o SPECIFIC GRAVITY o STREAMLINING o MOTION o SPEED o UNIFORM SPEED



o ACCELERATION o RETARDATION OR DECELERATION o NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION o NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION o NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION o GRAVITY o LAW OF GRAVITATION o RELATIVE VELOCITY o ERG o POWER o ENERGY o EQUILIBRIUM o SURFCAE TENISON o VISCOSITY o PASCAL’S LAW o ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE o PRESSURE o HEAT o TEMPERATURE o CALORIE o LATENT HEAT o EVAPORATION o TRANSFERENCE OF HEAT o LATENT HEAT OF VAPORISATION o LATENT HEAT OF FUSION o RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT o REFLECTION o REFRACTION o MAGNETISM o CURRENT ELECTRICITY o HEATING EFFECTS OF CURRENT o LIGHTING EFFECTS o MAGNETIC EFFECTS o MICROWAVES o MICROWAVE COOKER o ATOM BOMB o PULSARS o QUARTZ CLOCK o RADAR o REFRIGERATOR o ROCKET o SOLAR COOKER o TELESCOPE o SOUND



• CHEMICAL PHENOMENA

o PHYSICAL CHANGE o CHEMICAL CHANGE o ELEMENT o COMPOUND o MIXTURE o HARD AND SOFT WATER o ALLOY o AMALGAM o CHEMICAL NAMES o IMPORTANT LAWS IN SCIENCE AND SOME DEFINITIONS o PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS o ATOMIC POWER PLANT o NUCLEAR FUSION o CINEMA o DYANMO o JET ENGINE o KALEIDOSCOPE o MEDICAL IMAGING o NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE o RADIOACTIVITY o LIGHT YEAR o PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT o MISSILES o

• THE BIOLOGICAL WORLD

o ANIMAL AND PLANT GROUPS o STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION o MITOSIS o MEIOSIS o TWINS o CLONING o GENE EXPRESSION AND GENETIC DSIORDERS o HEREDITY o SEX-LINKED GENES AND RELATED DISORDERS o THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION o INFECTIOUS DISEASES o VACCINATION o NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY DISORDERS o FOOD AND NUTRITION o BLOOD GROUPS o GLANDS o SENSE ORGANS o SCIENTIFIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT



INDIAN POLITY

o THE PREAMBLE o INTRODUCTION TO THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION o SOURCES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION o POINTS TO REMEMBER o THE FEDERAL SYSTEM o TERRITORY OF THE UNION o ACT/LEGISLATION o FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS o FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES o DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY o PROCEDURE FOR AMENDMENT o THE BASIC FEATURES THEORY o THE UNION EXECUTIVE o THE UNION COUNCIL OF MINISTERS o THE ATTORNEY – GENERAL OF INDIA o THE COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR –GENERAL OF INDIA o THE UNION LEGISLATURE o LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURES o PUBLIC ACCOUNTS COMMITTEE o THE STATE EXECUTIVE o SPECIAL STATUS OF J&K o THE INDIAN JUDICIAL SYSTEM o THE FINANCE COMMISSION o THE UNION AND STATE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSIONS o ELECTIONS IN INDIA o THE SCHEDULED CASTES AND SCHEDULED TRIBES o OFFICIAL LANGUAGES o IMPORTANT SCHEDULES o SOME MAJOR CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS o MISCELLANY o INDIAN PRESIDENTS SO FAR o INDIAN PRIME MINISTERS SO FAR o SOME IMPORTANT POLITICAL TERMS



THE POTPOURRI

o MISCELLANEOUS TERMS o HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, CONSTITUTIONAL AND DIPLOMATIC TERMS o LEGAL TERMS o LITERARY, ARTISTIC AND JOURNALISTIC TERMS o MEDICAL TERMS o SCIENTIFIC TERMS AND INSTRUMENTS o DIFFERENT AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE o MAJOR INSTRUMENTS o SOME INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY LINES o OTHER SPECIALIZED INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES o NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS o NATIONAL AWARDS AND HONOURS o GALLANTRY AWARDS o OTHER NATIONAL AWARDS o INTERNATIONAL AWARDS AND HONOURS o BOOK ‘N’ AUTHORS o FIRST IN THE WORLD o FIRST IN INDIA o DANCE, MUSIC, CULTURE ……. o COMPOSERS/ MUSICIANS o INSTRUMENTALISTS o VOCALISTS



INDIAN HISTORY

ANCIENT INDIA * The Earth is nearly 4000 million years old as supported by scientific evidence and the evolution of its crust shows four stages. The fourth stage is called the Quaternary, which is divided into Pleistocene (most recent) and the Holocene (the present); the former lasted between 1, 000,000 and 10000 years before the present and the latter began about 10000 years ago. * Man appeared on the Earth in Africa about 2.6 million years ago. * 1. The Paleolithic Age: The stone-age whose characteristic features were the use of hand-axes, cleavers and choppers, flakes, blades etc. The rock-shelters and caves at Bhimbetka near Bhopal can be cited as major evidences pointing towards it. In the world context, the upper or the last Paleolithic age marks the appearance of the modern man (Homo sapiens) on earth. * 2. The Mesolithic Age: The Mesolithic Period is a transitional phase between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic ages. It is marked by warmer climates, hunting, fishing and food gathering and domestication of animals. The peculiar tool of the people was the microlith, evidence of which can be found in Bogor in Rajasthan. * 3. The Neolithic Age: In the world context, the New Stone Age began around 9000 BC. The people of these times used tools made of polished stone. The domestication of animals became a major economic activity. The only neolithic settlement in India is found in Mehergarh in Rajasthan. * The Chalcolithic Cultures: The end of the neolithic phase saw the use of metals, of which copper was the first to be used. Several cultures were based on the use of stone and copper implements. Such a culture is referred to as a Chalcolithic culture, referring to the use of both copper and stone. Technologically, this represents the pre-Harappan phase because the Harappan civilization was based on the use of bronze. They domesticated animals, practiced agriculture (wheat, rice and bajra). ********************************************************************************************************* THE HARAPPAN CULTURE : THE BRONZE AGE * The Harappan Civilization flourished on the banks of the river Indus. It was discovered first of all in Harappa in Pakistan by DR Sawhney and RD Banerjee in 1921. * Another prominent excavated site is the Mohanjo-daro (which literally means the mound of the dead people) in Sindh. * Some other places containing the remains of this civilization include Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), Banawali (Hissar), Chanhu Daro (Sindh) and Sanghol (Panjab). * The most distinguishing feature is the town-planning system and architecture. Burnt bricks find use on a wide scale for the first time here. The towns are built on scientific lines, with roads cutting each other at right angles and having covered drains. * Two sites stand out --- The Great Bath and the Great Granary of Mohenjo-daro. The Great Granary is the largest building in Mohanjo-daro. * Rice has been found in Lothal (Gujarat), which was used as a port also. The Indus people were the first to produce cotton; that is why the Greeks refer to it as Sindon (derived from Sindh).



* Mercantile activities were most important in those times. Numerous seals, weights and measures attest to it. The Harappans carried on international business in the Persian Gulf region and long-distance trade in lapis lazuli, a precious stone. * The Mother Goddess was a major object of worship. The worship of the Pashupati Maharaj (who later came to be known as Shiva) was also quite prevalent. Of animals and trees, they used to worship the bull and the pipal the most. * We find many seals and figurines made of terracotta. We also find a metal image of a dancing girl. They represent the biggest artistic achievements of these people. * It existed between 2500 BC and 1800 BC. *********************************************************************************************************

THE RIGVEDIC CIVILIZATION

* We come to know of Aryans from the Rig Veda, which is the earliest specimen of the Indo-European languages. It is a collection of prayers devoted to different gods. * The Rig Veda has ten chapters, which give us valuable information about these people. * The Aryan civilization flourished on the river Sindhu. The Aryans appeared in India a little later than 1500 BC. and the use of horses played a significant role in their conquest of West Asia. * The Aryans always led a nomadic life. Their major occupation was pastoral (animal-rearing) in nature and cow was the chief animal they domesticated. So many references to cow are found in the Rigveda that it seems their entire life revolved around it. Mostly the Aryans fought for the sake of cows. A war is referred to as gavishti in vedic literature, which means a search for cows. * We find two very important political assemblies: The Sabha and The Samiti. We find evidence of election of the king (rajan) by the samiti. The samitis were very powerful. The two priests who played a very significant role in these times are Vashishta and Vishwamitra. The tribal chiefs got voluntary offerings from the people called bali. * The king did not maintain a standing army and used to muster a militia in times of need. A fighting unit was called a grama and its chief as gramini. * The Rig Vedic society was an egalitarian one, with no sharp discrimination against any particular class or section of people. Women were held in high esteem and could participate in political assemblies. * They worshipped different manifestatosn of nature. For instance, their chief god was Indra (The Rain God), Agni (The Fire God), Varuna (The Protector of the Universe), Usha (The God of The Morning Sun), Marut (The Wind God) and Soma (The God of Plants). *********************************************************************************************************

THE LATER VEDIC TIMES (1000 BC – 600 BC) * For singing the Rig Vedic hymns were set to tune, and this collection of musical hymns came to be known as the Sama Veda. Besides, the later Vedic period also saw the compilation of the Yajur Veda (containing rituals and ceremonies) and the Atharva Veda (containing charms and spells). * Iron was used in plenty, which is referred to as shyama or Krishna ayas. Rice (vrihi) and wheat became their chief crops. Copper was used in abundance in making ornaments, implements etc. Agriculture became a primary livelihood and the peasants produced enough to maintain themselves as well as spare something for taxes.



* Popular assemblies lost their importance and royal power increased at their cost. The sabha and samiti did continue, but their character changed a lot. Women’s status declined to some extent. * The society became sharply divided into four varnas called the brahamins (the teachers and preachers), kshatriyas or rajnyas (warriors and rulers), vaishyas (the farming and mercantile class) and the shudras (menial servants). Since rituals were a central feature of this age, the brahmins gained a lot of social prestige and dominance. * The major tax-paying class was the vaishyas, mainly engaged in farming, business and artisanship. The kshatriyas generally became warriors and rulers. The shudras were generally farmhands and domestic servants. * Prajapati (The Creator) came to be worshipped as the supreme god. Some other later Vedic gods include Rudra (The God of Animals) and Vishnu who was thought to be the preserver and protector of the universe. * Sacrifices became central to worship, which were accompanied by ritualistic formulae to be pronounced carefully. * The later Vedic period also saw the formation of territorial kingdoms and the famous Mahabharta War is attributed to this period. However, a state system was not yet in place due to the inability of the farmers to pay regular taxes. *********************************************************************************************************

JAINISM

* In the 6th century BC, Buddhism and Jainism emerged as the most important and potent religious reform movements. The kshatriyas reacted strongly against brahiminical dominance and led a movement to dislodge the existing social order dominated by the brahmins. The two important religious movements, Buddhism and Jainism were led by Gautam Buddha and Vardhmana Mahavira respectively. Both were kshatriyas by caste. * Mahavir Jain, the most important Jain religious teacher was born in 540 BC in Vaishali. He, like Gautam, was connected to a royal family. Mahavira left home at 30 in search of truth and wandered for 12 years. He gained complete knowledge (kaivalya) at 42. Because of this conquest, he is known as Mahavira or jina (The Great Hero). He passed away in 468 BC at Pavapuri near modern Rajgir. * Mahavira had 23 predecessors before him known as tirthankaras of which the 1st was Rishabhdev and the 23rd was Parshavnath. Mahavir Jain is thougt to be the 24th or the last tirthankar. Jainism attached utmost importance to ahimsa or non-violence. In later times, Jainism got divided into two sects: Shwetambara (wearing white clothes) and Digambara (wearing no clothes) * Right knowledge, right belief and right conduct make up the Three Jewels of Jainism. * The Jain writings are mostly in Prakrit, a language not used in brahiminical texts. *********************************************************************************************************

BUDDHISM

* Gautam Buddha (563 BC-483 BC) or Siddhartha belonged to the ruling Shakya kshatriya family of Kapilvastu in Nepal. He left home at 29 and got complete knowledge under a pipal tree in Bodh Gaya. Thence, he came to be known as the Buddha (The Enlightened One). * Gautam Buddha delivered his first sermon in Sarnath and passed away at 80 at Kusinara in modern U.P. * Gautam Buddha recommended an Eight-fold Path for the elimination of human miseries. He also taught the Middle Path, the avoidance of both luxury and austerity. The major Buddhist books are The Jataka (regarding the previous births of Buddha), The Mahavastu and The Vinaya (Buddha’s teachings).



* Buddhism advocated a practical path of achieving salvation from worldly miseries. Consequently, it appealed to the common man. Buddhism also does not talk of God, a revolution among Indian religions. Further, it does not believe in casteism. Consequently, it gained a huge fan following especially among the shudras and women, who had been denied all these privileges earlier. It was more liberal and democratic. The use of Pali, the lingua franca then, facilitated its spread among them. * Ashoka, the famous Mauryan king adopted it, marking a watershed event in Buddhist history. Through his agents, he spread Buddhism far and wide, in Central Asia, West Asia, Sri Lanka, and thus transformed it into a world religion. *********************************************************************************************************

THE FIRST MAGADHAN EMPIRE

* The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya. Chandargupta was a powerful and able ruler. *The Mauryas had an elaborate administrative machinery and Magasthenes’ Indica and Kautilya’s Arthshastra tell us a lot about it. * Magasthenes was a Greek ambassador sent to the Mauryan court by Selucus of Greece. He lived in the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra. His writings throw valuable light on the Mauryan society, economy and administration of those days. Even Arthshastra written by Kautilya (Chanakya is his more popular name) gives us valuable insights into statecraft and society of those days. * Chandargupta Maurya had a large army, which is one of the most distinguishing features of his rule. * Chandargupta Maurya was succeeded by Bindusara, who in turn was succeeded by and Ashoka (273-232 BC), the greatest Mauryan ruler. After his accession in 261 BC, he fought only one major battle called the Kalinga War, killing 100000 people. The Kalinga War is found inscribed on the 13th Rock Edict. The king was greatly moved by the suffering it brought to the people, and therefore decided to give up war for good. He converted to Buddhism thereafter and also sponsored the 3rd Buddhist Council. *Ashoka calls himself priyadasin in his inscriptions and was the first ruler to address his subjects directly. The language used was Prakrit in the Brahmi script. * Pana was a term used for silver coins during this time. Punch –marked silver coins (which do not mention the king’s or dynasty’s name) were the imperial currency of the Mauryas. * However, the growing weakness of the Mauryas especially after Ashoka’s death, caused the Mauryas’ decline and ultimate fall. The Maurya empire was finally destroyed by Pushyamitra Shunga, a general of Brihadrath, himself a Mauryan ruler in 185 BC. ********************************************************************************************************

IRANIAN AND MACEDONIAN INVASIONS

* Alexander of Macedonia, who had set out to conquer the world, invaded India in 326 BC from the Khyber Pass. Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila submitted to him but when Alexander reached the Jhelum, he met with the strongest resistance. Although Alexander defeated Porus, he was impressed with his bravery and courage. Alexander’s invasion paved the way for Greek merchants and craftsmen to come to India and opened up distinct land and sea routes between the two countries. *********************************************************************************



THE INDO-GREEKS * The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-145 BC). He is also known by the name Milinda. He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena. Menander asked him many questions regarding Buddhism before his conversion and his dialogue with him can be found in the Milinda Panho. * The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to a king or a dynasty. Further, they were the first to issue gold coins in India. The Greeks introduced many features of Hellenistic art in the north-west frontier of India. Gandhara Art is the best example of this fusion. * They were followed by the Shakas, of whom the most famous ruler was Rudradaman I (AD 130-150). He was a great lover of Sanskrit and he issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit. *Kanishka was the most famous king of theKushans, who had two capitals, Mathura and Peshawar (Purushupura). He was a strong champion of Buddhism and held a Buddhist Council in Kashmir, where the principles of the Mahayana Buddhism (Hinayana Buddhism is the second sect) were finalized. Kanishka also started a new calendar known as the Saka Samvat in 78 AD. Kanishka’s empire was quite vast, extending up to parts of the modern-day Afghanistan and even Russia. * He employed the great Sanskrit writer Ashvaghosh, the writer of Buddhacharita, in his court. Vatsyayan whose Kamasutra is thought to be a classic on matters erotic, also lived during these times. Charak, the founder of ayurvedic medicine and Susruta, the founder of ayurvedic surgery lived at this time and wrote two classic treatises Charaksamhita and Susrutasamhita respectively. **************************************************************************************

THE SATVAHANAS

*The early Satvahanas appeared in modern Maharashtra and the most famous king of this dynasty was Gautamiputra Satkarni (AD 106-130). * His immediate successor Vashishtiputra Pulumayi (AD 130-154) issued many coins and inscriptions which are found in Andhra Pradesh. * They issued lead coins, which is possibly the only example of its kind. * The Satvahanas were the first rulers to make land grants to the Brahmins on a regular scale. We find many examples of land grants made on copper plates. Interestingly, their social system shows traces of the matrilineal system, wherein the mother is the chief of the family. * Tamil life and society has been described in Sangam literature. A sangam was an assembly of poets held in Madurai under royal patronage. ********************************************************************************************

THE GUPTA EMPIRE * The Gupta empire had Prayag as its capital. The first important king of the Guptas was Chandargupta I. He was a considerably powerful ruler and an era was started by him known as the Gupta Era (AD 319-20), which marks the date of his ascension to the throne. * Samudragupta, his son, enlarged the Gupta kingdom considerably. He was a brave warrior and delighted in violence, just the opposite of Ashoka. His court poet Harisen, glowingly talks of his military adventures in the Allahabad Inscription, which he conducted with the help of his powerful navy. For these reasons, historians call him the “Napoleon of India”. * The reign of Chandragupta II (AD 380-412) saw the highest point of the Gupta empire. He extended the empire by conquests and marital alliances. He made Ujjain his second capital. He adopted the title of



Vikramaditya and his court in Ujjain was adorned by many celebrated scholars including Kalidasa. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-hein visited India during this time and wrote a detailed account of his reign. * The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins (dinara) in ancient India. The Guptas were staunch brahimnists, using Sanskrit as a court language. It had overshadowed the Mahayana Buddhism by the Gupta Age. Idol worship in temples became quite common from this time onwards. * The Gupta period is known as the Golden Age of ancient India. Both Samudragupta and Chandragupta were great patrons of art and literature. Samudragupta himself was an accomplished veena player and his coins show him with his veena. * Beautiful images of the Buddha were made in Mathura and Sarnath during this time. The Ajanta paintings, which depict the Jataka stories (earlier life of the Buddha) were made during the Gupta Age, though they did not patronize it. In the field of metallurgy, the Gupta Age is unparalleled. The Iron Pillar in Mehrauli stays unaffected even today despite centuries of its existence. * Kalidasa, Shudrak, Bhavbhuti, Patanajli and Panini belonged to this period. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata were also complied during this time (4th century AD). Many legendary scientists including Aryabhatta lived at this time whose contributions to mathematics and astronomy remain significant even today. ********************************************************************************************

HARSHAVARDHAN AND HIS TIMES

* Harsha’s capital was Kannauj. Harsha is often called the Last Great Hindu King of North India. * Harsha was stopped on the Narmada river by the Chalukyan king Pulakesin. * In his times, land was allocated to the feudatories, who use to contribute their quota of soldiers at the time of war. In fact, the feudal practice of rewarding officers with land grants began under Harsha. * Hsuan Tsang, left China in AD 629. After a long stay in India, he returned to China in 645 AD. He had come here to study the Mahayana Buddhism in Nalanda. Under his influence, Harsha became a great supporter of Buddhism. He convened a grand assembly in Kannauj attended by Hsuan Tsang. Harsha is remembered for his authorship of three dramas__ The Priyadarshika, The Ratanavali, and The Nagananda. ********************************************************************************************

SCIENTIFIC LEGACY OF ANCIENT INDIA

* Vrahimira, Aryabhatt, Apstamba, Brahamgupta can be prominently mentioned in this context. * The Indians were the first to use the decimal system worldwide. Zero was discovered by the Indians in the 2nd century BC. The international system of numerals is also an Indian contribution. * Aryabhatt made important astronomical observations. * Vrahimira was an all-rounder, who wrote an encyclopaedia encompassing virtually all areas of knowledge. * Charak, who founded the science of Ayurveda and Susruta, founder of ayurvedic surgery, made invaluable contribution to the development of Ayurveda. *********************************************************************************



Major Philosophical Systems in Ancient India

Major Terms Used In Ancient Literature

Some Major Ancient Classics

Major Monuments

Philosophical School Founder Major Emphasis 1. Samkhya Kapila Non-Spiritualistic, materialistic thought 2. Yoga Patnajli Salvation through meditation 3. Vedanta Adiguru Shankracharya Vedas as fountainhead of all knowledge

Name Author/Topic Name Author/Topic 1. Rigveda Different Poets/Prayers and Hymns 2. Samveda Musical Hymns 3. Yajurveda Rituals & Ceremonies 4. Atharvaveda Charms & Spells 5. Upanishads Philosophical commentaries on Vedas 6. Jataka Stories on previous life of Buddha 7. Mahavastu Buddhist Teachings 8. Indica Magasthenes 9. Arthshastra Kautilya/Statecraft 10. Vishakhduttta Mudrarakshasa 11. Ashtadhayayi Panini 12. Mahabhashya Patanjli 13. Buddhcharita Ashavghosh 14. Charaksamhita Charak/ayurvedic medicine 15. Susrutasamhita Susruta/surgery 16. Sangam Different Poets 17. Amarkosh Amarsimha 18. Harshcharita Banbhatta 19. Brihattsamhita Vrahimira/Encyclopaedia 20. Raghuvansham, Abhijan Shakuntalam, Raghuvansham, Meghdootam Kalidasa

Term Meaning Term Meaning 1. Nishaka, Satmana Gold medal/Coin 10. Gram Fighting Unit 2. Samudra Body of water 11. Gramini village chief 3. Chakarvartin King having control over whole country 4. Goghan Guest 12. Praja Children 5. Duhitar Daughter 13. Samhita Commentary 6. Sabha / Samiti Political Assemblies 14. Shyam Ayas Copper 7. Dasa / Dasyu Indigenous people 15. Vrihi Rice 8. Gavishti War 16. Vishti Forced Labour 9. Ayas Copper/Bronze 17. Bali Tax 18. Bhag Tax 19. Sangrihitri Tax Collection Officer 20. Upnayan Sacred Thread Ceremony 21. Dwija Twice-born (all except shudras) 22. Kaivalya Complete Knowledge (Jainism) 23. Niravana Complete Knowledge (Buddhism) 24. Basadi Jain Monastic Residence 25. Vihara Buddhist Monastic Residence 26. Bhojaka Village Chief 27. Mahamatras High Gupta Officials 28. Mantrin Minister 29. Rajukas Judicial Officers 30. Setthis Merchants 31. Balisadhakas Tax-Officers 32. Shulkika or shulkadhyaksha Tax-Officer 33. Bhandagarika Treasurer 34. Dharammahmatras Religious preachers 35. Parinirnana leaving of home by Buddha 36. Dhramchakraparivartana Achievement of nirvana by the Buddha 37. Mahaparinirvana Passing away of the Buddha 38. Pana Silver Coin 39. Adhyaksha superintendent 40. Sannidhata Chief custodian of the treasury 41. Stupa Monument housing a relic of the Buddha 42. Gandhika Merchant 43. Pitakas Buddhist Literature 44. Yavanpriya black pepper 45. Yavana foreigner 46. Aushdhi plant 47. Skandharava military camp 48. Uparika village chief 49. Agrahara land granted to brahmins 50. Gandhara Art Fusion art form combining features of Indain and Hellenistic art



Some Major Ancient Monuments

MEDIEVAL INDIA

* The medieval history is distinguished by —Jagirdari, Samanatvadi, Zamindari system etc. All of them basically imply the existence of a landed aristocracy.

THE CHOLA EMPIRE * The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja Chola (985-1014 AD) and his son Rajendra Chola I. * The latter assumed the title Gangaikondchola (The Chola Conqueror of the Ganga). * The remarkable features of the Chola rule include a strong navy, village self-government and construction of beautiful temples to commemorate victories. Temple architecture reached a climax in the South under the Cholas. The main feature of this style called the Dravida, was the building of storey upon storey above the chief deity room (garbhgriha). A fine example of this style is the Brihdeeshwara Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I. * Sculpture attained a high standard during this phase. One befitting example is the Gomteshwara Statue at Shravanbelgola in Karnataka, the highest statue in India. Another aspect was image-making, which peaked a new high in the dancing figure of the Shiva, called the Natraja.

THE CIRCA 1000-1200 AD * Mahmud of Ghazni conducted 17 raids into India. The Indian temples were well-known for their fabulous wealth, which prompted him to conduct his subsequent raids in India. * Mahmud called himself a butshikan or a breaker of images for the glory of Islam. His most daring raid was against Somnath in Gujarat in 1025, the last in India. * Later Mohammed Ghauri ascended the throne in Ghazni. In Ajmer, Prithviraja Chauhan had just taken over. When he tried to turn his eyes towards Punjab, this brought him in direct conflict with Mohammed Ghauri. Thus, there was the First Battle of Tarain in 1191 in which the Ghauri forces were completely routed. * Ghuari had made careful preparations for the The Second Battle of Tarain (1192). As soon as Prithviraja awoke to the danger, he made a fervent appeal to all the other rajas of northern India for help. In the fiercely contested battle, the Chauhan forces were routed. Prithviraja managed to escape, but was captured near Saraswati. He was allowed to rule over Ajmer for a short time. * Soon after, Prithiviraja was executed on a conspiracy charge. After Tarain, Ghauri left for Ghazni, leaving India in the hands of his trusted slave Qutbuddin Aibak. * In 1194, Ghuari returned to India, defeating Jaichand of Kannauj and looting and destroying Hindu temples in Benares. Thus the battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid the foundations of the Turkish rule in India. ********************************************************************************************

Monument Details Monument Details 1. Sanchi Stupa by Ashoka 2. Borobudur Temple In Indonesia 3. Iron Pillar, Mehrauli Samudragupta 4. Allahabad Pillar Ashoka and Samudragupta 5. Ashoka Pillar Lauriya Nandangarh 7. Bhimbetka (Bhopal) Stone-Age Caves 9. Kailashnath Temple Kanchi 10. Dilwara Jain Temple Mount Abu 11. Brihideeshwara Temple At Thanjavur By Cholas 12. Angkor Vat Temple In Cambodia, biggest Hindu temple worldwide



THE DELHI SULTANATE- I -THE CIRCA 1200-1400 AD

* Qutbuddin Aibak, a trusted salve of Ghuari, who ruled for close to 4 years, died while playing chaugan (polo). He built the Qutub Minar in Delhi. * He was succeeded by Illtutmish in 1210, who is regarded as the real consolidator of the Turkish conquests in north India. Illtutmish (1210-36) is also regarded as the builder of the Qutub Minar in Delhi, which had been started by Aibak. It was during his time that the Mongol invasions appeared first in India. * In the matter of succession, Illtutmish finally decided in favour of Razia, his daughter, who became the first woman to sit on the throne of Delhi. Later Balban gradually arrogated all power and ascended the throne in 1265. He gave a stable government in the Delhi Sultanate. Balban is quite famous for his ruthless “blood and iron policy”. * He reorganized the military department (diwan-I-arz) He started two important royal ceremonies called the sijada (prostration) and paibos (kissing the king’s feet). * Balban was undoubtedly one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultenate. *********************************************************************************************************

THE DELHI SULTANATE-II -THE CIRCA 1200-1400 AD

* Jalaluddin Khalji overthrew the incompetent successors of Balban in 1290. * Allauddin, his successor, ascended the throne by treacherously murdering him. He won many wars in deep South with the help of Malik Kaifur, his favourite general. * Alauddin has many positive achievements to his credit, including the start of price reforms, organizing the first and the largest standing army, patronage of arts and culture etc. * Alauddin had a big standing army in the light of repeated Mongol invasions. Since he used to pay them fully in cash, prices had to be kept low to feed such a large army. Consequently, he regulated markets and fixed prices. Besides, Alauddin took important steps in the field of revenue administration. In matters military, he introduced the dagh or the branding system for horses. *Alauddin patronized Amir Khusro, a well-known Hindi scholar, who is credited with the invention of the Khari Boli (which later evolved into Hindi), the sitar, and the tabla. Khusro wrote memorable quawallis, of which he was the inventor. Historians call him the Tooti-i-Hind (The Parrot of India). Alauddin also built a new capital near Delhi, knows as Siri. * In 1320, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq killed the incompetent successor of Alauddin Khalji. The Tughlaqs produced three competent rulers Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Mohammed bin Tughlaq (1324-1351) and Firuz Tughlaq (1351-1388). * Mohammed Tughlaq is remembered for bold experiments and a keen interest in the improvement of agriculture. Unfortunately, he was hasty and impatient. Many of his experiments failed and he is often dubbed The “Wisest Fool In Indian History” or “The Ill-Starred Genius”. * The most controversial step, which he undertook was the shifting of capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daultabad), which was a great failure. Tughlaq started a token currency, which failed miserably. He had a Court of Thousand Pillars where he used to hold his public court. Ibn - Battuta, the Moroccan traveller who came to Delhi in those days, writes in detail about these experiments.



* It was during Firuz that the jaziya became a separate tax. Firuz was the first ruler during whose time important Hindu religious works were translated from Sanskrit into Persian. * Apart from canals for irrigation, he built two new cities Hissar-Firuza or Hissar and Firuzabad. He also set up a separate department of slaves. The invasion of Timur may be said to mark the end of the strong rule by the Delhi sultans. ********************************************************************************************

VIJAYANAGARA KINGDOM AND THE PORTUGUESE-CIRCA-1350-1365

* The Vijaynagara and the Bahmani kingdoms are best remembered for the beautiful cities and magnificent buildings they built, the patronage they gave to the arts and the stability they provided. * The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by Harihar and Bukka. Harihar’s coronation is placed in 1336. Dev Raya II (1422-1446) is considered to be the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara kingdom. Nuniz, the Portuguese traveller and Nicolo Conti, the Italian traveller who stayed in the kingdom, tell us a lot about the Vijayanagara times. Under Krishna Deva, Dev Raya’s successor, Vijayangara emerged as the strongest military power in the south. * At last, the rivals of the Vijayanagara kingdom combined to give a crushing defeat to it at Bannihati near Talikota in 1565. Several remains of the dynasty can be found today in Hampi, Karnataka. * Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut in 1498. Albuquerque became the governor of the Portuguese possessions in India in 1510 AD. He captured Goa from Bijapur in 1510 AD. Thus, the Portuguese remained masters of the Indian seas and of the Deccan coast. * In Delhi, a new Afghan dynasty arose. Behlul Lodi crowned himself in 1451. However, the most important Lodi ruler was Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517). He was able to establish effective administration in his kingdom and was quite famous for his sense of justice. He selected the site for the city of Agra. In course of time, it became the second capital of the Lodis. ********************************************************************************************

THE SUFI AND THE BHAKTI MOVEMENTS

* These times saw the rise of the Sufi mystic orders. Most of them had deep devotion who were disgusted by the vulgar display of wealth. Some Sufis like Mansur bin Hallaj laid great stress on love as the bond between God and the individual soul. But this led him to trouble with the orthodox elements who got him executed. The Chishti order was set up in India by Khwaja Moinudin Chisti in Ajmer. Among his celebrated disciples were Bakhtiyar Kaki and Farid-ud-Din Ganj-I-Shakar. * The most famous Chishti saint, however, were Nizamuddin Auliya and Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Delhi. * The Bhakti movement stressed mystical union of the individual with God. Among the prominent Bhakti scholars of north India, mention may be made of the Maharashtrian saint, Namdev, Ramanuj and Kabir from UP, Ravidas from UP, Guru Nanak Dev from Punjab, Mirabai from Rajasthan, Chaitnya Mahaprabhu from Bengal and Jaidev. They broadly worked against sectarian discrimination and promoted universal brotherhood and equality. ********************************************************************************************



THE MUGHALS AND THE AFGHANS * Babur succeeded to Farghana, a small state in Trans-Oxiana. Therefater, he moved to Kabul, which he conquered in 1504. Some other political developments later forced Babur to look towards India. * The political situation in India was suitable in 1517 for his political designs. Sikandar Lodi had died in 1517, and Ibrahim Lodi had succeeded him. It was about this time that Babur received an embassy from Daulat Khan Lodi. He invited Babur to attack India and suggested that he displace Ibrahim Lodi. At Babur’s approach, Daulat Khan’s army melted away and he submitted and was pardoned. Thus within three weeks of crossing the Indus, Babur became the master of Punjab. * Babur met Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat. Gunpowder was used here for the first time in India by Babur. Ibrahim Lodi could not hold his own against Babur and was killed. After some time, Mahmud Lodi, a brother of Ibrahim Lodi, posed a grave challenge to his authority in Bihar. * Despite military superiority, Babur could not win a decisive victory. He returned to Agra. Shortly afterwards, Babur died near Lahore while on his away to Kabul. * Humayun succeeded Babur in 1530 at the age of 23. He fought a fierce battle at Chausa (1539) with Sher Khan, a powerful Afghan sardar, who was the unquestioned master of Bihar. Defeated, Humayun’s forces managed to escape with Humayun’s military skill. He died from a fall off the first floor of his library building. * Shershah (1540-55) ascended the throne of Delhi at the age of 67. He re-established law and order and and restored the Grand Trunk Road from Peshawar to Sonargaon in Bengal. For travellers, he built many roadside sarais. Sher Shah died at Sasaram where a fine mausoleum to his memory stands. ********************************************************************************************

THE GREAT MUGHALS

* Akbar, the greatest of the Mughal rulers was born at Amarkot in 1542. He was crowned in 1556 at the young age of 13 years and 4 months. * Bairam Khan, who was his regent (caretaker) rose to the task and under his tutelage, Akbar contested a battle with Hemu, the Afghan king near Delhi. The two met at Panipat in battle, which saw the killing of Hemu after being defeated. *He won a fierce battle against Rana Udai Singh of Chittor. It was followed by the conquest of Ranthambore, the most powerful fortress in Rajasthan. Consequently, most Rajput states including Bikaner and Jaisalmer, submitted to him. Only Mewar continued to resist. In 1572, Rana Pratap succeeded to the throne in Mewar. Akbar won the furious battle between the two sides at Haldighati. * Akbar’s land revenue system was a major administrative achievement. Akbar also instituted a new system called the dahsala, under which, revenue settlement was done for 10 years on the basis of actual cultivated land. Though Todar Mal played major role in this, it was borrowed from Sher Shah. * The mansabdari system started by Akbar remained the basis of the Mughal rule till the end. Under this system, every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). Every mansabdar was assigned these two ranks indicating his status and responsibilities. * Akbar had a friendly policy towards the rajputs and even had a rajput queen as his real wife. This was coupled with a policy of broad religious tolerance. In 1564, he abolished the hated jaziya and the pilgrim-tax. * Most notably, Akbar was an ardent patron of the arts and learning. * He had nine gems or navratnas in his court, the maestros of different art forms and areas of knowledge. Notable among them include Abul Fazl (his biographer and historian), Fiazi, Man Singh, Birbal, Tansen,



Baijubawra, Todar Mal and Do Piaji. The noted Hindi poet Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana, wrote fine poetry on Krishna bhakti. * Goswami Tulsidas, the author of The Ramcharitmanas, was a contemporary of Akbar. * He made a few buildings like the Fatehpur Sikri City, The Buland Darwaza (to celebrate the Gujarat victory) and the Panch Mahal in Agra. * Akbar also started the ceremony of Jharokha Darshan hear public complaints. * Akbar was intensely secular, he set up a new religious sect called the Din-I-Illahi in 1584. Its major theme was Tauhid-i-Wajudi (The Unity of Being) and its goal Sulah-i-Kul (Peace To All). Despite being unsuccessful, it is a reflection of the broad humane and secular outlook Akbar had. That’s why historians call him the Ashoka of Medieval India or Akbar The Great. * After the Portguese’ entry, during the 17th century, many other European traders, especially the Dutch, the English and later the French came to India for business. The Dutch established themselves at Masulipatnam, after obtaining a farman from the ruler of Golconda in 1606. * The English also came to the East for spice trade, but the Dutch hostility in the Spice Islands compelled them to focus on India. They were able to set up their first factory in Surat in 1512. This was confirmed by a farman from Jahangir in 1618, obtained with the help of Sir Thomas Roe, their ambassador to Jahangir’s court. ********************************************************************************************

CLIMAX AND DISINTEGRATION OF THE MUGHAL

EMPIRE-I * Jahnagir (Salim-Anarkali fame), who followed Akbar, is most noted for his patronage of painting. Mughal painting reached its climax under Jahangir. Mansur, the great painter, lived at his court. * Shahjehan, who succeeded Jahangir, was quite famous for his beautiful monuments. Most memorable Mughal monuments belong to his reign. The immortal Taj Mahal, The Red Fort, The Jama Masjid and the Moti Masjid are four of the most prominent examples. In reality, the Mughal architecture is a take-over on the Persian art, but is distinguished by buildings in marble decorated with floral designs made of semi-precious stones. This method of decoration is known as pietre dura and it was widely used by Shahjahan in his buildings. In fact, the Taj Mahal is modelled on Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi. *Ultimately, Aurangzeb was able to capture the throne after much effort and many battles later. Aurangzeb forced Shah Jahan to surrender and he was confined to a fort in Agra. There he lived for eight long years under the loving care of his daughter. *Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years during which the Mughals reached their territorial climax. In course of time, he came to be called a Zinda Pir or “a living saint”. * Aurangzeb discontinued Jharokha Darshan and rie-imposed the Jaziya on non-Muslims. * Aurangzeb banned the royal orchestra, thinking that it was un-Islamic. The demolition of temples continued in his reign also, as before. Aurangzeb also came into conflict with the Sikh Gurus. Aurangzeb in 1675 arrested Guru Teg Bahadur with five of his followers. He brought them to Delhi and got them executed. His execution forced the Sikhs to go back to Punjab and organized an armed military brotherhood called the Khalsa under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh.

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CLIMAX AND DISINTEGRATION OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE-II

* Shivaji crowned himself formally in 1674 at Rajgarh. He was the most powerful Maratha chief and was quite well-known for his guerilla warfare tactics. * He had designated eight ministers called The Ashtpradhan. The most important minister was the Peshwa, who looked after the finances and general administration. He levied a contribution on neighbouring Mughal territories called the chauth (one-fourth of land revenue). * The Mughal empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangzeb. The weakness of the empire was proclaimed to the world when Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal emperor and looted Delhi in 1739. With no credible leadership in sight, the British were able to conquer India and convert it into a colony, supplying raw materials in place of being the manufactory it was before.

Important Classics Written During Medieval Times

Some Famous Bhakti Poets

SOME FAMOUS BHAKTI POETS

Important Terms and Meanings Thereof

IMPORTANT TERMS AND MEANINGS THEREOF

Name of the Book Author Reign/Time 1. Rajtarangini (Sanskrit) Kalahana (Kashmir) Zianul Abidin 2. Akbarnama Abul Fazl Akbar 3. Ain-I-Akbari Abul Fazl Akbar 4. Shahnama Firdausi Mahmud Ghazni 5. Prithviraja Raso Chand Bardai Prithviraja Raso 6. Tazuk-I-Babari (Turkish) Babar Autobiography 7. Tazuk-I-Jahangiri Jahangir Autobiography 8. Geet Govind Jaidev Bhakti Poetry 9. Padmavat Malik Mohammed Jaisi Shringar Ras Poetry 10. Kitab-ul-Hind Al-Biaruni 11. Manu Smriti Manu Treatise On Law

Name Area of Operation Name Area of Operation 1. Ramanuj UP 2. Ramanand UP 3. Kabir UP 4. Guru Nanak Dev Punjab 5. Namdev Maharashtra 6. Ravidas UP 7. Chaitnya Mahaprabhu Nadia (Bengal) 8. Meera Bai Rajasthan

Term Meaning Term Meaning 1. Dravida Southern Temple Style 14. Chahalgani Forty Nobles 2. Deewan-i-Arz Military Department 15. Jauhar Suicide By Rajput Women 3. Tanka Copper Coin 16. Dinara Gold Coin 4. Pana Silver Coin 17. Pargana District 5. Wazir Revenue Minister 18. Jihad Religious Fight 6. Ariz-I-Mumalik Head of Military Dept 19. Chaugan Polo 7. Vakil-I-Dar Protocol Officer 20. Bandobast Todar Mal’s Revenue Settlement 8. Nauroz Persian New Year 40. Mir-i-Saman Incharge of Royal Household 9. Dagh Branding of Horses 10. Farman Royal Order 11. Khalisa Cultivated Land 12. Mir Bakshi Chief of Military Dept. 13. Sardeshmukhi Revenue Rights



IMPORTANT FOREIGN VISITORS

Important Foreign Visitors

IMPORTANT TITLES AND HOLDERS THEREOF

Title Given To 1. Butshikan Mahmud of Ghazni 3. Lakhbaksh Qutbuddin Aibak 4. Architect of Delhi Sultanate Balban 5. Zinda Pir Aurangzeb 6. Wisest Fool in Indian History Mohd. Tughlaq 7. The Ashoka of Medieval India Akbar The Great

Visitor Country of Origin Reign/Time 1. Nicolo Conti Italy Vijaynagara Empire 2. Nuniz Italy Vijayanagara Empire 3. Barbosa, Paes Potrugal Vijaynagar Empire 4. Al-Bairuni Arab Early Medieval Times 5. Captain Hawkins England Jahangir & Thomas Roe 6. Marco Polo Italy Kublai Khan in China, Malabar



MODERN INDIA

* The Great Mughal Empire declined and disintegrated in the first half of the 18th century. Aurangzeb’s sons fought among themselves for the throne after his death. The 65-year old Bahadur Shah emerged victorious. * The Saiyad brothers, Abdullah Khan and Jusain Ali Khan Barahow are widely known as the “King-Makers”. * Nizam-Ul-Mulk in 1724 marched southwards to found Hyderabad. Then in 1738, Nadir Shah from Persia descended on India, and the Empire lay on its feet. * He was attracted to India by its fabulous wealth. He fought an easy battle with the Mughal army at Karnal in 1739 and inflicted a crushing defeat on it. The Emperor Mohammed Shah was taken prisoner and Nadir Shah marched on to Delhi. Nadir Shah also took away the famed Koh-I-Noor Diamond and the Peacock Throne of Shahjahan with him. * Further, the Empire was devastated by the repeated invasions of Ahmed Shah Abdali. Consequently, the Mughal Empire had ceased to exist in practice as an all-India empire by 1761. * In 1764, Shah Alam II, the Mughal Emperor joined Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh in declaring a war upon the East India Company. * Defeated by the British at the Battle of Buxar, he lived as a British pensioner for several years. * The British occupied Delhi in 1803. * Many powerful states emerged including Hyderabad under Nizam-Ul-Mulk, Bengal under Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan, Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. In fact, Tipu Sultan was the most dreaded rival of the British in India those days. He was fond of saying,” It is better to live a single day as a lion rather than live a lifetime as a sheep.” * Tipu Sultan was a remarkably modern man. He even collaborated with the French for military training of his troops. He died fighting the British in the Third Anglo-Carnatic War at Serigpatnam, his capital in 1799. * Raja Sawai Jai Singh was the most outstanding Rajput ruler of the 18th century. He built five astronomical observatories in Jaipur, Ujjain, Varansi, Delhi and Mathura. He also built the city of Jaipur. * Under Suraj Mal, known as the Plato of The Jat Tribe, the Jat state of Bharatpur had its zenith. * End -18th century, Ranjit Singh, chief of the Sukerchakia Misl, rose to prominence. He captured Lahore in 1799 and Amritsar in 1802. He had built up a powerful army with the help of European instructors. * The most important challenge to the decaying Mughal power came from the Maratha kingdom, which was the most powerful succession state. *******************************************************************************************

THE EAST INDIA COMPANY-1600-1714 * By 1623, it had established factories in Surat, Broach, Ahmedabad, Agra and Masulipatnam. * The French East India Company was founded in 1664. It was firmly established at Chandernagore near Calcutta and Pondicherry. Dupleix was the French Governor at this time. In course of time, the English were able to drive out the French. * The beginning of the British political sway in India can be traced to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, when the English East India Co.’ defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal. The British proclaimed Mir Jafar the



Nawab of Bengal. The Battle of Plassey paved the way for the British mastery of Bengal and eventually the whole of India. * In 1760, the Company forced him to abdicate the throne in favour of his son-in-law Mir Qasim. Mir Qasim was defeated in a series of battles in 1763 and fled to Awadh where he joined hands with Shuja-ud-Daula, the Awadh Nawab and Shah Alam II, the fugitive Mughal Emperor. The three clashed with the British in the Battle of Buxar in 1764 and were thoroughly defeated. This was one of the most decisive battles. *The East India Company became the real master of Bengal from 1765. A large-scale expansion of the British rule in India began under Lord Wellesley (1798-1805). He put forth the policy of Subsidiary Alliance. Under this, the ruler of the allying state was compelled to accept the permanent stationing of a British force and to pay an annual fee for its maintenance. All this was done allegedly for the ruler’s protection, but in reality, many times, the ruler was forced to cede his kingdom for non-payment of fee. The promise of non-interference in the ruler’s internal affairs was the one they never kept. Such treaties were signed by the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1798 and 1800. Tipu, of course, never agreed to such a treaty. ********************************************************************************************

THE PERIOD 1765-1856 * Lord Dalhousie came to India as Governor-General in 1848. He was determined to extend the boundaries of the British rule by applying his Doctrine of Lapse. * Initially, the East India Co. brought goods/precious metals in India and exchanged them for Indian goods like textiles and spices, which it sold abroad. Its profits came primarily from the sale of Indian goods abroad. * In 1765, the Company acquired the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The Company decided to introduce a Permanent Settlement of Land, under which the Company’s income from the revenue collected would remain fixed. The Permanent Settlement or the Zamindari System was introduced in 1793 by Lord Cornawallis. * The same system was introduced in Punjab under the name Mahalwari System and in South under the name Ryotwari Settlement. * The Company decided in 1835 to introduce English as a medium of education in India on the recommendations of Lord Macaulay (Macaulay’s Minutes). * The Woods’ Dispatch was another important step in the development of education in India. * In 1853, the British decided to open recruitment to ICS for Indians and it was also decided to make the recruitment through a competitive test in London. The same year witnessed the opening of the Indian Railways from Bombay to Thane. * The 19th century India was characterized by immense intellectual and cultural stirrings. The central figure in this awakening was Raja Rammohan Roy, regarded as the First Scientific Man of India or the Renaissance Man of India. * In 1829, he founded a religious society called the Brahma Samaj. The best example of his crusade for social reforms was the historic agitation he launched against the sati. He set out to rouse public opinion against it. Ultimately, his efforts resulted in the passing of an act by William Bentinck banning the practice of the sati. * It was Roy whose insistence brought English education to India, and helped spread modern political and scientific ideas. He had many distinguished associates including Ishwar Chandar Vidyasagar whose work regarding widow remarriage is legendary, Jyotiba Phule, a prominent low-caste reformer from Maharashtra, Justice MG Ranade in Poona, Swami Dyanand Saraswati who founded the Arya Samaj in 1875 for purifying Hinduism and spreading modern ideas, Swami Vivekanand who set up the Rama Krishan Mission in 1896, and Henry Dorazio of Bengal. ********************************************************************************************



THE REVOLT OF 1857

* Some sepoys from Meerut, who had killed a superior officer the previous day, marched to the Red Fort. * Mangal Pande, a young sepoy became the first martyr of the Revolt. * The Revolt spread to Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Benares, Bareilly, Jagdishpur and Jhansi. The most outstanding rebel leader was the Rani of Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai, whose state had been annexed by the British applying the Doctrine of Lapse. She joined the sepoys and became a most formidable rival the British had to contend with in India. * Apart from the immediate triggering-point of the Enfield Rifle cartridges rumours of religious conversions of all sepoys, discriminatory treatment in the army, oppressive revenue systems and poverty all contributed in equal measure to the sepoys’ discontentment and the consequent Revolt. * Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed the Emperor and a semblance of government was sought to be established in Delhi. For more than a year, the rebels struggled against heavy odds to sustain the movement. Poorly equipped in terms of arms and ammunition, without any means of communication and co-ordination, they seemed to be fighting a losing battle against a much better-equipped enemy. * Yet, the rebels showed exemplary courage, dedication and commitment. Delhi fell to the British on September 20, 1857 and Bahadur Shah Zafar was deported to Rangoon (today’s Yangoon), where he ultimately died. The Rani of Jhansi died fighting on June 17, 1858.

************************************************************************* THE POST-1857 SCENARIO

* To counter the recurrence of such events, the control of India was shifted from the East India Co. to the British Empire. From now onwards, the Governor-General came to be called the Viceroy signifying the fact that the formal control of Indian affairs was now in the hands of the British Queen or the royalty. * The most outstanding economic critique of the British rule was made by Dada Bhai Noroji, the Grand Old Man of India. Noroji was a succesful Parsi businessman, but left his business to work for the national cause, staying in London and used virtually every public platform to drive home the meaning of his drain theory. The focal point of the campaign was Noroji’s Theory of Drain of Wealth, which he had propounded in his 1867 classic Poverty And Un-British Rule In India. This was possibly the first book that gave estimates of national income for India and convincingly proved that after the arrival of the British, the economic standards of India had fallen in every respect. * The Drain Theory talked of the drain of wealth of India or the bleeding of India by the British by different means like using India as a supplier of raw goods and as a market for finished goods, exploitative revenue systems, ruin of Indian handicrafts, remittances to England etc. * Many new political associations were came into being at this time e.g. the Indian Association founded by Surender Nath Banerjea (1876) and the Bombay Presidency Association by Dinshaw Petit. Alongside, a sign of new political life in the country was the coming in to being of several nationalist newspapers which dominated the Indian scene till 1918 ____ The Hindu, The Tribune, Bengalee, Mahratta and Kesari. * The political awakening culminated in 1885 in the formation of the Indian National Congress, the first-ever all-India attempt to create a political platform to resist the British rule. Seventy-two men, mostly journalists, had gathered in Bombay in December, 1885 to form the Congress. A retired British civil servant, Allen Octavian Hume, was the brain behind the formation of the INCs and the first President was Womesh Chandar Banerjee.

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THE ROLE OF THE PRESS

* Very powerful newspapers emerged during these years to accomplish the goal of creating and mobilizing public opinion. Examples include The Hindu and Swadeshmitran under the editorship of G. Subramaniam Iyer, Kesari and Mahratta under Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bengalee under Surender Nath Banerjea, Amrit Bazar Patrika under Sisir Ghosh and Moti Lal Ghosh, Sudharak under GK Gokhale, Voice of India under Dada Bhai Noroji and The Tribune in Panjab. * Irked by the Press writings, the Government struck at them through a Vernacular Press Act in 1878. It was specifically targeted at Indian language newspapers, barring the English Press. Various public bodies also campaigned against the Act and consequently, it was withdrawn by Lord Ripon in 1881. * Surender Nath Banerjea was the first man to be jailed in performance of his duties as a journalist. But the man most frequently associated with freedom of the Press during this movement is Bal Gangadhar Tilak. In 1881, he, along with GG Agrakar, founded the Kesari and The Mahratta. He started the traditional Ganpati Festival and Shivaji Festival to propagate nationalist ideas through songs and speeches. In 1896-97, Tilak also oragnized a No-Tax Campaign in Maharashtra in protest against the government’‘s insistence on collecting land revenue despite the fact that the crops had failed that year. He was accused of spreading disaffection against the government and was tried for it. Overnight, he became an all-India figure and was lovingly given the title of Lokmanya (Respected By The People).

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THE WORK IN LEGISLATIVE COUNCILS * Two outstanding men made the most of the opportunity offered by these councils –Pherozshah Mehta and Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Gokhale was an outstanding intellectual who had been groomed in Indian economics by MG Ranade. He won great fame for his budget speeches and came to be known as the greatest parliamentarian India ever had and also the first leader of the opposition. Later on, he trained Gandhi in the intricacies of politics and earned the title of being the Political Guru of Mahatma Gandhi.

************************************************************************* THE SWADESHI MOVEMENT

* Under Lord Curzon, the British decided to partition Bengal into two on the professed assumption that it was quite difficult to govern the large state. The day partition took effect - 16 Oct. 1905 -- was declared a day of mourning throughout Bengal. They proposed to start a Boycott of Foreign Goods, which was to extend later to the boycott of government schools and colleges, courts, titles and government services and even participating in strikes. * The boycott of foreign goods was the most successful at the popular level.

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THE CONGRESS SPLIT AND THE REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISTS-I

* The INC split in December 1907 at its Surat session. Almost at the same time, revolutionary terrorism made its appearance in Bengal. * In 1904, VD Savarkar organized a secret society of revolutionaries called the Abhinav Bharat. In 1907, an unsuccessful attempt was made on the life of the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. In April 1908 Prafful Chaki and Khudiram Bose threw a bomb at a carriage, which they believed was carrying Kingsford, the unpopular judge at Muzaffarpur. * Two other notable examples in this regard include Madan Lal Dhingra who killed Curzon-Wylie in London and Ras Behari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal who attempted to kill Lord Hardinge. Some revolutionaries established centres abroad also. Notable among such revolutionaries were Shyamji Krishanverma, VD Savarkar and Hardyal in London and Madame Bhikaji Cama and Ajit Singh in Europe.

************************************************************************* THE GHADAR

* The First World War in 1914 infused new life into the nationalist movement, dormant after the Swadeshi Movement. This opportunity was seized, in different ways, by the Ghadar revolutionaries based in North America and by Lokmanya Tilak, Annie Besant and their Home Rule Leagues in India. The Ghadarites wanted to overthrow the British rule while the Home Rule Leagues launched a nationwide agitation for securing Home Rule or Swaraj. * The crucial role in Ghadar was played by Lala Hardayal, who arrived in California in 1911. Among the prominent leaders were Sohan Sigh Bhakna, Harnam Singh "Tundilat" and Bhai Parmanand. They started a newspaper and set up an office with the name Yugantar in San Francisco. * Three major events influenced the course of Ghadar: the arrest and escape of Hardayal, the Kamagatamaru episode and the outbreak of the First World War. Lal Hardayal was arrested in 1914 on grounds of his alleged anarchist activities. Released on bail, he used the opportunity to escape. * But unfortunately, The Ghadar’s attempt to incite the Indian Army to revolt was unsuccessful. The CID had penetrated the organization and the British succeeded in aborting the Ghadar’s attempts. With most of the leaders arrested, the movement was crushed.

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THE HOME RULE MOVEMENTS * The response to the First World War from India came in the shape of Home Rule Leagues launched by Tilak and Besant. Annie Besant, an Irish missionary, who had come to India in 1893 to work for the Theosophical Society, also thought on similar lines. The two Home Rule Leagues were set up in quick succession, Tilak’s in April, 1916 and Besant’s in September, 1916. Both focussed on building a movement for limited self-rule. * 1917 gave a further fillip to the Home Rule movement. Annie Besant was elected the first woman to grace the INC president. * MK Gandhi gave a call for Satygraha in March 1919 to protest against the draconian Rowlatt Act. *************************************************************************



GANDHIJI’S ACTIVISM - THE EARLY PHASE * Gandhi had been engaged in 1893 to fight a legal case in South Africa. Having encountered the worst kind of racial discrimination, he immediately called a meeting of all Indians there. * He used Satyagraha first in South Africa and later in India. During 1917 and 1918, he led three localized struggles--- Champaran (The Indigo or Tinkathia Movement), Ahmedabad (The Textile Mills Case) and Khera (No Revenue Payment Case). * His February 1919 call for a nationwide protest against the unpopular Rowlatt Act evoked immense popular response. Events in Punjab took a tragic shape when the Baisakhi Day, 13th April, the army opened fire on innocent unarmed people in the Jallianwala Bagh. General Dyer ordered his troops to fire on the unarmed people. Gandhiji, overwhelmed by the atmosphere of violence withdrew the movement on 18th April. *********************************************************************************************************

THE NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT–1920-22 The NCM was launched on August 1, 1920, after the expiry of the notice Gandhiji had given to the Viceroy. The programme included the surrender of titles and honours, boycott of government schools and colleges, law courts, foreign cloth, spinning of charkha and observance of strict non-violence. But in February, 1922, a mob in Chauri Chaura (UP) set fire to a police station. Consequently, Gandhiji immediately withdrew the movement.

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THE REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISTS-II * Revolutionaries under Ramprasad Bismil and Sachindranath Sanyal founded the Hindustan Republican Association in 1924. The HRA was founded to organize armed revolution to overthrow colonial rule. The most famous “action” of the HRA was the Kakori Robbery in 1925. HRA held up the 8-Down Train at Kakori near Lucknow, and looted its official railway cash. A large number of men were tried in the famous Kakori Conspiracy Case. Ashfaqullah Khan, Ramprasad Bismil and some others were hanged to death. Chandershekhar remained at large. * Younger men like Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati Charan Vohra and Sukhdev in Punjab reorganizeed the HRA under Chandershekhar Azad. Finally, they created a new organization by the name of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association in 1928. * Lala Lajpat Rai’s death in the police lathicharge during Simon demonstrations, was seen by the HSRA as a direct challenge. And so in December, 1928, Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru assassinated at Lahore, Saunders, a police official involved in the lathicharge. Bhagat Singh and BK Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly Hall in 1929. Bhagat Singh and BK Dutt were later tried in the Assembly Bomb Case. Bhagat Singh became a household name in the country. He, along with Rajguru and Sukhdev, was hanged to death in the case on 23rd March, 1931.

************************************************************************* THE CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

* The year 1929 witnessed the passing of the Purna Swaraj or the Complete Independence Resolution in Lahore INC session. J L Nehru was the man who did the most to popularize the idea of complete independence and it was under his Presidency that the INC passed the Complete Independence Resolution.



* On the banks of the river Ravi in Lahore, at midnight on 31 December 1929, the Tricolor was unfurled amidst cheers and jubilation. On 26th January, 1930, Independence Pledges were read out and collectively affirmed at mass meetings. * On April 6, 1930, by picking a handful of salt, Gandhiji inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement, a movement that remained unsurpassed in Indian history for the mass participation it unleashed. * After much deliberation, a Round Table Conference was held between the Congress and the British in London. Thereafter, the discussions between Lord Irwin, the Viceroy and Gandhiji resulted in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The Congress, in return, agreed to discontinue the CDM.

************************************************************************* THE YEARS AFTER

* Gandhiji went to UK 1931 to attend the 2nd Round Table Conference but the British refused the basic nationalist demand. In 1932, Ramsay McDonald announced the Communal Award, which provoked all Indians and the INC to protest it. The Communal Award was basically aimed at dividing the Indian population along communal lines. * Jawahar Lal Nehru in 1928, joined hands with Bose to form the Independence For India League. In 1935, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act, 1935. It Act provided for Provincial Autonomy, a Federation of India and transference of some powers to provinces. The Act was thoroughly condemned by all and the Congress demanded, instead, a convening of the Constituent Assembly to frame a Constitution for independent India. * During this decade, a strong wave of communal propaganda unleashed by both the Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha, surfaced. The Muslim side was spearheaded by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, who later gave the theory of Pakistan and MS Golwalkar, a prominent RSS leader.

************************************************************************* THE CRIPPS MISSION

* The Bose-Gandhi debate ultimately resulted in the resignation of Bose from the INC Presidency in 1939. Bose left Congress and founded the Forward Bloc, a communist outfit within the INC. * World War II broke out on September 1, 1939 when Nazi Germany invaded Poland. Gandhiji decided to start the Individual Satygraha in 1940. Vinoba Bhave was the first individual satyagrahi. * The demand for Pakistan was first made by the Muslim League in 1940 in Lahore. Negotiations between the INC and the Cripps Mission soon broke down because the INC wanted complete independence in place of the Dominion Status. The Cripps failure in 1942 made it clear that Britain was unwilling to offer an honourable settlement. * The historic August 8 meeting was marked by Gandhiji’s speech, delivered in his usual unrhetorical style. It had an electrifying impact. The famous slogan of “Do Or Die” was given by Gandhiji and it became a rallying cry for the Quit India Movement.

* It included all forms of civil disobedience and non-cooperation. The sudden attack by the government produced an instantaneous reaction among the people. Major towns observed hartals, had public demonstrations and processions in defiance of the Revolutionary Movements Act introduced by the government to crush the movement. * The INA was an army commanded by Subhas Bose in 1943 in Singapore. He set up the Provisional Government of Free India in October, 1943 there. In 1944, the INA decided to wage an open war on the British in India with the help of the Japanese army. But the subsequent capture of their commanders Prem Kumar



Sehgal, Shah Nawaz and Gurdial Dhillon, quashed all hopes of liberating India. All three were later tried in the famous INA Red Fort Trials in 1945. * The growing nationalist upsurge and a demoralized army, bureaucracy and police and growing international pressure compelled the British to announce the Cabinet Mission for India in 1946, which was to evolve a scheme for transfer of power to India. The scheme given made no mention of a separate Pakistan, but it was misinterpreted by both the Congress and the Muslim League. * The Muslim communal groups provoked communal frenzy in Calcutta on 16th August, 1946. The Hindu communal groups retaliated in equal measure and the toll was 5000 lives. * The League never joined the Interim Government headed by JL Nehru, as per the mission plan. The British Premier Clement Attlee sought to defuse the crisis by announcing in the British Parliament that the British had decided to withdraw from India on 3rd June, 1948. Lord Mountbatten was appointed the new Viceroy, to wind up the British Raj and transfer power. * The Mountbatten Plan, as the 3rd June, 1948 Plan came to be known, sought to make an early transfer of power on the basis of Dominion Status to two successor states India and Pakistan. However, India woke upto the dawn of freedom much earlier on 15th August, 1947 and Pakistan a day earlier. * Despite the tragedy of partition, at last India had won its freedom from the clutches of a tyrannical ruler and the people listened to Nehru's still-electrifying Tryst With Destiny speech on the intervening night of 14th and 15th August, “Long, long ago, we had made a tryst with destiny…….”

IMPORTANT INC PRESIDENTS1. Mahatma Gandhi 1924 2. JL Nehru 1929, 36, 37 3. Subhas Bose 1938,

Regional & Tribal Uprisings and Locations

1. Sanyasi Rebellion Bengal 3. Mopillahs Struggle Malabar (Kerala) 4. Mundas Struggle Bihar 5. Santhals Movement Bihar 6. Kukas Movement Punjab

Governor-General Step/Inititaive 1. Lord Cornawallis Permanent Settlement 2. Lord Macaulay English Introduced 3. Lord Dalhousie Railways, Indians’ Entry

to ICS opened, Lapse Theory

4. William Bentick Abolition of Sati, Thugee & Female Infanticide

5. Lord Canning 1857 Revolt 6. Lord Rippon Local Self-Government 7. Lord Dufferin INC Formed 8. Lord Wavell Shimla Plan 9. Lord Wellsley Subsidiary Alliance

SOCIAL REFORM AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS Organization Founder Organization Founder 1. Braham Samaj Raja Rammohan Roy (1829) 2. Prathrna Samaj Mahadev Gobind Ranade 3. Satya Shodhak Samaj Jyotiba Phule 4. Arya Samaj Swami Dayanand 5. Ramakrishna Mission Swami Vivekanand 6. Temple Entry Movement E. Ramaswamy Naicker 7. Theosophical Society Annie Besant 8. Young Bengal Movement Henry Dorazio 9.Widow Remarriage Association MG Ranade 10. Aligarh Movement Sir Siayad Ahmed Khna 11. Abhinav Bharat VD Savrkar 12. Hindu Mahasabha VD Savarkar 13. Congress Swaraj Party ML Nehru, CR Dass 14. All-India Depressed Classes Federation Dr. BR Ambedkar 15. All-India Harijan Sewak Sangh MK Gandhi



Important Titles and Holders Thereof Title Real Name 1. Lokmanya BG Tilak 2. Mahatma MK Gandhi

(By Tagore) 3. Bapu MK Gandhi

(By Subash Bose) 4. Chaacha JL Nehru 5. Bharat Kokila Sarojini Naidu 6. Plato of Jat Tribe Suraj Mal 7. The Best Parliamentarian GK Gokhale 8. Gandhi’s Political Guru GK Gokhale 9. Sardar VB Patel 10. Sher-I-Punjab Lajpat Rai 11. Friend of the Indian People Lord Rippon 12. Deenbandhu CF Andrews 13. Deshbandhu CR Dass 14. Chakravarti C. Rajgoplachari

MISCELLANEOUS 1. First Martyr of 1857 Revolt Mangal Pande 2. First Muslim INC President Badruddin Tyabji 3. First Female INC President Annie Besant 4. First Jailed Journalist SN Banerjea 5. INC President in 1947 JB Kriplani 6. British Premier In 1947 Clement Attlee 7. First Woman Chief Minister In Independent India Sucheta Kriplani 8. First Woman Cabinet Minister Rajkumari Amrit Kaur 9. Revolutionary Who Died In Jail After 64 Days of Fasting Jatin Dass

Book/Newspaper/Journal Author/Editor 1. A Gift To Monotheists Raja Ram Mohan Roy 2. Al-Hilal Abul Kalam Azad

3. Kesari & Mahratta B G Tilak 4. Harijan, Young India, Navjeevan M K Gandhi 5. Philosophy of the Bomb B C Vohra 6. Bandi Jeevan S N Sanyal 7. Anand Math Bankim Chandra Chatterjee 8. Poverty & Un-British Rule in India Dada Bhai Narojee 9. Guru Granth Sahib Guru Arjun Dev Ji (Compiler) 10. Causes Of Indian Unrest Valentine Chirol 11. Inquilab Zindabad Dr. Mohammaed Iqbal 12. Sarfraoshi Ki Tamanna Ram Prasad Bismil 13. First War of Indian Independence VD Savarkar



GEOGRAPHY-PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC ASTRONOMICAL TERMS

Asteroids are minor planets, which revolve round the Sun in orbits between those of Mars and Jupiter. Aurora Borealis A luminous, muti-coloured beam of lights in the sky in the Northern Hemisphere, a result of some kind of electric discharge from the Sun and also on account of the presence of cosmic rays. A similar phenomenon in the Southern Hemisphere is called Aurora Australis. Aurora Theory Hydrogen atoms shot out by the solar flare enter the magnetic field of the Earth and are guided by magnetic currents to the geo-magnetic pole zone. On entering the Earth’s atmosphere at these zones, they come in contact with oxygen and nitrogen atoms, the resulting collision gives us Auroras. Binary Star A double star whose members revolve round their common centre of gravity. The two stars being in the same straight line, from any point of the Earth and are not distinguishable from each other. Chromosphere Rarefied layers of gases surrounding the Sun but lying outside the photosphere, but inside the corona. The chromosphere layers consist chiefly of hydrogen. Constellations A group of fixed stars in the heavens. The best-known constellations are the Great Bear, the Scorpion, Orion and Ursa Major. Comet Heavenly body within the gravitational field of the Sun, which is occasionally visible to the naked eye; it has a nucleus, and a luminous tail. Ecliptic The Sun’s apparent orbit. Galaxy The aggregate of celestial bodies of the universe to which the Sun belongs, including the luminous band of stars called the milky way. The galaxy of which our solar system is a part consists of over 30,000 million stars. It the entire universe, there are more than 9,000 million galaxies. Light Year Unit of astronomical distance, equal to the distance light travels in a year. Meteorite Solid matter (cosmic dust) which plunge into the Earth’s atmosphere with great speed and some of them are deposited on the Earth’s surface; they mostly become incandescent on account of the resultant friction in the atmosphere, and then appear as shooting stars (meteors). Their composition is similar to that of bits of planet. Milky Way A galaxy of stars or a hazy somewhat irregular band of star dust, which completely encircles the heavens. Moon The satellite, which revolves round the Earth, and takes about 29 days and 12 hours to do so. Nebulae A faint misty path of light in the sky produced by a group of stars too remote to be seen singly. Planets are heavenly bodies, which revolve round the Sun. There are nine planets : 1. Mercury, 2. Venus, 3. Earth, 4. Mars, 5. Jupiter, 6. Saturn, 7. Uranus, 8. Neptune, 9. Plato. The difference between a planet and a star as seen through the telescope is simply this - a planet always presents a definite globe-like disc, whereas a star appears as twinkling point of light. Pole Star It is a fixed star; the North Pole of the Earth points towards it. Photosphere It is the visible part of the Sun - the intensely bright sphere of white light.



Quasars Short for Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources. They are the most distant heavenly bodies, which are neither stars nor galaxies, but they are moving away at great speed. Satellites The secondary bodies which revolve round the planet, as the planets revolve round the Sun. They have no light of their own; they receive their light from the Sun. All the planets have one or more satellites. Earth has one natural satellite, i.e., Moon, Mars has two, Jupiter twelve, Uranus five. Solar Cells They are razor-thin strips of silicon, which convert the energy of the Sun’s rays into electrical energy. Solar Flares During magnetic storms, adjacent to the Sunspots, great geysers of flaming gas are thrown out hundreds and thousands of miles into space, and cannot be attracted back by the pull of the Sun. They cause electro-magnetic disturbance and interrupt radio-reception. Solar System The nine planets and their satellites, which revolve in a regular course about the Sun, comprise the solar system. Besides the asteroids, comets also form a part of the solar system. The Sun holds this family in position by gravitation. The planets have no light of their own, but we only see the reflected light of Sun’s rays. Kepler discovered the laws regarding the revolution of heavenly bodies. Sun It is almost a round body of fiery gaseous matter. The Sun is made of hydrogen gas and helium. The temperature at the centre of the Sun is 20 million degrees centigrade but at the outer surface the temperature is 6000o C. It is at a distance of 93 million miles from the Earth’s surface. It is more than 30,00 times as heavy as the Earth, and over 1 million times as large as the Earth. Sun Spots Sunspots are like safety valves. They are dark patches, which appear on the surface of the Sun. They allow highly compressed and heated gases to escape from the Sun’s interior. Twilight It is due to reflection and scattering of light when the Sun is below the horizon. It is generally defined as the period between Sunset and the time when the Sun has sunk 18o below the horizon - that is a little over an hour. Zodiac It is the belt of 12 constellations - Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, etc. These star groups circle the sky. The Sun, Moon and planets look as though they move against the background of these constellations. The Zodiac is often linked to astrology.

SOME GEOGRAPHICAL FACTS Distance of the Earth from the Sun 93 million miles Diameter of the Sun 864,000 miles Diameter of the Earth 8,000 miles nearly Circumference of the Earth 25,000 miles Times taken by the Earth to rotate about its axis 24 hours Diameter of the Moon 2190 miles Time taken by the Earth to revolve round the Sun 365 1/4 days Distance of the Moon from the Earth 238,857 miles Longest day in N. Hemisphere 21st June Shortest day in N. Hemisphere 22nd December Equal days and nights 21st March and 23rd September Equal days and nights throughout the year Equator The light from the Sun takes 8 minutes 42 seconds to reach the Earth. Just as the Earth revolves round the Sun in a year so the Moon revolves round the Earth in a month-or, to be strictly accurate, in 29 days, 12 hours; it is called lunar month.



GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS Alluvium Sediments deposited by rivers, which makes the soil fertile. Alluvial cones are formed in the course of river flow. Anti-cyclone Is a high-pressure system and the winds blow outwards from the centre. The direction of winds is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the southern hemisphere, and it is associated with dry sunny weather. Anthracite is a lustrous, hard, compact coal variety with around 90% carbon. It burns slowly and is smokeless. Antipodes It is a region or place on the opposite side of the Earth. Apogee The situation when the Moon or any other planet in its orbit, is at its maximum distance from the Earth. Aphelion The position of the Earth in its orbit when it is at its greatest distance from the Sun (opposed to perihelion). Archipelago A group of islands, such as Malaysian Archipelago. Artesian wells Their name is derived from Artois in France where the first wells of this kind were constructed in 1126 AD. Underground water is reached by sinking a shaft from the surface, and the water rises to the surface by hydrostatic pressure. Artesian wells are common in Australia, Punjab (Hoshiarpur) and Himachal Pradesh (Kangra District). Their characteristics are : (i) non-porous strata at the top and bottom, and in between, there is a porous strata of Earth, (ii) the ground is in the form of basin, (iii) the porous strata which contains water opens at the top. Atmosphere It is the gaseous ring all around the Earth and extends from 200-300 miles above the Earth. It consists of several gases, nitrogen being the most important. Atoll It is a coral reef of the shape of a horse-shoe or ring with a lagoon in the centre, e.g., Laccadive Islands. Axis Imaginary line which joins the North and South Poles and which passes through the centre of the Earth. The Earth rotates on this axis. Aeolian Relating to or caused by the wind. Aeolian deposits are materials, which have been transported and laid down on the Earth’s surface by the wind. Barysphere Bary comes from a Latin word baros, i.e., weight. It refers to the innermost shell of the Earth. Basin A dock or other reservoir of water for anchoring ships to high tide; area of land drained by a river. Biosphere The organic life on Earth, including plants, vegetables, animals, birds and men. Black Soil It is the black soil of Deccan, also known as Regur. This soil is very fertile and is ideal for the production of cotton. Bore A tidal wave which breaks in the estuaries of some rivers, and being impelled by the narrowing channel rises in the form of tide, and courses along with great force and noise. Canyon A deep valley cut by a river running through a mountainous region. A famous one is the Colorado Canyon in the U.S.A., which is 217 miles long and 8 to 10 miles wide. Cape The point of termination or a neck of land extending into the sea.



Chinook The warm dry wind along the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains in Canada and the U.S.A. Chlorophyll Green colouring matter of the leaves of the plants. Cloudburst An abnormally heavy and sudden downpour of rain usually associated with a thunderstorm. Pahalgam (J. & K.) and Trivandrum have often been struck by cloudbursts. Cold Wall A cold current that flows between Greenland and America. Coniferous Forest A forest of evergreen cone-bearing trees, the shape of whose leaves is like a needle. Continental Climate The type of climate experienced in the interior of the great continents. Continental Shelf A part of land which is submerged under the sea, and whose depth is not more than 600 ft. This area is the richest fishing ground. Contours Lines connecting places of the same altitude above sea-level. Coral A kind of rock formed from skeleton of certain marine polyps (small insects). Coral islands are found in an area near Australia. The skeleton is composed of carbonates of lime. Crop Rotation Crops produced in regular succession one after the other so that the land may not remain vacant, and the fertility of the soil may not be affected. Chinook Dry South-Western winds, which blow across the Eastern side of the Rockies in the USA. It leads to a sudden rise in temperature and melting of snow. Cyclones are winds, which blow in a spiral form from the regions of outward high pressure to inward low pressure. These winds bring rain, and also great changes in weather. Dateline (or International Date Line). It is situated 180 meridian from Greenwich; a ship while crossing the line eastwards it goes forward a day, while westwards it goes back a day. Deciduous Forests Broad-leaved trees found in temperate regions. The leaves fall off in autumn. Delta An alluvial deposit shaped like the Greek letter formed at the mouth of river e.g. The Nile Delta. Denudation Wear and tear of rocks due to the natural agents. Depressed seas are large inland locked seas, e.g., Dead Sea. Their levels are low and inflow of water is less. Dog Star The name of star Sirius. It is nearest to the Earth and the brightest of all the stars. Dry Farming A method of farming without irrigation in an area of limited rainfall, the land being treated so as to conserve the moisture it contains. The term is usually confined to raising of crops in such areas. Doldrums The region lying within 5oN and 5oS of Equator where the air is rising and the pressure is low. The doldrums belt is characterised by thundery conditions; convectional downpours are a rule every afternoon. This is a region of high rainfall, high humidity and uncomfortable temperature. Dune Mound or ridge of loose sand on the coast or in a desert. Eclipses They are caused on account of revolution of the Earth and the Moon; the principle is that light travels in a straight line. When the Earth comes in between the Sun and the Moon, lunar eclipse is caused, whereas we have solar eclipse when the Moon comes in between the Earth and the Sun.



El Nino An ocean current noticed in the Pacific Ocean near the Chilean coast. It is believed to have significant impact on weather worldwide, including the onset of monsoons in India. Equator The imaginary line round the Earth which divides it into two equal parts, the northern and the southern hemispheres. Equinoxes March 21 (Vernal Equinox) and September 23 (Autumn Equinox), when days and nights are of equal duration throughout the globe. Erosion Gradual destruction or wearing away of the land by rain, river water, glacier and wind. Estuary A broad channel such as the Thames Estuary, where river and sea waters mingle. Fog When moist air meets cold surface of Earth, some of the water vapours condense on the particles of dust in air. This cloud of condensed vapour is called fog. Foehn It is the warm, dry wind, which descends a mountain, best known in the valley of the Northern Alps. Fossil Remains of plants and animals, preserved in the rocks or under the Earth. It traces the evolutionary changes in animal and plant life. Frost is frozen dew. In cold countries when temperature of the surface of the Earth falls below 32oF at night, the dew drops freeze and become frost. Glacier A vast accumulation of ice and snow, which moves slowly down the valley, till it melts and forms a river. There are four types of glaciers - (i) Valley glacier, (ii) Piedmont, (iii) Ice-cap, (iv) Continental. Geyser is a fountain of hot water issuing from a hole, which extends deep into the Earth’s crust. The water is hurled high into the air by the force of steam formed low down in the hole. It contains minerals in solution, and they get deposited around the hole from which the water gushes out. Gorge A narrow passage between the hills formed due to the erosion of the hills by rivers. Greenwich Mean Time The local time of Greenwich Observatory, London (on the zero meridian) which is the standard time for the British Isles. Gulf Stream A warm oceanic current which flows along the eastern coast of North America and then drifts towards the western coast of Europe, thus raising the temperature of western coast considerably. It is an expansion of the north equatorial warm current. It meets the Labrador, a cold current - at Newfoundland. Consequently, the mingling of two currents produces plenty of fog, which reduces visibility and affects air fights. Finally, it washes the western shores of England, moderates the temperature and keeps the harbours open throughout the year. Habitat The natural environment of a plant or animal, as warm seas, mountain tops, fresh waters, etc. High Seas Those parts of the oceans, which are not under the jurisdiction of any particular nation. Hinterland A region inland from a seaport. Horizon The circular line where the sky and Earth, or sea appear to meet. Horse Latitudes The regions of calm between 30o to 35o north and south of equator. Horticulture The science and art of cultivating gardens, particularly fruits.



Humus The decomposed and partly decomposed organic matter, of animal or vegetable origin, in the soil. Such matter is essential to fertility. Hurricane A gale of extreme violence characterized by changes of the wind, and sometimes thunder and lightning. Hydrosphere It is the liquid cover, which surrounds the Earth. It refers to watery surface. It accounts for 71 per cent of the Earth’s surface. It consists of a number of oceans, seas, bays, gulfs and lakes. Ice Age A period during which ice-sheets and glaciers covered large areas of the continents. The present ice-sheets of Greenland and Antarctica are relics of this Ice Age. Iceberg A large mass of ice detached from glacier and floating in the sea. Igloo It is the dome-shaped hut of snow in which Eskimos live. Isobars Line on a map joining the places having the same barometric pressure, when the pressure, when the pressure is reduced to zero degree sea level. Isobaths Lines on a chart connecting parts of the ocean of similar depths. Ishyets Lines joining the places on Earth’s surface having equal rainfall. Isotherm Lines on a map joining places having the small mean temperature. Isthmus It is a narrow neck of land connecting two large land masses, e.g., Isthmus of Panama. Kuro Siwo Warm oceanic current of the Pacific Ocean which flows near the eastern coast of Japan and ultimately drifts along the western coast of Canada. It also raises the temperature of Japan and Western Canada. Lagoon A shallow lake formed at the mouth of a river or near the sea, but separated from it by a sand mound. Lake It is an extensive sheet of water enclosed by land, occupying a hollow in the Earth’s surface. Lithosphere The hard crust of the Earth on which we live. The solid globe of the Earth as distinguished from its two envelopes, the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. It coves only 29 per cent of the surface of the Earth. Lithosphere is very important because man builds his home and finds or creates conditions favourable for his material development. Latitude and Parallels of Latitude Latitude is the angular distance measured north and south of the equator. Parallels of latitude are lines drawn on a map parallel to the equator. Leeward The regions where winds descend and become warm, so there is little rainfall. Shillong lies leeward side getting only 60 inches rainfall, while Cherrapunji lying on the windward side receives 600 inches rainfall. Light Year The distance travelled by light in one year. Light travels at the rate of 1,86,000 miles per second. It is a unit for measuring the distance of heavenly bodies. Llanos After treeless plain as the wide grassy tracts of northern South America. The tropical grasslands of the Orinoco basin and the Guiana highlands situated north of the equatorial forests of the Amazon basin in South America. It is also a Spanish term for prairies. Local time is the time at any point on the Earth’s surface calculated from the position of the Sun at mid-day.



Longitude and Lines of Longitude Longitude is the angular distance measured east or west of the prime meridian. Lines of longitudes are liens drawn on a map or globe joining north pole and the south pole which cut the equator at right angles. Lunar Eclipse is the result of the Earth’s coming between the Sun and the Moon. Magma The molten rock from which igneous rocks are formed. Meridian Meridians are imaginary lines, which join the two poles and cut the equator at right angles. Midnight Sun In the Arctic region, the Sun is visible even at midnight in summer. Norway is called the land of Midnight Sun. Mist A mass of water drops present in the lower layers of the atmosphere, caused by the condensation of water vapours in the air and giving a moderate reduction in visibility. Monsoons A name for seasonal winds, which blow from the Indian Ocean over south-eastern and eastern Asia and which bring heavy rain. It is now possible to predict the occurrence and extent of monsoons in a region. Moraine The rock material brought down by glaciers. When fragments of rock, broken off by frost and other agencies fall from the sides of the valley on the ice, they form lateral moraines. When two glaciers meet, the two adjacent moraines unite to form a medial moraine. Neolithic Period The late Stone Age characterized by implements of polished stones. Pampas Dreary expanse of treeless grassy plains between the Andes and the Atlantic Ocean. Perihelion The position of the Earth, or of another heavenly body in its orbit when it is at its nearest point to the Sun. the Earth reaches its perihelion during the northern winter. Plutonic Rock The word Plutonic refers to Greek God Pluto - the interior god of the Earth. These rocks are formed by the cooling of the molten matter at some depth; granite is an example. Plateau Tableland or elevated land rising abruptly from the sea-level and is 3,000 to 4,000 ft. high. Prairies Extensive treeless tracts, covered with tall course grass situated in Central and North America. Precipitation The total amount of water that falls at a particular place, be it in the form of rain or snow or hail. Prime Meridian The prime or first meridian is the meridian from which longitude is measured. It passes through Greenwich. Rainbow It is an arch in the sky, caused by the reflection and refraction of breaking up of the rays of the Sun by tiny rain droplets suspended in air. Rain Gauge Instrument for measuring rainfall. Rainshadow An area which has a relatively higher average rainfall because it is sheltered from the prevailing rain-bearing winds by a range of mountains or hills. Reef Ridge of rock and sand at or just above or below the surface of water. Rift Valley A valley with steep walls formed by the subsidence of the crust of the Earth. The greatest rift valley in the world is the one, which lies between the river Jordan and the Dead Sea.



Roaring Forties Steady north-west anti-trade winds between latitude 40 and 50 degrees South. Savannas Land covered with natural grass in the tropical region from 5oN and S of equator to 23oN and S. Seismograph It is an instrument, which indicates the locality and intensity of an Earthquake. Selvas The plains covered with thick forests near the river Amazon (Brazil) in South America. Sidereal Day The time during which the Earth makes a complete revolution on its axis in respect of the fixed stars; the time is 23 hours 56 minutes. Sirocco is the wind, wet or dry according to the seasons, that blows across the Mediterranean to its northern shores. Snow Line That altitude above which snow lies permanently at any place, and it does not melt throughout the year; generally this altitude is 18,000 ft. Solar Eclipse It occurs when the Moon comes between the Sun and the Earth, i.e., at new Moon. Solar Day is the interval of time between two successive appearances of the Sun over the same meridian. Its length is 24 hours. Standard Time is the time established for a country or a region, either by law or by general usage. In England standard time is that taken from the Sun on the meridian that passes through Greenwich. The standard time of India is the local time of 82.5 Degree East longitude passing through Allahabad. Stratosphere The upper layer of the atmosphere, which is about ten miles above the Earth. Sub-tropics These are the regions lying beyond the tropics, i.e. 30 degrees to 45 degrees N and 25 degrees to 53 degrees S. Taiga The coniferous forest land of Siberia bordered on the Earth by the treeless, inhospitable Tundra and on the south by the steppes. The principal species of trees are pine, fir, spruce and larch. Tides The alternate rise and fall of the surface of the sea, approximately twice a day caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and to a lesser degree of the Sun. Terai It is a region of hot and swampy forests lying on the foothill of Himalayas. It is an ill-drained at heavily forested plain now extensively cultivated. Trade Winds Regular steady winds in the tropics between latitudes 30 degrees N and 30 degrees S blowing towards the equator. Tributary A stream which falls into another stream. Tropics Land between the tropic of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn. Tundra A stretch of land or undulating plains round the shores of the Arctic Ocean, 60oN is the northernmost limit. The temperature is below freezing point at least in one month. The Eskimos follow hunting and fishing as occupation. Reindeer is the principal animal but dog a domesticated animal. Twilight Light from the sky when Sun is below the horizon either in the morning or evening. Typhoon A violent whirlwind occurring in the Chinese and Japanese seas. Tornado A violent storm of the Cyclonic type, occurs usually in spring or early summer in US and Australia.



Veldt A name for elevated tropical grassy plains in South Africa. Volcano An opening in the Earth’s surface surrounded by an accumulation of ejected material, forming a hill, from which heated material (lava) is or has been ejected. Mt. Pinalubo in Philippines erupted in 1991. Westerlies or Anti-trade winds blow between 30 degree to 60 degrees N and S of the equator, and give rainfall on the western margins of the continents. Zenith The highest point in the heavens directly above our head.

THE MINERAL WEALTH OF INDIA 1. Aluminium – Alwaye (Kerala), Koba (M.P.), Renukoot (U.P.) 2. Coal – Raniganj (WB), Jharia, Bokaro and Giridh (Bihar), Lignite coal in Gujarat, Tamil Nadu. 3. Copper – Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Khetri, Alwar, Bhilwara (Rajasthan) 4. Diamond – Panna, Satna (MP), Banda (UP) 5. Gold – Anantpur (AP), Hutti and Kolar (exhausted, Karnataka) 6. Iron Ore – Singhbhum (Bihar), Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj (Orisa), Goa, Kudremukh (Karnataka) 7. Petroleum - Digboi, Ankleshwar, Kalol, Khambhat (Gujarat), Bombay High (Indian Ocean) 8. Natural Gas – Assam and Gujarat 10. Silver - Kolar, Zawar (Rajasthan), Anantpur in Tamilnadu 11. Thorium – Kerala 12. Tin – Bihar 13. Uranium – Jadugoda (Bihar) 10. Marble – Makrana (Rajasthan), MP, AP, Tamilnadu, Karnataka

MAJOR TOURIST MONUMENTS IN INDIA

Monument, Location Built By Monument, Location Built By 1. Agra Fort, Agra Akbar 2. Fatehpur Sikri Akbar 3. Akbar’s Tomb, Sikandrabad Jahangir 4. Deewan-I-Khas, Agra Shahjehan 5. Jama Masjid, Delhi Shahjehan 6. Tajmahal, Agra Shahjehan 7. Moti Masjid, Agra Shahjehan 8. Jim Corbett Park, Nainital Sir Malcolm Hailey 9. Red Fort, Delhi Shahjehan 10. Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi Humayun's wife 11. Qutub Minar, Delhi Illtutmish 12. Hauz Khas, Delhi Allaudin Khilji 13. Tughlaqabad, Delhi G. Tughlaq 14. Jantar Mantar, Delhi Sawai Jai Singh 15. Shalimar Gardens, J & K Jahangir 16. Konark Temple, Orissa Narsimhdev I 17. Shershah’s Tomb, Sasaram His son 18. Hawamahal, Jaipur Pratap Singh 19. Pichola Lake, Udaipur A Gypsy 20. Victory Tower, Chittorgarh Maharana Kumbha 21. Arhai Din Ka Jhonpra, Ajmer Q. Aibak 22. Dilwara Jain Temples, Mt. Abu Vimalshah 23. Khajuraho Temples, Khajuraho Chandellas 24. Sabarmati Ashram, Ahmedabad MK Gandhi 25. Hanging Minarets, Ahmedabad 26. Ajanta Caves, Aurangabad Buddhists



MAJOR MULTI-PURPOSE PROJECTS IN INDIA

MAJOR INDUSTRIAL CENTRES IN INDIA

Project Name River, State 1. Bhakhra Nangal Project Sutlej 2. Beas Project Beas River 3. Indira Gandhi (Rajasthan Nehar) Project Harike (Confluence of Sutlej and Beas) 4. Kosi project Kosi 5. Hirakund project Mahanadi, Orissa 6. Tungbhadra project Tungbhadra, AP– Karnataka Joint Project 7. Nagajurna project Krishna, Andhra Pradesh 8. Chambal project Chambal 9. Damodar valley project Damodar, West Bengal 10. Koyna project Koyna, Maharashtra 11. Malprabha project Malprabha 12. Periyar Valley Project Periyar, Kerala 13. Thein Dam Project Ravi, Punjab 14. Pong Dam Beas, Punjab 15. Farrakha Barrage Project Ganga 16. Rihand Dam / Gobind Vallabh Pant Project Uttar Pradesh

Industry Locations 1. Iron and Steel Industry Jamshedpur, Burnpur, Hirapur, Bhadrawati (KNK), Bhilai (MP),

Rourkela (Orissa), Salem and Vishakhapatnam (Kerala) 2. Cotton Textiles Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, Sholapur, Nagpur, Coimbtore, Delhi,

Ludhiana, Calcutta, and Kanpur 3. Jute Howrah, Calcutta 4. Leather Chennai, Agra, Kanpur, Delhi, and Batanagar 5. Shipyards Vishakhapatnam, Mazgaon, Mumbai, Cochin, Calcutta 6. Aircraft Kanpur, Bangalore, Koraput, Hyderabad, Nasik 7. Railway Locomotives Varanasi, Chitranjan 8. Railway Coaches Perumbur, Hussainpur 9. Petroleum Refining Haldia, Numaligarh, Bombay, Mangalore, Barauni, Koyali,

Guwahati, Vizag, Panipat 10. Paper Titagarh (Bengal), Nepanagar (MP) 11. Glass Ferozabad, Shikohabad 12. Drugs Rishikesh, Pimpri (Both IDPL plants making anti-biotics)



CHANGED NAMES OF SOME CITIES/ COUNTRIES

CONTINENTS, POPULATIONWISE

MAJOR PORTS IN INDIA

Classification By Rainfall 1. High Rainfall - More than 1000 mm - Assam, Bengal, Western Coast 2. Medium Rainfall- 500-1000 mm. – Bihar, Orissa, Northern U.P., H. P. 3. Low Rainfall 0- 100-500 mm – All areas except the above and Rajasthan 4. Dry Areas – Less than 100 mm – Rajasthan, Ladakh

New Name Old Name New Name Old Name 1. Japan Nippon 2. Namibia South-West Africa 3. Zambia North Rhodesia 4. Ethiopia Abyissinia 5. Taiwan Formosa 6. Ghana Gold Coast 7. Sri Lanka Ceylon 8. Netherlands Holland 9. Burkina Faso Upper Volta 10. Allahabad Prayag 11. Zaire Congo 12. Beijing Peking 13. Thiruvananthpuram Trivandrum 14. Myanmar Burma 15. Zimbabwe South Rhodesia 17. Patna Patliputra 18. India Jambudweep

1. Asia 3, 957 2. Africa 915 3. Europe 728 4. Latin America and the Caribbean 518 5. North America 375 6. Oceania 33 Total 6, 647

1. Mumbai Gateway of India, quite suitable from a mercantile viewpoint 2. Nhava Sheva New port of Mumbai, renamed as Jawahar Lal Nehru Port 3. Calcutta On Hooghly 4. Haldia On Hooghly estuary 5. Goa Western Coast of India 6. Cochin Western Coast of India, a Natural harbour

7. Kandla In the Runn of Kutch, a tidal port 8. Chennai Third largest in India 9. Paradeep (Orissa) In the Bay of Bengal, the deepest to work round-the-year 10. Vishakhapatnam (AP) On the Eastern coast of AP, the deepest in India 11. Calicut (Kerala) Western coast of Kerala



MAJOR CITIES ON RIVER BANKS (WORLD)

Major Sources of Irrigation 1. Wells –U.P. and Punjab 2. Tubewells- U.P. Punjab, Tamil Nadu 3. Ponds – South Indai 4. Canals – U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Bihar and Tamil Nadu

DEMOGRAPHIC FACTOIDS (2001 Census) ``

Comparative Population Densities – Indian States / UTs States in Decreasing Order 1. West Bengal 904/ Sq. Km. 2. Bihar 880 / Sq. Km. 3. Kerala 819/ Sq. Km. UTs in Decreasing Order 1. Delhi 9294 / Sq. Km. 2. Chandigarh 7903/ Sq. Km. 3. Pondicherry 2029/ Sq. Km.

Sex Ratio – Highest/ Lowest National Average 933 Best Performers 1. Kerala 1058 2. Pondicherry 980 3. Himachal Pradesh 976 Worst Performers 1. Chandigarh 790 2. Andaman-Nicobar 818 3. Arunachal Pradesh 859

The World, Religionwise 1. Christians 1, 943, 038, 000 2. Muslims 1, 164, 622, 000 3. Non-Religious 759, 655, 000 4. Hindus 761, 689, 000 5. Chinese Folk Religionists 379, 162, 000 6. Buddhists 353, 794, 000 7. Sikhs 22, 332, 000

The World, Languagewise Language Speakers (Millions) 1. Mandarin (Chinese and its variants) 1075 2. English 514 3. Hindi 496 4. Spanish 425 5. Russian 275 6. Arabic 256

Population Density In India 1. 1971 177 Persons / Sq. Km. 2. 1981 216 Persons / Sq. Km. 3. 1991 274 Persons / Sq. Km. 4. 2001 324 Persons/ Sq km.

City River City River 1. Belgrade Danube 2. Tigris Baghdad 3. Lahore Ravi 4. London Thames 5. Washington DC Potomac 6. Moscow Moskva 7. Cairo Nile 8. Kabul Kabul 9. Vienna Danube 10. New York Hudson Bay 11. Paris Siene 12. Karachi Sindhu (Indus) 13. Rome Tiber



MISCELLANEOUS DEMOGRAPHIC FACTFILE

1. Percentage rise in population since 1991 – 21 % 2. UT with the highest population - Delhi 3. UT with the lowest population – Lakshdweep 4. The state with the least density of population – Arunachal Pradesh (13) 6. Population living in rural areas in India – 72%, urban areas – 28% 7. State with maximum percentage of population in urban areas – Goa 8. State with minimum percentage of population in urban areas – Himachal Pradesh (8.69 %) 9. Maharashtra has the maximum contribution towards total urban population in India- 42.04 % 10. Populationwise, Greater Bombay–1.64 Cr, Calcutta – 1.32 Cr, Delhi – 1.34 Cr., Chennai – 0.69 Cr., Hyderabad - .65 Cr 11. Total workforce in India – 31.4 Cr 12. Maximum population age range – 15-59 Years 13. Average Life Expectancy – 68.59 Years 14. Total Population -102. 86 Cr.

Classification By Soil Types 1. Alluvial Soil --- Comprising sediments deposited by rivers, the most fertile soil type. Found in U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, etc 2. Black Soil ---Consists of volcanic condensation. Suitable for cotton, groundnut, wheat and gram cultivation. Found in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra and Western M.P. 3. Red Soil : Made up of weathered elements of old metamorphic rocks. Not quite suitable for agriculture. Found in Tamil Nadu, Chhota Nagpur, Karnataka, M.P. Orissa, South-West Maharashtra etc. 4. Laterite Soil : Made up of weathered particles of rocks. Most suitable for cultivation of tea. Found in Assam, M.P. Eastern and Western Ghats of India

Topmost Three States, Populationwise 1. Uttar Pradesh 16.49 Crore 2. Maharashtra 9. 6 Crore 3. Bihar 8.23 Crore Bottom Three States, Populationwise 1. Tripura 3.19 Cr 2. Manipur 2.38 Cr 3. Meghalaya 2.30 Cr



COMPARATIVE LITERACY LEVELS ACROSS INDIA ******************************************************************************

All India Average 64.8 % Male 75. 3 % Female 53 % State / UT Literacy Percentage The Best Performers 1. Kerala 90.92 2. Mizoram 88.49 3. Lakshdweep 87.52 The Worst Performers 1. Bihar 47 % 2. Jharkhand 54.13% 3. Jammu and Kashmir 54.46% The worst Male Literacy Rate – Arunachal Pradesh (63.83 percent) The worst Female Literacy Rate – Rajasthan (21. 4 percent)

Religious Numbers, India Religion Membership Percentage 1. Hindu 827, 578, 868 80 2. Muslims 138, 188, 240 12.7 3. Christians 24, 080, 016 2.3 4. Sikhs 19, 215, 730 1.8 5. Buddhists 7, 955, 207 0.77 6. Jains 4, 225, 053 0.41 7. Others 6, 639, 626 0.64



GEOGRAPHICAL EPITHETS

Bengal’s Sorrow Damodar River Blue Mountains Nilgiri Hills Britain of the South New Zealand City of Palaces Kolkata City of Skyscrapers New York City of Dreaming Spires Oxford, England City of Golden Gate San Francisco City of Seven Hills Rome, Italy City of Magnificent Distances Washington D.C. Cockpit of Europe Belgium China’s Sorrow Hawang Ho Dark Continent Africa Emerald Island Ireland Empire City New York Eternal City Rome, Italy Forbidden City Lhasa, Tibet Gate of Tears Bab-el-mandab, Jerusalem Garden City of India Bangalore Gateway of India Mumbai Great White Way Broadway, New York Gift of Nile Egypt Holy Land Palestine Hermit Kingdom Korea Island Continent Australia Island of Pearls Bahrain Island of Cloves Madagascar Key to the Gibraltar Mediterranean Land of Kangaroo Australia Land of Golden Pagoda Burma (Myanmar) Land of Maple Canada Land of Thousand Lakes Finland Land of Morning Calm Korea Land of Midnight Sun Norway Land of Five Rivers Punjab, India Land of White Elephant Thailand Land of Thunderbolt Bhutan Never, Never Land Prairies, N. Australia Pearl of Antilles Cuba Pillars of Hercules Strait of Gibraltar Pearl of the Pacific Guyayaquil Port of Ecuador Playground of Europe Switzerland Queen of the Arabian Sea Cochin, India Roof of the World Pamirs, Central Asia Rose-pink City Jaipur Sorrow of China River Hwang Ho, China



Spice Garden of India Kerala Sick Man of Europe Turkey Sugar Bowl of the World Cuba Venice of the East Cochin, India Venice of the North Stockholm, Sweden White City Belgrade, Yugoslavia White Man’s Grave Guinea Coast World’s Loneliest Island Tristan da Cunha World’s Bread Basket Prairies of N. America Sorrow of Bihar Kosi Dakshin Ganga Godavari The Land of Kangaroo Australia The City of Nawabs Lucknow Diamond Harbour Calcutta Playground of Europe Switzerland

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

THE EARTH # The Earth is a unique planet as it alone has conditions favourable for life. The oxygen layer around the Earth is essential for all living beings. It also moderates the temperature on the surface of the Earth. So the day-night and summer-winter temperature variations are not very high as in case of other planets. The presence of water favours the growth and evolution of different living species. # The atmosphere, held to the Earth by gravitation, is the air blanket, which surrounds the Earth. Of the total atmospheric mass, 99 percent is within a height of 32 kilometre from the Earth surface. Most atmospheric changes take place within this layer. Pure dry air consists of Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%) and Argon (0.9 %). Other gases - Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen, Helium and Ozone are present in minute quantities. Though water vapours do not exceed 3 to 4 percent of the total volume, they play an important role in the atmospheric processes. # The lowest layer is known as the troposphere, where all weather phenomena take place. It extends upto 18 km. over the equator and about 8 km. along the poles. In this layer, the air temperature decreases with height at an average rate of 1OC for 165 metres. The upper limit of this layer is known as the tropopause. # Above this layer is the stratosphere, having a thickness of 50-55 km. In this layer, the temperature stays constant and then increases with height. This layer, being free from clouds, is ideal for flying jet aircraft. The ozone layer is present in this region, which absorbs harmful ultra-violet radiation coming from the Sun. Above the stratosphere are the mesosphere and the ionosphere. The ionosphere contains charged particles called ions. This layer reflects radio waves back to Earth‘s surface making wireless communication possible. The Ionosphere is followed by the exosphere, which has no fixed upper limit. # The differential heating of the atmosphere by the Sun’s rays produces circulation of air leading to winds, clouds and precipitation. # The “Lithosphere” is the layer of rock material on the Earth’s surface, on continents and ocean floors. With an average thickness of about 60 km., it supports diverse life forms on it. The crustal layer has rocks rich in aluminium and silica; hence leading to its name the sial layer. Below it lies the mantle, which extends upto a depth of 2900 km. The mantle comprises an inner silicate layer rich in magnesium and aluminium and a transitional zone of mixed metals and silicates.



# The core of the Earth contains metals in liquid or plastic shape because of high temperature and pressure. The core, with a radius of 3400 km., contains great quantities of nickel and iron, leading to its being named as the Nife layer.

ROCK TYPES # The Earth’s crust contains various types of rocks made up of minerals, silicates being the most abundant in the crustal layer. Rocks are categorised into three major types, depending on the mode of origin. # IGNEOUS: Rocks are formed by gradual solidification of molten rock, called magma, which gets erupted from volcanoes. As the Earth became a solid crust, the original crustal of the Earth consisted of igneous rocks. Igneous rocks, are therefore, known as primary rocks also. Ex. Basalt, Granite. # SEDIMENTRY: Rocks are made up of sediments deposited usually on the floors of sea and lakes. Sediments may consist of gravel, sand, silt or clay. The loose sediments get compacted into rocks by pressure of overlaying sediments and presence of cementing materials like lime. Sedimentary rocks are also known as stratified rocks as they occur as layers or strata one above the other. They are the most widespread types of rocks on the Earth. Ex. Limestone, Sandstone. Petroleum and natural gas are also found in some types of sedimentary rocks. # METAMORPHIC: Rocks are those formed by modification of pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocks, when they are subjected to extreme heat or pressure, or both. The minerals in them get metamorphosed e.g. limestone gets converted to marble, sandstone becomes quartzite. # HYDROSPHERE The hydrosphere is the water layer on the surface of the Earth in the form of oceans, lakes, rivers and other water bodies. Water covers 71 % of the total surface area of the Earth. Of the total, 97 % is in the vast oceans, 2 % is stored as ice-sheets and less than 1% is available as fresh water.

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

# Differential heating by the Sun is responsible for the circulation of water in the hydrosphere. When the surface water in the oceans and lakes gets heated by the Sunrays, evaporation takes place and water vapour is added on to the lower atmospheric layers. The water vapours in the atmosphere may get cooled, leading to condensation of water into tiny droplets, which form clouds. Such clouds may cause precipitation of water as rainfall or snowfall. Rainfall on the land leads to surface run-off in the form of rivers, which reaches the ocean finally. # In this process of circulation, water is consumed by plants and animals in the biosphere. Water may get temporarily stored on the land or as underground water. This circulation of water among hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere is called the hydrological cycle.

WATER MOVEMENTS

# Water circulates both horizontally and vertically in the oceans. When the wind blows on the ocean surface, it drags the water in its direction resulting in currents and waves. The movement of ocean water also takes place due to gravitational f the Moon and the Sun, called the tides. Normally, tides occur twice a day at regular intervals of time. # Oceans are teeming with plant and animal life. Oceans also have a moderating influence on the climate of coastal areas. Valuable reserves of oil have been tapped in off-shore areas.



THE BIOSPHERE # The biosphere is the entire mass of living species on the Earth. The biological processes depend on sunlight for their energy. Each organism has certain limiting physical conditions for its survival and growth. It implies that the plants and animals found in a particular region are related to the prevailing physical environment. Each organism prefers a certain habitat. The organisms not only act and react with each other, but also with the physical components of the environment around the, thus making for an ever-dynamic system of actions and interactions, the subject-area of ecology.

FACES OF THE LAND

# Mountains, plateau and plains are major landforms on the continents. Landforms change not only from place to place but also with time. We are more aware of sudden changes brought about by volcanoes, earthquakes or floods, but gradual changes are more widespread and take place continuously. # Landforms are caused by the action of two types of natural processes o the surface of the land. The External Processes taking place in the atmosphere and the hydrosphere affect the land surface. The Internal Processes take place in the interior of the Earth and cause changes on the land surface. The external processes act slowly, wearing down the highlands and depositing materials in the lowlands. The internal processes cause movements of the Earth’s crust, leading to the formation of mountains and plateau. The specific landforms at any place are an outcome of these two processes at a given time.

WEATHERING

# Is a process in which the rocks break up due to changes in weather phenomenon as temperature, moisture and precipitation. Weathering produces a layer of loose particles of rocks on the land surface. If this layer stays undisturbed over a long period, slow chemical and organic changes lead to the formation of soils. # The soil, indispensable for plant growth, consists of mineral matter such as sand and clay as well as organic matter like decayed leaves, flowers, and dead tissues of organisms, minute bacteria and Earthworms. Soil formation is mainly governed by factors such as climate, nature of parent rock, topography and the type of vegetation. Among these, the climate is the most important as it affects weathering of the rocks, the quantity of moisture in the soil layer and the nature of vegetation.

DEGRADATION AND AGGRADATION # Degradation is a process in which material is removed from the highlands by erosion of this land while aggradation is a process in which deposition of such material takes place in the lowlands, leading to a gradual increase in the level. Both degradation and aggradation take place simultaneously over different areas. # Rivers, glaciers, winds and waves are the main agents of gradation. Winds may transport material even up a slope, but such action is limited to fine sand and dust particles. As such, wind action is quite common in deserts, where vegetation is scarce. Glaciers are limited to polar regions and ice-capped mountains. The action of running water, being the most widespread mode of gradation, is known as the normal process of gradation.



RIVERS # Rivers originate in mountainous or hilly tracts, flow through a stretch of lowland and finally reach the sea. Rivers, which maintain the flow of water throughout the year, are known as perennial rivers. # The river course from its source to its mouth has three sections i.e. upper, middle and lower courses. In the upper course, as the water rushes down the steep slope, maximum corrosive action takes place. Such deepening of the river channel produces gorges and canyons. The steep-valley slopes get weathered gradually to assume a V-shape. The valley gets deepened more rapidly and differential rates of erosion along the river-bed lead to the formation of rapids and waterfalls. The occurrence of a hard resistant rock across the path of a river may cause a waterfall. # In the middle course, the path is less steep. Here the volume is much greater and the valley gets widened leading to the formation of a broad valley floor. The river channel develops broad sweeping curves in the level plains called meanders. During floods, water overflows the channels and covers the entire plain submerging a vast area. When floods subside, sediments called alluvium gets deposited. The plains on either side of the channel are called flood plains, as they are liable to submergence during floods. # In the lower course, the valley floor has extremely gentle slope and hence the river is unable to transport all the sediments in its channel. Deposition is the prominent process in the lower river course, due to which, the channel gets obstructed and the river gets divided into many distributaries or branches. The lower river course comprises a number of such distributaries of various sizes spared over a large area of alluvial plain. This vast alluvial plain is called the delta, as it resembles the Greek letter, Δ. The river deltas contain fertile alluvium e.g. river Nile in Egypt and the east-flowing rivers of the Peninsular India like the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri have deltas along the coast due to the gentle slope in the lower course. Contrariwise, the west-flowing rivers have no deltas, as they flow rapidly along the steep western slope and deposit the alluvium on the sea floor. They (The Narmada and Tapi rivers), in fact, enter the sea by means of deep narrow channels called estuaries.

GLACIERS Glaciers are moving masses of ice occurring in polar and high mountain ranges with a permanent ice or snow cover. The height above which there is a permanent cover of snow and ice is called the snowline. In the equatorial regions, the snow line is at a height of 5500 metres above the sea level. As one moves poleward away from the equator, the height of the snowline decreases gradually. In the polar region, the snowline is at the sea level. Glaciers may be classified into two major types: Continental Glaciers and Mountain Glaciers # Continental Glaciers occur in polar regions in the form of extensive and thick ice-sheets covering the entire land surface e.g. Antarctica. # Mountain Glaciers occur in high mountain regions as the Alps and the Himalayas. In such area, ice and snow accumulate in depressions and along valley heads near the summits. They move down along the valleys, and are called valley glaciers. They descend and melt at lower heights, giving rise to rivers e.g. Ganga and Yamuna originate from such valley glaciers in high mountainous areas. The glacial erosion results in the formation of arm chair-shaped or circular depression, called the cirques. # Movement of the glacier along the valley leads to modification of the V-shaped valley into a U-shaped valley. The presence of U-shaped valley indicates that it was once covered by valley glaciers. When the glaciers melt in the warmer lower slopes, all the material carried by it gets deposited. Such deposits containing irregular heaps of rock material are called moraines.

WINDS



# Wind action is quite strong and is quite dominant in arid and semi-arid regions. The absence of vegetation enables the wind to blow freely near the land surface and removes easily the dry particles of sand and dust. # The erosive action of the wind is due to the impact of sand particles with objects in its path. Though winds may blow from different directions, the impact of sand particles may cause erosion from all direction. As wind erosion by forceful impact of sand particles is maximum at a height of a few metres above the land surface, the typical landform that is commonly formed is called the mushroom rock. # Winds deposit materials when their velocity decreases or when there are obstructions. Deposition of sand leads to the formation of sand dunes, mostly crescent-shaped. These dunes are called barkhans. Dust particles transported by winds travel hundreds of kilometres before being deposited in humid regions. Such wind-blown deposits are called loess deposits and are quite common in Beijing, China.

WAVES

# Waves are generated by the friction of the wind on the surface of water. Wave erosion along the seashore results in the formation of cliffs of varying heights. As the waves break at the foot of the cliff, cliffs recede in land, gradually leaving a flat wave-cut platform along the shore. Deposition of materials by waves results in the formation of beaches along the shore. # Beaches may contain sand, pebbles or gravel in varying proportions. Wide beaches are developed on gently sloping shorelines. Deposition by waves may also result in the formation of narrow, elongated sandbars. The shallow sea between the sandbar and the shore forms a lagoon or marsh and gets gradually filled up by sediments. The shallow Kerala backwaters in the coastal areas are suitable examples of such lagoons.

PLATE TECTONICS

# Huge plates inside the Earth show constant motion in the form of folding, deforming and displacement. Such compression and uplift has been possible only because of the operation of internal forces on a large scale. Such internal forces, called plate tectonics are responsible for volcanic eruptions, earthquakes etc. # Vertical movements either cause to uplift or subside the Earth’s crust along lines of weakness called faults. Displacement of the Earth’s crust takes place along the faultline. When such displacement takes place along two adjoining faults, the portion between them may get uplifted to form a block mountain or plateau, or subside to form a basin. The Rift Valleys in East Africa are typical examples of such fault-based structures. Large-scale vertical movements of the crust are called continent-building movements. # Horizontal movements are responsible for folding and displacement of the rock layers. Simple folding consists of upfolds called anticlines and downfolds called synclines. Often, these folds get compressed to such an extent that the rock layers get displaced over long distances resulting in complex structures. Large –scale horizontal movements are called orogenic or mountain-building movements because they are responsible for the fold-mountains like the Himalayas.

VOLCANOES # A volcano is a hole in the Earth’s crust through which magma, ash, gases and rock material from the Earth’s interior get erupted. # Magma consists of molten rock with gases and steam. The molten mass called lava cools down gradually and gets solidified. The opening through which eruption takes place is called the vent. The erupted material most often accumulates around the vent to form a cone-shaped hill, which grows with the deposit of layers of rock particles, boulders and other materials produced by explosive eruptions. Explosive eruption may cause a depression around the vent called the crater. Most major volcanoes are of the cone and crater type in origin and appearance.



# Activitywise, volcanoes may be active; those which have erupted in the recent past. Around 500 of them exist world-wide, mostly in and around the Pacific Ocean. Dormant volcanoes are those, which have erupted in early history but are now, quiet. Extinct volcanoes have not erupted in the historical periods.

EARTHQUAKES # Whenever a sudden displacement of a part of the crust takes place due to tectonic forces, it causes waves or tremors, which travel in all directions from the centre of disturbance. These sudden tremors are called Earthquakes. # The centre from which the Earthquake starts is called the Seismic Focus. # The Epicentre of an Earthquake is a point vertically above the seismic focus. # The intensity of the tremors is the maximum near the epicentre and decreases with increasing distance from the epicentre. # Earthquakes occur more frequently in the recently-formed fold mountain region, which are relatively unstable. About 66 % of all Earthquakes originate in the Circum-Pacific belt along the west coats of North and South America and the east coast of Asia. The Alpine –Himalayan belt in Europe and Asia accounts for 20 % of all Earthquakes.

TEMPERATURE ZONES # The atmosphere is mainly heated by radiation from the Earth’s surface and not by direct sunlight. The atmosphere may be likened to a glasshouse or greenhouse, which is warmer inside than outside because glass permits radiation to get in but does not allow radiation to escape immediately. The atmosphere surrounding the Earth also acts like a greenhouse by permitting Sunlight to get into it, but does not let it escape so easily. Thus the average temperature of the Earth is rising, giving rise to global warming. The major gas contributing to this greenhouse effect is carbon dioxide. # As the atmosphere is basically heated by radiation from the Earth’s surface, the shape of the Earth and its rotation and revolution are important factors affecting the temperature. The Earth being a sphere, Sunlight does not fall vertically at every point on the Earth’s surface at any given time. Consequently, it gives rise to significant temperature differentials across different geographical regions on the Earth’s surface.

LATITUDINAL ZONES

# As the axis of the Earth is inclined at 23 ½ 0 from the vertical, all places at which the Sun’s rays are vertical on any day lie between the Tropic of Cancer (23 ½ 0 N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23 ½ 0 S), called the Tropical Zone. In this zone, the Sunrays are vertically overhead during a part of the year and it receives the maximum insolation as the angle of incidence of the Sunrays is between 43 and 900. # At the Equator, the angle of incidence is between 66 ½ 0 and 900. Vertical rays heat the Earth surface to a greater extent than inclined rays as the energy is concentrated on a smaller area and the length of the passage through the atmosphere is shorter.

TEMPERATE ZONES

# Temperate Zones are the regions lying between the Tropic of Cancer (23½ 0N to 66½ 0 N) and the Antarctic Circle (23½ 0S to 66½ 0S). In these zones, the Sunrays never fall vertically down through the year. The angle of incidence and the duration of Sunshine are greater in summer than in winter. The summer-winter contrasts



are much greater than in the Tropical Zones. Polar Zones are the zones surrounding the poles and extending upto the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere and upto the Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere. In these zones, while the Sunrays are not received during the long winter, the duration of sunshine may be more than 20 hours in summer. Consequently, the temperature is quite low even in summer.

LAND AND SEA CONTRASTS

# The nature of the Earth surface is an important determiner of the heating and cooling of the atmosphere. The land surface is a bad conductor of heat, only a thin surface which consists of rocks and soils gets heated by conduction. As the entire energy heats up a thin layer, temperature rises rapidly during the day but falls down rapidly at night because the land surface is a good radiator. # Water gets heated up slowly than land due to its greater specific heat. Therefore, water does not get heated during daytime as rapidly as the adjoining land surface. Water also cools down more slowly during the night. Similar contrasts occur between summer and winter as well. Landmasses are warmer than the oceans in summer and cooler than over oceans in winter. It implies that the contrasts in day-night and summer-winter temperature are greater over land surfaces than over oceans. It is for this reason only that Bombay has a moderate climate because of the moderating influence of the nearby sea.

PREVAILING WINDS

The temperature of a place is modified by prevailing winds. In winter, the land winds lower the temperature while the sea winds increase the temperate. In summer, the land winds increase the temperature and the sae winds lower the temperature. Winds blowing from low latitudes are warmer than those blowing from middle and high latitudes.

OCEAN CURRENTS # Surface currents transport large volumes of water over great distances. Warm currents such as the Gulf stream in the Atlantic Ocean increase the temperature of coastal areas of Western Europe. Cold currents such as the California Current reduce the coastal temperatures. # As the atmosphere is heated from below, the lowest layer in contact with the Earth is the warmest. Normally, temperature decreases at a rate of 10C for every 165 metres of height above the sea level. The higher layers contain smaller quantities of water and carbon dioxide and hence their capacity to absorb water vapours is much lesser as compared to that of the upper layers. Thus, a hill-station like Nainital is cooler than Delhi because of its greater height from the sea level. High mountain ranges form physical barriers to the flow of winds and influence the temperature of the regions on the seaward side. For example, the Himalayas protect the Gangetic lowlands from the cold winds of Central Asia. That is why Calcutta is warmer than Canton in South China in winter though both are located on the same altitude.

DIURNAL AND SEASONAL CYCLES # The atmospheric temperature any place at given time depends on the balance between incoming and outgoing radiation. The daily temperature cycle shows a gradual increase from Sunrise to about 3 P.M. when the maximum day temperature is recorded. This is the time when the incoming radiation is more than the outgoing radiation. Temperature decreases in the evening and night and reaches a minimum before Sunrise. The diurnal or daily range of temperature is greater at places in the interior of the contents than the coastal areas. # The seasonal temperature differences are mainly due to differences in the angle of incidence of Sunrays and duration of Sunshine. The annual range of temperature is the lowest in equatorial regions as the amount of Sunshine received does not show much variation between summer and winter. Annual temperature range is



greater in the interior of continents in middle latitudes. For instance, Delhi has greater temperature range annually than Chennai due to this range.

PRESSURE AND WINDS # Unequal heating of the Earth and its atmosphere by Sunshine and the rotation of the Earth bring about differences in atmospheric pressure. Three are three major low-pressure belts with alternating belts of high pressure. # The Equatorial Region is a low-pressure belt. On either side of this lies a high-pressure belt in the sub-tropic zone in each hemisphere. This is called the sub-tropical high-pressure belt. The Polar Regions are high-pressure zones. Between the Polar high pressure and the sub-tropical high pressure in each hemisphere lies a belt of low pressure called the Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt. # Winds blow from high-pressure belts to low pressure belts. The direction of winds gets deflected due to rotation of Earth. The major planetary winds are the Trade Winds, the Westerlies and the Polar Easterlies. The Trade Winds blow from the sub-tropical High Pressure belts in each hemisphere towards the equatorial low pressure. The direction of Trade winds is north-easterly in the Northern Hemisphere and south-easterly in the Southern Hemisphere. The Westerlies blow from the Sub-tropical High Pressure belts in each hemisphere to the adjoining Sub-polar Low-pressure belts. The direction of Westerlies is south- westerly in the Northern Hemisphere and North-westerly in the Southern Hemisphere. The Polar Easterlies blow from the Polar High-Pressure centres to the Sub-Polar low Pressure belts in each hemisphere. Unlike the trade winds and the Westerlies, the Polar Easterlies are variable in intensity and direction.

SEASONAL MIGRATION

# The apparent seasonal migration of the Sun between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn leads to a migration of thermal belts and this causes migration of major pressure belts polewards during summer and equatorwards during winter. This causes migration of planetary winds also. Such a migration brings about striking seasonal contrasts in the middle latitudes. Seasonal contrasts are minimum in the equatorial and Polar Regions. # The centres of high pressure and low pressure modify the pattern of planetary wind. In Northern Hemisphere, winds blow in an anti-clockwise direction around a low- pressure centre and clockwise around a high-pressure centre. Wind directions are reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.

OTHER WIND SYSTEMS

# Besides the major pressure and wind belts, there are other pressure and wind belts, there are other pressure and wind systems of local significance and of shorter duration. Of these, the monsoon winds are the most important as they affect a large area in Asia. # Monsoon winds are characterised by seasonal reversal of wind direction. Monsoon conditions are well developed over the continent of Asia because of its large size and the striking seasonal variation. During summer, winds blow from the Indian and Pacific Oceans towards the low- pressure centre located in the interior of Asia. During winter, high pressure prevails over the interior of the continent and cold dry winds blow from the high pressure towards the oceans. # Cyclones and anticyclones are pressure systems of local significance. Cyclones are centres of low pressure having ascending currents of air. As winds converge towards the low-pressure centre, passage of cyclone produces strong winds and heavy rainfall. Anticyclones are centres of high pressure from which winds blow out in all directions. They are associated with clear skies and fair weather.



LAND AND SEA BREEZES # The land and sea breezes of coastal region are examples of local winds. During daytime, land gets heated rapidly and low pressure gets formed due to ascent of hot air. Sea breeze blows in the afternoon towards this low pressure. During night, the air over sea is warmer than the air over land. Therefore, land breeze blows from high pressure over land to the relatively low pressure over the sea.

PRECIPITATION

# The distribution of precipitation is related to the direction of winds with respect to the distribution of continents and oceans. On-shore winds blowing from the ocean towards landmasses cause precipitation as they contain large quantities of water vapours. Offshore winds blowing from the landmasses towards the ocean contain low moisture content and do not bring about much precipitation. Ascending air currents produce heavy precipitation, as ascent realest in cooling of air leading to condensation and precipitation. # Depending on the quantity of rainfall, the distribution of different geographical areas may be as under: High Rainfall (more than 200 cm. per year): I. Equatorial; Regions of Africa, South America and Southeast Asia II. Western Coastal Regions of middle latitudes in Western Europe and North America III. Coastal Regions of Monsoon lands of Asia # The equatorial regions experience high rainfall throughout the year. Such areas have uniformly high temperature throughout the year. This causes convectional currents of air giving rise to heavy rainfall throughout the year. Convectional ascent of air reaches a maximum in the afternoon leading to a sudden downpour, called the Convectional Rainfall. # The western margins of continents in the middle and high latitudes receive heavy rainfall as the Westerly winds are blowing from sea to land. In these areas, rainfall is mainly associated with the passage of mid-latitude cyclones, which bring about heavy rains, kwon as the Cyclonic Rainfall. The monsoon region in South Asia receives heavy rainfall due to strong winds, which blow from the Indian Ocean towards low pressure in the interior of Asia during summer. This is called orographic rainfall, as mountains force the ascent of air resulting in cooling and precipitation. The Western part of India and the East Himalayan regions get heavy rainfall from the south-west monsoons in summer. # Moderate Rainfall : Such regions receive rainfall from 100 to 200 cm. per year.. Eastern Brazil, East China, South-east USA are examples of such area. Such moderate rainfall regions also occur on either side of the equatorial region of heavy rainfall. # Low Rainfall Low rainfall areas, which receive annul rain of less than 25 cms., are described as deserts. A three-fold classification of such areas would be : 1. Tropical Deserts in the western margins of continents in the trade wind belt e.g. Sahara, Western Australia, Arabia, and Atacama in South America, Kalahari etc. 2. Mid-Latitude Deserts such as Tibet and Iran. Such areas are in the interior of large continents and are away from the influence of rain-bearing winds or are rainshadow area surrounded by high mountains. 3. Cold Deserts are centres of high pressure with cold dry winds blowing in all directions e.g. Antarctica, Greenland.



FOREST TYPES # Forests are classified into evergreen and deciduous forests. In evergreen forests, there is no mass shedding of leaves during any season. Deciduous forests are those in which trees shed their leaves in a particular season so as to conserve water.

EVERGREEN TYPE # Tropical Evergreen Forests: These occur in Equatorial Regions and Tropical coastal areas with heavy rainfall. Hot humid conditions favour the growth of such vegetation. Hard woods like mahogany, ebony and rosewood are such evergreen trees. # Mid–Latitude Evergreen Trees: Found in the eastern margins of continents in the sub-tropical belt, such forests contain hardwood trees with broad leaves. Oak, Eucalyptus and Wattle are relevant examples. Found in South China, South Brazil, South-East Australia and South-Eastern USA. # Mediterranean Forests: Such forests occur in the Western margin of continents in middle latitudes, which receive moderate rainfall in winter and summer is dry. Such trees can withstand the dry summer easily. Plants have spiny, waxy and small leaves to minimize transpiration. Cork, Oak Olive and Chestnut are examples of such trees. # Coniferous Forests: Are evergreen forests which extend as a continuous belt around the North Polar region and high mountains in Europe, Asia and North America. Trees are tall, conical in shape and evergreen. They have thick needle-shaped leaves to reduce transpiration. Pine, Cedar, Fir and Spruce are examples of trees found in these forests.

DECIDUOUS FORESTS # Tropical deciduous forests are found in sub-tropical regions with a distinct dry season, such as monsoon regions of south Asia, Brazil, North Australia and parts of Central America. Teal is valuable hardwood found in these forests. # Mid-Latitude deciduous forests occur in the coastal regions of cool climates. Main regions are West Europe, Japan, North-East China and South Chile. # GRASSLANDS Grasses are shallow rooted plants, which thrive under varying climatic conditions. Extensive grasslands occur in region of moderate rainfall between forests and deserts. # Tropical Grasslands Occur in the interior of continents in the tropical zone. Major regions are on either side of the Equatorial region in Africa, parts of Brazilian plateau, Deccan plateau and North Australia. Such grasslands are known as Savanna in Africa and Campos in Brazil. # Mid-Latitude Grasslands Occur in the interior of continents in middle latitudes receiving moderate rainfall. Such grasslands are called Steppes in Russia, Prairies in North America and Pampas in South America.



THE SCIENCES The origins of the word science can be traced to a foreign word scientia which, literally, means knowledge. But scientific knowledge is quite different from the knowledge contained in other disciplines. First and foremost, science believes in observation, experimentation and verification. If a particular scientist reports a new development or discovery or invention, fellow scientists will not agree with him unless his results are verified and found to be duplicable by them. Practical proof or empirical evidence is the only lasting criterion for the validity of any scientific finding, and not the individual status of a scientist. Science may have advanced from the days of the falling apple to the Internet, but the basic guiding principles are and will remain the same for all times to come. Besides, science is self-correcting, i.e. it does not take much time to discard a finding which is not found to be useful any more in scientific work. It is quick to replace it with a better, more plausible and acceptable scientific framework. The last hundred years have witnessed probably more dramatic scientific progress than any preceding century or even the last millenium. It may sound too fantastic to have a refrigerator telling you to order milk because it has been all consumed, or your going to a superstore and ordering the baby of your choice, but the day may not be far, when they will happen before your own eyes, considering the blistering pace at which science is progressing. For purposes of convenience, we have divided our discussion into two parts, i.e. the physical world (dealing with non-living objects and the phenomena connected with them) and the living world, although a deeper study will reveal that such a division is purely artificial, i.e. biological and physical phenomena merge to produce the world as we see it.

THE PHYSICAL WORLD MATTER Anything which occupies space, has mass and can offer resistance (opposition) is known as matter. Matter is made up of small component particles called molecules. A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance which can exist in a free state, and has the properties of that

substance. The diameter of an average molecule is 000,501

centimeter, i.e., suppose a drop of water is

magnified to the size of the earth, each molecule of water would then be of the size of a football. Molecules are composed of atoms. An atom is the smallest particle of an element which may or may not exist in a free state and which can take part in a chemical reaction. We say an atom may or may not have a free existence because mostly, atoms in a molecule are bound together by forces of attraction. Matter exists in three physical states, depending on the ambient temperature and pressure. Solid: Solids are those substances that have a definite mass and volume. For instance iron, gold. Each piece of either gold or iron will have a definite shape, mass and volume. Of course, you can give it any desired shape, but it will not take the shape of the container in which it is put. Liquid: Liquid is that form of matter which has a definite mass and volume but no definite shape. For example, if you take one litre of water in a glass, it will assume the shape of the glass. Subsequently, if you pour it into a fry pan, it will assume the shape of the fry pan. Of course, the volume remains the same in each case. Gas: Is a substance which has neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape. For example, Hydrogen, Oxygen etc. You can change their shape and volume by increasing/decreasing the pressure applied on them according to your wish. Thus they lack a definite shape or volume. Recently, another state of matter known as plasma has been discovered by nuclear scientists. A plasma is produced during a fission or fusion reaction, the atoms get ionized due to tremendous heat and high temperature. Such a state is known as plasma, because it has distinctive properties of its own. And most



recently, some scientists in the US were able to detect a fifth state of matter under very extraordinary conditions. Such a state was termed the Bose-Einstein Condensate and it exists for a very small fraction of a second. In fact, dubbing any substance as solid or liquid is partly a matter of perception. Any of these states of matter can be converted into each other by suitably changing the conditions of temperature and pressure. For example, water which exists as a liquid at room temperature can be easily converted into a gas i.e. steam, by heating it to 1000 Celsius, whereas the same liquid water can be changed into a solid by cooling it to 00 Celsius. So whenever we say that a particular substance is a solid, in reality we mean to say that that particular substance exists as a solid at normal conditions of temperature and pressure. There is a particular temperature and pressure at which all the three states of matter exist simultaneously. For example, water exists as a solid, liquid and gas at 00 Celsius and 1 Atmosphere Pressure. Such a point is known as Triple Point and any substance can be made to exist in all these three states by applying suitable conditions of temperature and pressure.

If we compress a gas by applying higher pressure on it, the volume decreases. Conversely, if we decrease the pressure, the volume increases. Thus in a way, more pressure means less volume and vice-versa. This is technically known as Boyle’s Law which says that if we keep temperature constant, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to pressure.

P ∝ 1/V or PV = Constant Therefore, the product of the pressure and volume of any gas remains constant, provided the temperature is kept constant. Charles’ Law: The pressure of a gas remaining constant, the volume of a given mass of any gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (temperature on the Kelvin Scale discussed later) Mass: It is the quantity of matter contained in a body. It is measured in Kilogram or Grams Weight: Is the downward force acting on a body due to the attraction of the earth. It is measured in Newtons or Dynes (the same units as force). Mass and Weight: An ordinary pair of scales helps us to compare masses and not the weights, for both the substances in the pans are equally affected by gravity - the force with the earth attracts bodies. In case of spring balance we measure the weight, for an increase in the length of the spring depends upon the force pulling it downwards. Note that the weight of a body differs at different places on the earth, on account of the variation in gravity, but its mass remains the same. Similarly, body will have the same mass on the Moon as on Earth whereas its weight on the Moon will be a sixth of its weight on Earth. Mass is measured in kilograms, grams or pounds, whereas weight is measured in Newtons or Dynes (1 Newton = 107 Dynes). Internationally, it is measured in terms of a kilogram.

1000 grams = 1 kilogram. 1 milligram = 1000

1 of a gram.

1 kilogram = 2.2 lbs. Approx. 1 litre of water weighs 1 kgm. 1 pound weigh 453.6 gms. 1 cubic centimeter of water weighs 1 gram. Density: The mass contained in a unit volume of a body is called its density. It can be expressed in terms of Kg/Litre or Gm/Cubic Centimeter. A substance having more density will obviously occupy lesser space as compared to another substance having lesser density. For instance, you may be able to store 1 Kg. gold in a small container, but you may find it difficult to contain cotton in the same container for the simple reason that gold is having more density as compared to cotton. Specific Gravity: Is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the substance to the mass of an equal volume of water.



Illustrations : (i) Lactometer is a kind of hydrometer which is immersed in milk to test its density and it is based on the principle that the greater the density of a liquid the lesser will be the immersion. (ii) The ship floats on the surface of water because the weight of water that it displaces is equal to its own

weight. (iii) Ice floats on water because its weight is less than the weight of an equal volume of water, and is equal to

the weight of water actually displaced by its immersed portion. Stream-lining: Is the designing of the fast moving bodies, i.e., locomotives and airplanes etc., in such a way as to minimize the resistance of air. All modern cars, locomotive or airplanes are streamlined. An example of a streamlined vehicle is the Maruti 800 car, while an example of a non-streamlined vehicle is an ordinary bus. Motion: Motion is the change of position of a body with respect to its surroundings. Speed: Is the rate of motion. It is a scalar quantity, i.e., it does not have direction. Velocity is the rate of motion in a particular direction. It is a vector quantity, i.e., it possesses both magnitude and direction. Thus in a uniform circular motion, though the speed remains constant, the velocity continually goes on changing. Uniform speed: When a body traverses equal distances in equal intervals of time, however small the interval of time may be, it is said to have a uniform speed. Acceleration: Is the rate of increase of velocity. Its units are m/s2. When a physical object falls freely under the influence of the gravitational pull of the Earth, the acceleration with which it falls below is known as the Acceleration of Free Fall or Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2). Retardation or Deceleration: Is the rate of decrease of velocity. Force is that which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body in a straight line. Newton’s First Law of Motion: States that a body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by an external force to change that state. This law can be reworded like this: “Departure from a straight line motion path indicates the presence of an external force.” Illustration (i) A man jumping of the moving train falls forward because his feet suddenly come to rest, while his body is in motion with the train. (ii) A running person falls down when is foot stumbles against a stone. This is because the foot is brought to

rest while the upper part remains moving. (iii) Centripetal Force: When a small piece of stone tied to a string is whirled, one has to pull the string

inwards. This pull on the stone is called the centripetal force. An equal and opposite force is exerted by the stone on the hand. This force on the hand is called centrifugal force. Thus centripetal force is directed towards the center while centrifugal force is directed away from the centre.

Illustration (i) Mud sticking to a bicycle tyre is pulled in radially by the force of adhesion; when the latter force is less than the centripetal force required to move the mud in a circle, the mud files off tangentially. (ii) The sparks, which fly off from the grinding stone of a blacksmith, are also due to the same phenomenon. (iii) Curved roads or rail tracks are banked or raised on one side so that a fast-moving train or a motor car

leans inwards, thus providing the required centripetal force to enable it to move round in curve. (iv) A cyclist while rounding a curve leans inwards so as to provide him with the necessary centripetal force,

which would enable him to take a turn on the circular path. (v) In a laundry, wet clothes are whirled in a large vessel the sides of which are perforated with hundreds of

small holes. The water is thrown off at a tangent through these holes, and clothes thereby get dried soon.



(vi) In a dairy, cream is separated from the rest of the milk, (skimmed milk) by means of a cream separator. The principle is that heavier the body the greater is the centripetal force required by it to move in circle. Skimmed milk is heavier than cream, its particles require a greater force to move than the cream particles, and, therefore, the former remains nearer the walls of the spinning vessel, and the latter remains near the axis.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion: States that the rate of change of momentum is in proportion to the impressed fore and takes place in the direction of force. The harder a football is kicked, the faster will it move, and it will move in the same direction in which it is kicked. Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Says that to every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Illustrations (i) If we step out of a boat, we go in one direction and the boat goes in the other direction. (ii) When a bullet is fired from a gun, the bullet goes forward and the gun kicks backward. This is called the

recoil of the gun. Unless there is action we cannot have reaction. (iii) We cannot drive a nail into a wooden block unless it is supported against something to offer reaction. (iv) We cannot cut a piece of paper with one blade of a pair of scissors, since there will be no reaction. (v) When a man wants to walk or run, he presses the ground backward with his feet. The ground, therefore,

exerts an equal and opposite force on the man. This force acting on the man enables him to move forward. (vi) In order to fly an airplane the engine is first started and the propellers or blades are made to revolve

rapidly. These blades are curved in such a way that, on revolving, they throw the air back with a great force, and consequently the air pushes them forward with an equal and opposite force. Hence, if the obstacles placed before the wheels are removed, the airplane runs forward at a great speed.

Gravity: Is the pull of the earth with which it attracts bodies towards itself. Law of Gravitation: States that “every particle in this universe attracts every other particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product of other masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.” We believe this law to be true because the motion of heavenly bodies can be easily explained by this law. Astronomical calculations based on this law predicted the existence of new stars. (i) The forecasts of eclipses of the sun and the moon are made several years in advance. (ii) It is theoretically quite true that we cannot move a finger without disturbing all the stars. When we move

our finger the distance between the finger and the star will change. Hence the force of gravitation exerted by the finger on the star will also change. Owing to the change of force caused by the moving of our finger, the position of every star will be disturbed. Of course, the effect is very negligible.

Relative Velocity: Is the velocity of one body in relation to another body. Supposing a body A moves with a velocity of 10 miles per hour towards the east and another body B moves in the same direction with a velocity of 5 miles/hour, then relative velocity of A with respect to B is 5 miles/hour to the east and that of B with respect to A is 5 miles/hour to the west. Relative velocity produces certain interesting effects. For example, to a man standing still in rain with an umbrella, the rain appears to fall vertically. But if the man were to drive a car in the rain, the rain will appear to fall at a slant. Momentum literally means the quantity of motion in a body. Mathematically, Momentum = mass x velocity of the body. Thus force is equivalent to mass x acceleration of the body. Erg: Is the amount of work done when a force of a 1 dyne moves a body through 1 cm. in the direction of the force. It is the C.G.S. unit of work. Joule is the international unit of work and is equal to 107 ergs. Power: The rate of doing work is called Power. Horse Power is a unit of power (1 H.P. = 746 watts). 1 Watt (= 107 erg/sec.) is S.I. unit of power.



Energy: The capacity of doing work is called Energy. This is of two types: Potential Energy is the energy which a body possesses owing to its position and Kinetic Energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion. In the case of stretched or wound up string or bent how, the energy is potential. The ball lying on the roof of a house is capable of driving a nail into the ground, if allowed to fall on it. A watch spring when wound up possesses energy to keep the wheels of the watch in motion for a day. Each one provides an example of Potential Energy. On the other hand, the water flowing downstream on account of gravity is, by virtue of its motion, capable of setting a water mill in motion. Similarly, a bullet shot from a gun pierces through objects and overcomes resistance offered by them. Each one here provides an example of Kinetic Energy. Equilibrium: When all the forces acting on a body produce no change in its state of rest or motion, it is said to be in equilibrium. The equilibrium is called stable when the body after being disturbed is let free, it returns to its former state of rest, e.g., a tub lying on a smooth table. The centre of gravity of a stable body is normally in the lowest position, and it is raised when disturbed. The equilibrium is called unstable when the body on slight displacement moves further off from its original position, e.g., a brick resting on a small face. In this case the centre of gravity gets lower on being disturbed. The equilibrium is called neutral when on slight displacement it neither comes back to its original position nor topples over but simply rolls, e.g., a ball. In this case the centre of gravity is unaffected, i.e., it remains at the same height from the base. A body is in stable equilibrium when its centre of gravity is as low as possible. Illustration : A boat would capsize and it would not move easily, if the men were standing in it than it would, if they were all sitting. The stability of an object may be increased by enlarging the base, and by having the centre of gravity as low as possible. Leaning tower of Pisa which is 179 ft. high leans 3 ft. out of the vertical, and is still in stable equilibrium. It is because the vertical line through the centre of gravity falls within the base. It is for this reason that a rope dancer uses an umbrella; a man carrying a heavy load on his back bends forward; and it is for this reason that it is more convenient to carry two buckets in two hands than carry one only in one hand.

Principle of work: Input = output

Work done on a machine = Work done by the machine

What we gain in power, we lose in speed or distance. A screw jack lifts a huge car through small distance by the application of small force through a large distance. The various kinds of simple machines are: lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge and screw. Surface Tension: The force of tension on account of the inter-molecular forces on the surface of a liquid is called surface tension. The effect of surface tension is to make the area of the free surface as small as possible. It is on account of this fact that rain drops are spherical, and the free surface of water is plain like a stretched membrane. Another effect of surface tension is to raise liquids in capillary tubes. The rise of kerosene oil in a lamp wick or the absorption of ink by a blotting paper or the raising of melted wax in the wick of a candle is due to the capillary action. Bricks and mortar are porous so that the water of the soil rises through them by capillary and keeps them constantly damp. Viscosity: Is the force of drag between molecules of the same substance. For example, honey pours itself into a container very slowly as compared to water or milk. This is simply due to the fact the honey molecules exercise a lot of backward acting force on the molecules which want to leave their field. Owing to this, honey or glycerine pour themselves very slowly while water and milk do not. Pascal’s Law: The liquids transmit pressure equally in all directions. If a vessel has two pistons A and B, cross section area of piston B being twice that of A, then if A is pushed in with a force of 1 lb, B will be pushed out with a force of 2 lbs. This principle is employed in Brahma Press or Hydraulic Press. Archimedes’ Principle ( The Eureka ! Experience) Says that when a body is immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upward thrust. The upward thrust or loss of weight is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. A ship’s hull is so shaped that the weight of steel and other parts together with the weight of the cargo and air inside are equal to the weight of the water displaced by the immersed portion; and hence it floats. An iron nail displaces such a small volume of water because of its tiny profile that the upward thrust generated is much less than the weight of the nail. Hence it sinks. On the other hand, a piece of straw of the same profile floats



because its low weight is easily supported by the upward thrust set up. A man can float on the surface of a river more easily by filling his lungs with air than when he has emptied them by breathing out. This is the principle of life jackets also. They prevent a man from drowning when inflated. PRESSURE: Air has a weight and therefore it exerts pressure on the surface of the earth. Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Atmospheric pressure = weight of 76 cm of Mercury column Considering the average area of a human body as 1.3 sq. metre the total pressure (or force) acting on a human being is about 13.4 metric tons, which is enormous but our bodies have been adjusted to this in its long evolutionary history. The pressure 150 m below the surface of the ocean is 16 atmospheres and at the height of around 16 km above the surface of the earth, it is less than 1/6th (0.156 atmosphere) of the atmospheric pressure. The instrument used to measure pressure is called barometer. HEAT: Effects of heat 1. Raises temperature 2. Increases volume 3. Changes state 4. Brings about chemical action 5. Changes physical properties Illustrations. (i) On a hot day while cycling on a road if we touch the handle of a bicycle, the handle will seem to be otter than the grips because the handle is a good conductor of heat and when we touch any part of it, heat flows to the hand, not only from the part but also from the neighboring parts : whereas in the case of grips the heat flows to the hand from only that part which is touched. The handle seems hotter because it is a good conductor of heat and the flow of heat to the hand is greater and more rapid than in the case of the grips. (ii) The rails on a railway line are laid with a small gap between them so that with a rise in temperature in

summer the gap would provide room for expansion. (iii) The iron tyre of a cart wheel is always made a bit smaller in diameter than the wooden wheel. After

making the tyre red hot, it is slipped on the wheel, and water is poured on it. On cooling the iron tyre contracts, and holds the parts firmly together.

Temperature: It is the degree of hotness, and it can be measured on three scales: Centigrade, Fahrenheit, Reaumur and Absolute or Kelvin scales. The freezing and boiling points of water in these scales are as follows:

Freezing Point Boiling Point Centrigrade 00 1000 Fahrenheit 320 2120 Reaumur 00 800 Kelvin or Absolute 273.150 373.150

They are related to each other as

100273.15-K

80R

18032-F

100==

C

In Kelvin scale the Triple Point of water (0.010C) is taken instead of freezing point. On this scale Kelvin temperature is 273.160. Normal temperature of the human body is 98.40F (370C). Calorie: Is a unit of heat. It is equal to the heat given to one gm of water to raise its temperature by 10C. Latent Heat: Is the heat which is used up in changing the state of a body without raising its temperature. One gram of ice at 00C takes in 80 calories of heat to change into 1 gm. of water at 00C and one gram of water at 1000C needs to be given 537 calories of heat to change it to 1 gm. of steam at 1000C. 80 cal. and 537 cal. are called the latent heat of fusion of ice and latent heat of vaporization of water respectively. Illustration (i) Burns from steam at 1000C are more severe than burns from hot boiling water at 1000C. This is because, as stated above, 1 g of water at 1000C needs to be given 537 calories of (latent) heat to change it to 1 g of steam at 1000C. Thus steam packs this much more heat than boiling water and so causes burns more severely.



Evaporation: It is the change of state from liquid to vapour. Cooling is caused by evaporation. 1. We feel cold immediately after sprinkling water on our body. It is because the evaporation of the water gives the cooling effect. 2. When the forehead of a person is sponged with Eau-de-cologne, he feels refreshed for the liquid which contains a large proportion of alcohol evaporates quickly, and takes away much of the local heat. 3. For the same reason a wet khus screen hung on the doors of a room keeps it delightfully cool. Transference of Heat: Heat can be transferred in three ways:- (a) Conduction is a process in which heat is transferred from particle to particle. For example, when one end of a metal rod is put in the fire the other end outside gets hot. Here heat travels from one end to the other by conduction. The rate of heat flow is directly proportional to the cross sectional area of the rod and inversely proportional to its length. That is why long thin handles are preferred for parts used in foundry work and in cooking. (ii) Tea kettles have wooden or plastic handles, because these are poor conductors of heat. Gases are very poor conductors of heat. Illustrations: (i) The warmth of woolen clothing is mostly due to the presence of air in the minute spaces in the cloth. Such spaces which contain air, do not let the outside cold to reach the body and simultaneously do not allow the body heat to escape from it, thus leading to a sense of warmth. (ii) People in the Arctic regions make double-walled houses to live in. The air between the walls being a bad

conductor does not allow the heat inside to go out. The same principle applies to thermos flasks, which contain a double layer of coated walls to prevent the escape of heat from inside.

(b) Convection: Is the transmission of heat from one part of the body to another by the actual motion of the

heated particles of liquid or gas. Illustration: Ventilation is an application of the convection currents in gases. The air in a dwelling room is always warmer than the free air outside, and hence it rises upwards and passes out through the ventilators, while cold fresh air comes into the room through the doors and windows to take its place. (c) Radiation: It is the process by which heat is transmitted from one point to another without heating the

medium. It takes place through the Electro-magnetic waves. Illustrations (i) Thermos flask is a glass vessel with double walls, the space between the walls being vacuum. The outer surface of the inner walls and the inner surface of the outer walls are silvered. The vacuum does not allow the conduction and convection to take place and the polished surface minimizes radiation of heat. (ii) While linen is more suitable in summer as it absorbs very little of the sun’s rays. Black clothing is preferred

in winter, for it absorbs almost the whole of the incident radiation, and thus it gives more warmth. (iii) It is warm on a cloudy night because the heat radiated by the earth is obstructed, and thus trapped in the

atmosphere by the clouds. (iv) Dew is more copious on a clear night because radiation takes place freely so that the surface of the earth

cools rapidly. Water possesses the maximum density at 4oC. This fact plays a very important part in nature. The cooling of water in winter goes on till the ponds and tanks are all at 4oC. Further cooling results in the water at the surface becoming lighter and, therefore, remaining at the top, leaving the water at the bottom 4o-C, and hence unaffected. The cooling of the top layers may be so much that they may entirely freeze. Since ice is a bad



conductor of heat, it does not allow the layers below the ice to be cooled by the cold outside. This enables aquatic animals to continue to live in the most severe winter. The melting point of a substance which expands on freezing (water on becoming ice) is lowered by the increase of pressure; whereas it is raised in the case of substance which contracts on freezing (e.g. wax). Latent Heat of Vaporization: Is that amount of heat which is needed to convert a unit amount of a liquid into gaseous state e.g. water (540 calories/gm.). This is too high and that is why burns caused by steam are much more dangerous as compared to those caused by water at the same temperature, because steam contains this much heat into addition to its high temperature. Latent Heat of Fusion: Is the amount of heat to change the state of a unit amount of solid into liquid state. For example, ice has a high value of latent heat. If it were low, ice would melt very soon and disastrous floods would result. Moreover, the ponds and lakes would freeze very much sooner than they do at present. Rectilinear Propagation of Light: Light travels in a straight line. This is why we place a small obstacle between the object and our eyes, when we do not want to look at it. Shadows are formed due to the same phenomenon of rectilinear propagation of light. Reflection: When a ray of light falls on a mirror, it is sent back to the first medium in a certain direction according to certain laws. This is referred to as reflection. Many day-to-day phenomena can be easily explained with the help of this principle. Illustrations (i) When an object is placed between two mirrors parallel to each other we see infinite images due to successive reflections. They look smaller because their distance from the eye is successively increased. (ii) Construction of a toy, called kaleidoscope (made by using small pieces of mirror and pieces of broken

bangles) is due to successive reflection at the surface of inclined mirrors. (iii) When a candle is placed close in front of a thick glass mirror and we look somewhat obliquely at the mirror,

a number of images are seen due to multiple reflections. Of these the images nearest the candle will be brightest of the series. The other images formed gradually decrease in brightness. The first image is formed by the light which is reflected from the front surface at the back, it is all reflected to the front surface, where some of it is reflected back to the silvered surface and is again reflected to the front surface and so on. Each time some light comes out showing one image.

Refraction: Is there when a ray of light is incident obliquely on a surface of separation between two media, part of it goes into the second medium along a path different from the direction of the incident beam. (i) A pond looks shallower than it really is because of refraction. When rays start from a denser to a rarer

medium, the rays get bent away from the normal. Hence a point at the bottom of the pond appears to be raised.

(ii) It is due to refraction that a stick immersed in water appears bent. (iii) The brilliance of a diamond is due to the fact that when light enters a piece of diamond, on account of high

refractive index (and consequential small critical angle) and the cut of its face, it gets totally reflected at most of the face. The few faces from which it comes out throw a good deal of light and make them appear brilliantly lit.

(iv) Air bubbles in water and cracks in transparent bodies appear glittering due to total internal reflection. (v) Mirage is an optical illusion owing to total internal reflection. In sandy deserts the air in contact with the

hot earth is rarer than the upper layers. As we go towards the earth the density of the air goes on decreasing. Hence the rays of light from a distant object traverse through successively rare layers and hence go on bending away from the normal and ultimately get totally reflected at the rarest layer, and reach the observer’s eye as if they come from a point as far below the reflecting layer as the object is



above it. Since these layers of air are shaking the inverted image as seen by total internal reflection also is shaking, giving man the illusion of ‘splashing water everything’.

(vi) Stars twinkle because the atmospheric air close to the earth is disturbed by convection currents and on

account of passing through such disturbed ‘areas’, the light from a star travelling in a given direction sometimes comes through and sometimes is deflected away.

MAGNETISM: Magnet is a substance which has the property of attracting pieces of iron, cobalt and nickel, and when freely suspended, it points towards North and South. Natural Magnet: A naturally occurring mineral called magnetite is found in Asia. Minor: It is a compound of iron and oxygen. It is also called lodestone. It attracts piece of iron, cobalt and nickel and when suspended points in the north-south direction. It is a natural magnet. Artificial Magnets: These are pieces of iron to which the properties of a magnet have been imparted by artificial means. Steel is mostly employed for making permanent artificial magnets. How does lightning strike a building?: Let us consider a charged cloud hanging over the earth. By induction, the earth and other bodies below get charged with opposite kind of electricity. When the strain becomes too great the insulation of moist air in between, breaks down and the discharge takes place between the cloud and some object below it. A heavy charge thus passes between the cloud and building, and in its passage damage the building. Current Electricity: When two vessels filled with water up to different levels are connected together, water flows from the higher to the lower level. Similarly when two bodies having different ‘degrees of electrification’ are connected together, electricity flows from higher ‘degree of electrification’ to the lower, and this gives rise to current electricity. Potential: Is called the degree of electrification. For example, in a dry cell, the metal tip at the top of the carbon rod is at a higher (positive) potential than the zinc cylinder, which is at a lower (negative) potential. If these two ends are connected by means of a conducting wire to a bulb, it will keep on glowing, till the difference of potential between the carbon and zinc in the cell is maintained. Heating Effects of Current: When an electric current is passed through wire of any metal it experiences (electron) resistance to its flow. This resistance manifests itself as heat and light, the proportion of the two depending on the properties of the material. In wires of Nichrome, more heat is produced than light. Construction of electric heaters, electric tea-kettles, stoves, boilers, electric irons, etc., is based on the heating effects of electric current. The heat H, produced when a current I amperes flows through a conductor is given by Joule’s Law.

i.e., H = VIt Joules

where V is the potential difference in volts, and t is the time for which the current flows. Or H = I2Rt

Lighting Effects: When an electric current is passed through a long thin wire of platinum, tungsten or carbon, the wire offers resistance to the passage of current. It becomes white hot and glows. Thus light is produced by electric current. Electric bulbs are constructed on this principle. An electric lamp usually consists of a thin wire of tungsten, enclosed in glass bulb. The bulb is first evacuated and then some nitrogen or argon is filled which retards the vaporization of the filament and hence permits the filament to be heated to higher temperature. Magnetic Effects: When an electric current is passed through a coil of insulated copper wire wrapped around a soft iron core then the steel or soft iron placed in the coil becomes a magnet. This is due to the magnetic field which is produced in the coil due to passage of current through it. This magnetic effect is made use of in making electromagnets used in electric bells, telegraphy, dynamos, etc.



Microwaves: Electromagnetic waves having a wavelength in the centimeter range and occupying a region in the electromagnetic spectrum between Radiowaves and Infrared waves. Microwave Cooker: It uses microwaves for food processing. In conventional heating, a heat source (like the flame of a gas stove) transfers heat to the foodstuffs by conducting, convection or radiation; the surface of the foodstuff is first heated after which heat is slowly transferred to the interior. Microwave heating is bulk heating since there is direct conversion of microwave energy into heat throughout the material, hence it is faster. Microwaves interact differently with different materials. They pass through paper, glass, ceramics; hence they make good containers for foodstuffs for microwave cooking. They are reflected by metals; hence containers should never be metallic. They are absorbed by and so heat up food products, water etc. Apart from dramatically reducing cooking times, microwave cooking increases the efficiency of energy utilization. Atomic Bomb, Hydrogen Bomb, Neutron Bomb: An atomic bomb is a device for suddenly producing an explosively rapid neutron chain reaction in a fissile material like Uranium 235 or Plutonium 239. An atomic bomb before ignition consists of a mass of fissile material surrounded by a material like beryllium oxide which reflects neutrons. Before ignition, the fissile material and reflector is disposed geometrically in such a way as to allow easy leakage of neutrons; thus there is no chain reaction initially. At ignition these materials are suddenly assembled by chemical high explosives into a more compact, less ‘leaky’ geometry. Neutrons now released (from the spontaneous fission of admixed U 235 or Pu 239) cannot leak out and instead start up an uncontrolled, divergent, chain reaction. This results in an exponentially growing rate of energy release and manifests itself as mechanical shock, heat, light and radiation. An H bomb (also called Thermonuclear bomb) uses a fission device (an A-bomb) to trigger off a fusion reaction, thereby producing a thermonuclear explosion. This is more destructive than A-bomb, with yields reaching upto hundreds of megatons of TNT as against hundreds of kilotons for A-bombs. A neutron-bomb uses a large flux of very negative neutrons to kill biological material; the blast effect is essentially zero. Hence a neutron bomb leaves most non-biological material intact. PULSARS: They are remnants of stellar explosions. PULSARS are pulsating stars, and these are sources of radio energy pulsating at regular intervals and were discovered in 1968 by Cambridge astronomers. Same year, another observatory noted that one pulsar in the Crab Nebula was also radiating flashes of light synchronously with radio pulses. Since the pulsation was too fast to be seen by the unaided eye (30 times a second), the astronomers placed a photo cell at the focus of their optical telescope. Quartz Clock: A quartz clock employs vibrations of a quartz crystal. Under a phenomenon called piezoelectric effect, when electric charges are applied to the faces of a quartz crystal, it undergoes expansion and contraction (i.e., it vibrates) at a frequency determined by the crystal dimensions. Quartz clocks employ properly cut quartz crystals, to the faces of which is applied an alternating voltage with a constant frequency, the resulting vibrations being used for keeping time accuracy : one ten thousandth of a second over a period of months as against 3 seconds per year for high precision pendulum clocks) RADAR: The Radio Direction and Ranging is used to detect and determine the distance of distant objects. A narrow beam of high frequency radio-waves is sent in all directions from the instrument. The object in space reflects these waves back. Radar receives back these waves. From the time taken by the radio waves to travel the distance from radar to the object and back and knowing the velocity of these waves (3 x 1010 cm/sec.,) we can find the distance and thus the velocity of the object, apart from its exact compass bearing. Refrigerator: Modern refrigerators use freon gas as the refrigerant. Refrigeration is a four step process. The freon gas is first compressed to high pressure and (consequently) temperature. The extra heat is then shed in a condenser. Then the gas is expanded (throttled so that we obtain refrigerant liquid. This liquid (at several degrees below freezing) is made to pass in pipes through the foodstuffs compartment. As the liquid absorbs the heat from foodstuffs it evaporates, cooling the compartment, and turning into gas. The cycle is repeated, with the gas obtained being compressed again. In this way very low temperatures are maintained in the foodstuffs compartment. Rocket: It is based on the principle of Newton’s Third Law of Motion. In order that a rocket may escape gravity, it must be projected with an initial velocity of 40,000 kmph. Since a rocket files in space where there is no air, it must carry its own supply of oxygen to support combustion of fuel. This it does is a the form of liquid oxygen or solid oxidizers.



Solar Cooker: It is a device to utilize the sun’s ray directly for heating cooker instead of burning fire below it. The heat rays of the sun are reflected by a large, flat mirror into a blackened compartment sealed off by a double glass lid. The compartment contains blackened utensils which contain the foodstuffs to be cooked. Heat energy in the sun’s rays is absorbed by the blackened compartment utensils and cooks the foodstuffs. The heat energy remains trapped in the compartment on account of the double glass lid. Telescope: It is an optical instrument used to see distant objects. It essentially consists of two lenses: objective which faces the object; the other eye-piece through which we see the image. The objective forms an image (inverted) of the distant object in front of the eye-piece. This image acts like an object for the eye-piece. The latter forms an enlarged image of the former, thus giving us finally magnified image of the object. SOUND: Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing. Sound waves are longitudinal in character. These can propagate in solids, liquids and gases. Human ear is sensitive to frequencies from about 20 cycle/s are called infrasonic and those above 20,000 cycle/s are called ultrasonic. The sound waves originate in the vibration of bodies like strings, air columns plates and membranes etc. In human being the vocal cards vibrate to produce sound. In air the speed of the sound is affected by pressure, temperature, density, humidity and wind speed. In dry air at 0oC the speed in about 331 m/s. It travels faster in damp air or the speed also increases with temperature. In water at 15oC the speed in about 1450 m/s and in iron at 200C is about 5130 m/s. When expressed in decibels (dB) the intensity of the loudest painless sound equals 120 dB. The normal conversation has the intensity of about 65 dB. The intensity of the sound from a nearby airplane is about 120 dB. The intensity varies inversely as a square of the distance from the source. Sound shows the phenomenon of reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction. Sound waves which are approximately periodic give rise to pleasing sensation (if there are no sudden changes in loudness) e.g. musical sounds, like humming of a bee. Sound waves with no regularity or a super position of periodic waves having very large number of components is heard as noise. The three characteristics of sound are (i) loudness (ii) pitch and (iii) quality Loudness is determined by the intensity of sound or the degree of sensation produced in the ear drum. Pitch is directly proportional to the frequently of sound. Higher the pitch the shriller is the sound. The sound of women has higher pitch. Quality is that characteristic of sound which distinguishes between tow sounds of the same pitch and same loudness. It is because of the quality that different musical instruments produce different sound. It is on account of the quality that we recognize a person’s voice while talking on a telephone.

CHEMICAL PHENOMENA

Physical Change: It is a temporary change in which only the physical properties, e.g., colour, state, etc., alter but no new substance with new properties is formed. By reversing conditions we can get the original substances, e.g., changing ice into water; glowing of an electric bulb; adding common salt to water; magnetizing a steel needle. Chemical Change: It is a permanent change in which new substances with new properties are formed. It is not possible to get back the original substance, e.g., burning a candle; boiling an egg; heating magnesium ribbon; souring of milk. Element: It cannot be split into simpler substances, e.g., iron, sulphur, oxygen, gold. There are about 106 elements. Compound: It can be split into simpler substances and is formed by the union of two or more elements in definite proportions by weight, e.g. 1. Water can be split into hydrogen and oxygen. 2. Iron sulphide is split into iron and sulphur. 3. Chalk is made of calcium, carbon and oxygen. 4. Carbondixoide is made up of carbon and oxygen.

Mixture: It is one in which two or more substances are mixed together in any ratio without altering their properties. 1. Sand and salt 2. Sugar and water 3. Air is a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen



4. Gun-powder is a mixture of nitre, charcoal and sulphur Hard and Soft Water: Hard water is that water which does not produce lather with soap easily. Soft water produces lather with soap very easily. There is two kinds of hardness : - (i) Temporary (ii) Permanent. Temporary is due to bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. Can be removed by(i) boiling,(ii) addition of lime. Permanent is due to the sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium. Permanent hardness can be removed by (I) addition of washing soda, or (ii) by distillation. Alloy: Is a mixture of two or more metals in a certain proportion. Alloys are made to impart certain special properties to the metals in question. For example, stainless steel is made using Iron, Manganese, Carbon etc. to give it high strength, elasticity etc which is not found in Iron. Amalgam: any alloy containing Mercury as an essential component is known as amalgam.

CHEMICAL NAMES Substance Chemical Name Composition

1. Green vitriol Iron sulphate Iron, sulphur and oxygen 2. Litharge Lead monoxide Lead and oxygen 3. White vitriol Zinc sulphate Zinc sulphur and oxygen 4. Caustic lotion Silver nitrate Silver, nitrogen and oxygen 5. Candy fluid Potassium permanganate Potassium, manganese and oxygen 6. Blue vitriol Copper sulphate Copper, sulphur and oxygen 7. Kansi (Alloy) Bronze Copper, zinc, tin 8. Pital (Alloy) Brass Copper, zinc 9. Shora or nitre Potassium nitrate Potassium, nitrogen and oxygen 10. Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide Potassium, hydrogen and oxygen 11. Chile saltpeter Sodium nitrate Sodium, nitrogen and oxygen 12. Baking soda Sodium bicarbonate Sodium, hydrogen, carbon and oxygen 13. Washing soda Sodium carbonate Sodium, carbon and oxygen 14. Common salt Sodium chloride Sodium and chlorine 15. Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide Sodium, hydrogen and oxygen 16. Gluber’s salt Sodium sulphate Sodium, sulphur and oxygen 17. Iron pyrites Iron sulphide Iron and sulphur 18. Galena Lead sulphide Lead and sulphur 19. Gyspum Calcium sulphate Calcium, sulphur and oxygen 20. Epsom Magnesium sulphate Magnesium, sulphur and oxygen 21. Aspirin Acetyl Salicylic Acid 22. Vinegar Acetic Acid (Glacial) Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen 23. Bleaching Powder Calcium Oxychloride Calcium, Oxygen, Chlorine 24. Marble Calcium Carbonate Calcium, Carbon, Oxygen 25. Rust Ferric Hydroxide Iron, Hydrogen, Oxygen 26. Plaster of Paris Hydrated Calcium Sulphate Calcium, Sulphur, Hydrogen, Oxygen

IMPORTANT LAWS IN SCIENCE AND SOME DEFINITIONS

Law of Indestructibility of Matter The matter can neither be created nor destroyed as a result of any chemical change.



Boyle’s Law Temperature remaining constant, the volume of a given mass of any gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. Charles’ Law Pressure remaining constant the volume of a given mass of any gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. Ohm’s Law The current flowing through a conductor between any two points is proportional to the potential difference between them, provided physical conditions remain unaltered. Molecular weight of a substance is the average relative weight of its molecule compared with the weight of an atom of oxygen taken as 16. Atomic weight of an element is the average relative weight of its atom compared with the weight of an atom oxygen taken as 16. Water of Crystallization It is the number of molecules of water which gives the substance crystalline shape.

PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS Atomic Power Plant: Here heat energy is produced by uranium fission. A fissionable Uranium atom (mostly enriched Uranium is used, enriched Uranium is obtained by increasing its percentage of fissionable Uranium from ordinary Uranium) is bombarded with neutrons at a certain speed, which produces lighter elements nuclei and three neutrons in addition. Out of these three neutrons so produced, two are made inactive by reducing their speed. The third one is again made to strike another fissionable Uranium nucleus, thereby repeating the process. Out of three neutrons so produced now, two are again deactivated while the third one strikes another Uranium nucleus. In this way, this chain reaction goes on at a controlled speed, that is why, this is known as a controlled reaction. When such reaction starts taking place on a self-sustaining basis, the production of power starts. At this stage, the reactor is said to have achieved criticality. The total mass of end-products in such a reaction is always lesser than the total amount of initial participants in the reaction, i.e. some amount of mass disappears. This disappeared mass appears in the form of energy according the well-known Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence equation

E= mc2

Where E is the total energy produced, m is the mass disappeared in the reaction while c stands for the speed of light (3 lakh kilometers/second). This equation also explains why such tremendous amount of heat is generated by the disappearance of a small amount of mass. This heat is used to generate steam which in turn drives turbines, and these turbines drive the generator and thus electricity is produced. The chain reaction of uranium fission is completely under control. Nuclear Fusion: Is the exact opposite of nuclear fission. In case of nuclear fusion, two smaller nuclei are made to fuse with each other, thus producing a bigger nucleus. For example, if you join hydrogen nuclei to produce helium nucleus, this process will be known as nuclear fusion. But this process has an important difference with nuclear fission. While fission can be done at room temperature, this is not possible in case of fusion. For fusion, one needs to have a very high temperature, of the order of lakhs of degrees. Now such a temperature is made possible only by conducting a fission reaction. Therefore, a nuclear fusion is always preceded by a fission reaction. The high temperature generated in fission enables the fusion to take place. The source of energy in this case remains the same, i.e. the mass disappeared in the reaction. Since such reactions take place at a very high temperature, they are also referred to as thermonuclear reactions (thermos means heat). The fusion process is widely used in making hydrogen bombs. Since a fusion bomb is in reality a double bomb (fusion+ fission), it is quite destructive. Such a fusion reaction taking place on the Sun (in which hydrogen nuclei are being fused to create helium nuclei) has been supplying energy to us for many billion years and will continue to do so for another billion years.



If you could have nuclear fusion at room temperature, it would be referred to as Cold Fusion. Scientists have been trying hard to make it possible, but till now, it remains a science fantasy. Some years back, the University of Utah scientists had reported a major breakthrough in having Cold Fusion, but it turned out to be a hoax. The day it becomes possible, all energy problems of the world will be solved at one go. Cinema: The projection of moving pictures on a screen is based on the principle of persistence of impression on the retina. The human eye cannot distinguish between two pictures seen in time interval of less than 1/16th of a second. The movie film consists of snapshots taken at intervals of about 1/25th of a second. When these snap shot are projected in quick succession with time interval less than 1/16th of a second, the retinal images get fused into one another, and the impression of a continuous motion of pictures is obtained. The same is true of all other moving picture phenomena. Dynamo (Generator): A dynamo is a machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The mechanical energy needed is obtained from a gas engine or steam or water turbine. It consists of a rectangular coil of wire wound on a laminated iron core, called armature which rotates in a strong magnetic field created by electro-magnet. As the coil rotates, a current is induced in the coil due to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Jet Engine: The principle of jet engine can be best explained by untying an inflated balloon and releasing it into the atmosphere. As the air from the balloon is released backwards the balloon moves forward; it is based on the principle of Newton’s Third Law of Motion. In a Jet craft the fuel (crude petroleum) is ignited and when it burns in the compressed air, hot gases under high pressure are produced : which are allowed to escape backwards through a fine jet. These escaping gases produce a reaction which pushes the jet forward. A jet craft is more economical for long distance journeys. It can fly at higher altitude and can acquire supersonic speeds i.e., speeds more than that of sound (about 740 m.p.h.). Jumbo Jets or Boeing 747s can carry up to 450 passengers and travel at about 1000 km per hour. The fastest in passenger air travel is the Concorde built jointly by France and U.K. Kaleidoscope: It consists of a metal tube, in which are placed three mirrors, inclined at 60o, one end of the tube is closed by a piece of ground glass and the other by a cap provided with a hole. Small pieces of coloured glass are placed at once end between the ground glass and another glass disc. On looking through the hole, the other end being held towards light, a beautiful pattern formed by multiple reflections will be seen. Medical Imaging Techniques: The conventional X-ray is a flat two dimensional (2D) image which has no depth. The above objective mentioned techniques enable the depth of the object (i.e., the third dimension) to be viewed as well. A slice of any organ in any orientation can be imaged for examination under these techniques. These techniques are called Computerized Axial Tomography (tomo means slice). The basic idea behind computerized tomography is to make a number of observations of the object in question from a number of directions and angles. Several thousand observations are taken and the huge data thus obtained analyzed by digital computers to yield the 3-dimensional image of the object, any slice of which can be selected and examined. X-Ray Computerized Tomography employs X-Ray for imaging purposes, the patient being scanned by an X-Ray tube which can rotate 360o around the patient. In PET (position emission tomography), the patient is administered positron-emitting radioactive substances. Observing the gamma-ray photons emitted from these substances enables the objective to be imaged. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR): Is, however, different from X-ray and PET Techniques since it is a spectroscopic technique. It uses radio-frequency waves and combines spectroscopy and imaging. This makes possible non-invasive, in-vivo spectroscopy; body biochemistry can be studied at any part (slice) of a body organ. Since radio frequency waves used in NMR scanning are less energetic than the X Rays in X-ray CT scanning NMR is less harmful to body tissues than the latter. Radioactivity and Radioactive Dating: Certain elements, if kept as such in dark (keeping them in dark is not a pre-condition, they emit rays even otherwise, dark makes them more visible), emit positively, negatively charged and neutral rays. This phenomenon, discovered by Henry Bacquerel, is referred to as radio-activity. Almost all elements starting from Uranium (Atomic Number 92) upto the end of the periodic table are radio-active in nature. The three types of rays emitted are as follows:



Alpha –rays : are + ly charged particles( actually they are helium nuclei Beta-rays : are negatively charged particles( in reality they are electrons) Gamma-rays : are electro-magnetic waves of short wavelength with great penetrating ability. Since radioactive materials decay at a definite rate, the amount of undecayed radioactive material can give us an idea of the time elapsed in disintegration. This principle is used in radio-active dating, which is a technique use to determine the age of ancient rocks, tress etc, historical monuments. Mostly Carbon-12 is used for radio-active dating. Light Year: Is a unit of distance used to measure the distance between astronomical bodies. A Light Year is defined as the distance traveled by light in one year. (3 lakh kilometers multiplied by seconds in one year) Photo-electric effect: If a light of a minimum wavelength is made to fall on certain metals, they start emitting a stream of electrons, which if channelled properly gives rise to an electric current. This phenomenon is referred to as photo-electric effect. Examples of such metals which are easily susceptible to this effect include Sodium, Lithium etc. This phenomenon is the basis of photo-voltaic cells, which are used to generate electricity in remote villages. This is a cheap, clean, non-polluting and virtually inexhaustible source of power. Missiles: Examples of ballistic missiles are the Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) with the Superpowers and India’s Agni missile. Example of guided missiles are the Scud missiles and all Indian missiles except Agni. Cruise missiles are essentially small, long range aircraft. They have wings and turbine engines and use inertial navigation systems for navigation, with periodic updates from space or terrain. They can fly very low and penetrate enemy defences. Example: Tomahawk cruise missile of the United States used effectively during the Gulf war.

THE BIOLOGICAL WORLD A major part of the planet Earth comprises living beings, which make up the biological world. There are millions of varieties of plants and animal that can be distinguished. All living beings are distinguished by their ability for movement, respiration, growth and reproduction which are absent in non-living things. Studying these millions of varieties is a Herculean task for any scientist. To achieve this purpose, therefore, the scientist have grouped together similar types of plants/animals to make their study simpler. By studying a representative of each group, we can know fairly well the characteristic features of the whole group. Such a system of grouping together of living beings is known as classification. Several systems of classification have been proposed. Scientists in different parts of the world call the same animal/plant by different names in their local languages. This may create a lot of confusion and problems in communication. To rid of this problem, a uniform system of naming has been proposed by Carl Von Linneaus. According to this system, every organism has been assigned two names 1. generic name known as genus and 2. a special name known as species. For instance, both cat and lion have a common genus Felis, but since there is considerable difference in their characters, each is having a separate species name. Obviously, having a common genus name implies great similarity in their basic biological features. The common names and the corresponding scientific names of some common living beings are given elsewhere in this discussion.

ANIMAL AND PLANT GROUPS 1. Phylum Protozoa e.g. Amoeba, Plasmodium, Entamoeba 1. Algae e.g. seaweeds, Spirogyra

2. Fungi e.g. Penicillium 2. Phylum Porifera e.g. sponges 3. Bryophytes e.g. Marchantia 3. Phylum Coelentrata e.g. Corals, Jelly-fish, Star-fish 4. Pteridophytes e.g. Ferns 4. Phylum Platyhelminthess e.g. Tapeworm 5. Gymnosperms e.g. Pinus



5. Phylum Nemahelminthes e.g. Ascaris 6. Angiosperms e.g. Triticum 6. Phylum Insecta e.g. Silver Fish, Cockroaches 7. Phylum Echinodermata . 8. Phylum Mollusca 9. Phylum Chordata e.g. Rat, Whale, Fishes

(Bacteria and viruses have been excluded from this discussion because their grouping is still a matter of debate for the reason that bacteria possess features characteristic of both plants and animals. For instance, some bacteria can make their own food, which brings them closer to plants. Viruses, on the other hand are creatures which can multiply only on a living host, can survive extreme environmental conditions and posses features of both living and non-lining beings. Like living beings, they can multiply. And like non-living things, they can crystallize themselves under appropriate environmental conditions. Many bacteria and viruses are responsible for some major human diseases, which will be discussed very shortly.)

Of these, chordates are the most highly advanced group in terms of biological organization. They are distinguished by the presence of a notochord or vertebral column. They are further divided into many types. A. Pisces (Swimming Fishes) B. Amphibia C. Reptilia (Crawling Reptiles) D. Aves (Flying Birds) E. Mammalia (Child-Bearing Mammals) Each of the animal groups is characterized by certain features which are unique to them e.g. 1. Fishes are defined by the presence of gills for respiration in the adult stage, presence of fins all over the body and internal fertilization. Therefore, swimming doesn’t define a fish nor does the name tag of fish attached to the name of an animal make it a fish. For example, the commonly known animal Silver Fish is not fish at all (it is an insect), because it lacks gills, fins and other features exclusive to fishes. 2. Amphibians are those animals that can live on both land and in water. A typical example is a frog which lives in ponds normally, but can come on earth if required. 3. Reptiles are defined as those animals which have scales found all over the body. Since they live in dry places, it helps them in conserving body water to a large extent. 4. From birds onwards, a true four-chambered heart is found in all animals, which means that pure and impure blood are actually separated in separate chambers of the heart. Birds are identified by the presence of wings (which are actually modified fore-limbs) and a constant body temperature, apart from a four-chambered heart. Of course, they can fly, but the ability to fly does not make an animal a bird. For instance, many insects can fly with wings that are extensions of the skin. So technically speaking, they cannot be called birds. 5. Mammals are the most advanced lot of the animal groups. Many features distinguish them other groups like A. Presence of hair all over the body. B. Internal fertilization ( in all other groups, fertilization takes place outside the body, i.e. is external) C. Ability to give birth to young ones directly ( birds and fishes lay eggs) D. A constant body temperature which does not change according to environmental changes in temperature.

Such constant-temperature animals are called warm-blooded while those whose body temperature changes according to environmental changes are referred to as cold-blooded e.g. fish, reptiles. Having a constant internal temperature is a great advantage for an animal because it lets its body function without any hindrance (Most of the body processes need a suitable range of temperature to happen). The importance of this fact can be easily supported by the example of a frog, which is a cold-blooded animal. In winters when temperature dips to very low levels, frogs bury themselves in the bed of the ponds (hibernation) so as to avoid the low temperature, which does not allow their bodies to function appropriately. On the other hand, most mammals have internal biological mechanisms which adjust their temperature so as to avoid excessive heat or cold to the body, thus making a state of constant internal environment for the body reactions to take place (homeostasis)



E. Extreme care of the young ones is a special feature of this group. Generally speaking, the more advanced the animal on the phylogenetic scale, the more the degree of parental care.

F. A highly developed Central Nervous System, which allows them to think, plan and reason their activities,

all the essential attributes of intelligence. Of course, no animal apart from humans can speak but some remarkable research shows that chimpanzees can definitely communicate by using sign languages. Many scientists counter it by saying that the chimpanzees’ speech lacks the true features of human speech. However, research is still going on this topic.

STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION Robert Hook was the first man to observe ells in a living being. All living beings are made of tiny chambers called cells. A cell is the smallest functional structural unit of a living organism. By functional unit, we mean that a cell works in totality and any part of a cell cannot function independently of other parts. A group of cells that performs a specialized function for the body is known as a tissue. Many tissues make up an organ and many organs together make up an organ-system. For example the human digestive system comprises many different organs, the tissues in which are highly specialized for performing digestive functions and not functions of any other type. Many systems together constitute a living organism. This organization of cell- tissue- system-body is not uniform throughout the living world. There are many animals which consist of just one single cell (e.g. protozoa) and there are cases where a creature does have many cells, but those cells are not organized into specialized tissues for separate functions. However, the typical cell- tissue- system-body outline above is true of all higher animals. Many animals living together in a particular habitat make a population. All the different animals or plant species living together in mutual inter-link with one another in a habitat make a biological community. And a community of living organisms living together with its physical environment make it an ecosystem. The study of the interactions between the living creatures themselves and their physical environment and vice-versa is known as ecology. Nucleus, mitochondria and centriole are some of the major parts of a cell. In fat, the animal and plant cells do not differ much in structure and function, except the fact that all plant cells are additionally covered by a cell wall and that they lack centriole. The nucleus controls all the cell functions while actual production of energy takes place on the mitochondria. This energy is released in the form of ATP molecules (Adenosine Triphosphate) and that’s why mitochondria is often known as the powerhouse of the cells. Inside the nucleus, a thread-like network of chromatin can be seen under a microscope. Under conditions of cell division, this network is clearly differentiated into chromosomes, bodies that contains genes responsible for transmission of traits from one generation to the next. Every species is having a fixed number of chromosomes in all body cells. For example, in case of humans, the number of chromosomes is 46, which is organized into 23 pairs. The chromosomes and the genes always occur in pairs. A cell keeps on growing until a certain stage, beyond which it has to divide. The division of a cell can take place in two ways: MITOSIS: This is an equational division in which a body cell divides into two equal halves, each containing all the essential parts to run it as a cell. In such a division, first the chromosome number gets doubled i.e. each chromosome gets divided into two, thereby doubling the total number of chromosomes in the cell. Later on, each half receives half the chromosomes. For example, each human cell has 46 chromosomes, which become 92 in number at the time of mitosis. Each new mitotic cell gets half of it, i.e. 46. Thus the chromosome number remains constant in the species in each cell. This type of division goes on in the body cells (except sex cells) all the time and is the major source of repair, growth and development. MEIOSIS: Meiosis is a special type of cell division exclusively found in sex cells (sperms and eggs). In this case, a reduction division takes place first i.e. after duplication of each chromosome, the 92 chromosomes thus produced get divided into four parts, each having 23 chromosomes. Thus each daughter cell gets 23 chromosomes. That is why this is called a reduction division. Each of the four sperms containing 23 chromosomes will combine with an egg having 23 chromosomes, thus giving rise to a zygote having 16 chromosomes in all. Thus the number of chromosomes has again stayed the same in the specie.



TWINS: When two offspring are born at the same time, they are referred to as twins. Depending upon the mode of formation, they are of two types. Identical or Monozygotic Twins: Such twins develop from a single fertilized egg, which divides into exactly two halves some time after fertilization has occurred. Twins born as a result of such division are known as identical twins and they share virtually identical physical and psychological features. Dizygotic or Fraternal Twins: Fraternal twins are the result of fertilization of two ova with two separate sperms. Twins produced as a result of such separate fertilization are no more alike than ordinary siblings.

CLONING

Cloning is the production of genetically identical individuals without the help of sexual reproduction. In other words, cloning is production of multiple identical copies. The copies could be of molecules like DBA, antibody-producing cells, or even an animal. Why a body cell cannot be grown into an embryo or an adult has been a puzzling question because a cell has practically all the information contained in the zygote from which it has grown. Scientific efforts in this direction bore fruit for the first time when JB Gurdon was able to perform cloning on the African clawed frog. He showed the possibility of using nuclei from embryos to grow generations of similar embryos. Very recently, Dr. Ian Wilmut of the Roselin Institute, Scotland has been able to clone the first-ever mammal, a sheep called Dolly. He had used a cell taken from the udder of an ewe to produce a full-fledged lamb. Thereafter, many more full-fledged animals have been cloned like the cow, rat etc. by different scientists, Human cloning is a distinct theoretical possibility but it is banned by international treaties, because it has grave moral and social implications.

GENE EXPRESSION & GENETIC DISORDERS

Each chromosome is composed of many individual hereditary units called genes. A gene is a segment of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), which is the actual carrier of all genetic information. The DNA molecule looks like a twisted ladder or a double-stranded helix. The gene, a segment of the DNA molecule will give coded instruction to the cells, directing it to perform a particular function (usually to manufacture a particular protein). Although all cells in the body contain the same genes, the specialized nature of each cell is due to the fact that only 5 to 10 percent of the genes are active in any given cell. In the process of developing from a fertilized egg, each cell switches on some genes and switches off all others. When “nerve genes” are active, for example, a cell develops as a neuron because the genes are directing the cell to make the chemicals that allow it to perform neural functions. Genes, like chromosomes, occur in pairs. One gene of each pair comes from the sperm chromosome and the other from the ovum chromosome. Thus, a child receives only half of his genes from each parent’s total genes. The total number of genes in each human chromosome is around 10000 - perhaps higher. Since the number of genes is so high, it is extremely unlikely that two human beings would have the same heredity, even if they were siblings. The only exception is the identical twins, who, because they developed from the same fertilized egg, have exactly the same genes. An important attribute of many genes is dominance or recessiveness. When both members of a gene pair are dominant, the individual manifests the form of the trait specified by those genes. When one gene is dominant and the other recessive, the dominant gene again decides the form of the trait expressed. Only if the genes contributed by both parents are recessive is the trait specified by them expressed. The genes determining eye colour, for example, act in a pattern of dominance and recessiveness; blue is recessive and brown is dominant. Thus, a blue-eyed child may have two blue-eyed parents, or one blue-eyed parent and one brown-eyed parent( who carries a recessive gene for blue eyes) or two brown-eyed parents( each of whom carries a recessive gene for blue eyes). A brown-eyed child, in contrast, never has two blue-eyed parents.



Some of the characteristics that are carried by recessive genes are baldness, hemophilia and a susceptibility to poison ivy. However, not all gene pairs follow the dominant-recessive a pattern and most of the human traits are determined by many genes acting together. Some human characteristics are determined by a single gene pair. For instance, Phenylketunoria (PKU) and Huntington’s Disease. In case of PKU, the person is not able to digest an essential amino acid which gets logged in the nervous system.

HEREDITY

Heredity is the process of transmission of characters from one generation to the next. It studies how those characters are transmitted from parents to their offspring, what are the basic laws applicable to such processes etc. The field of genetics studies heredity in detail. Gregor John Mendel, an Austrian monk, was responsible for formulating the basic laws of heredity on the basis of his studies conducted on the Garden Pea. For this reason, he is remembered as the Father of Heredity. In the present century, much more has been learnt about the mechanism of heredity. Much of the credit for this research goes to Morgan Hunt, an American biologist who has added to our genetic knowledge tremendously by way of his experiments on the butterfly Drosophila.

SEX-LINKED GENES AND RELATED DISORDERS The X chromosome may carry either dominant or recessive genes, the Y chromosome carries a few genes dominant for some male sexual characteristics, but otherwise carries only recessive genes. Thus, most recessive characteristics carried by a man’s X chromosome (received from his mother) are expressed since they are not blocked by dominant genes. For example, colour-blindness is a recessive sex-linked characteristic. A man will be colour-blind if he inherits a colour-blind gene on the X chromosome received from mother. Females are less often colour-blind, because a colour-blind female has to have both a colour-blind father and a mother who is either colour-blind or who carries a recessive gene for colour-blindness. A number of genetically determined disorders are linked to abnormalities of the 23rd pair of chromosomes, or by recessive genes carried by this pair. They are called sex-linked disorders. CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES: On rare occasions, a female may be born with only one chromosome instead of the usual XX. Such a condition is referred to as Turner’s Syndrome. Sometimes, when the 23rd chromosome fails to divide properly, the developing organism ends up with an extra X or Y chromosome. An individual with XXY condition is said to be suffering from the Klinefelter’s syndrome. Such a person is physically a male, but with marked feminine traits. A person born with XYY composition will be known as supermale, a person with exaggerated male features.

THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

The living world consists of millions of species and how they came into being has been a great mystery all along. Several attempts have been made to account for this vast variety of living beings prominent among which are as follow: 1. Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection: Originally propounded by Charles Darwin in his book Origin of

Species in 1859, this theory says that nature favours the perpetuation of those species which have more chances of survival in future.

2. Lamarck’s Theory of Use and Disuse of Organs: This theory proposes that those organs which have

some utility for a particular animal are retained, while those which do not have any utility for it, fall into disuse and are consequently lost in the next generation, after a no. of such generations have come.

3. Hugo de Varies’ Theory of Mutations: This theory believes that evolution is a sudden process of

change, not a slow and continuous process as proposed by Darwin and Lamarck.



INFECTIOUS DISEASES These are conveyed from one person to another by air, inanimate objects, water, wounds and direct physical contact with the affected person e.g. small-pox, cholera and dysentery, tetanus, cholera (through flies), malaria (through mosquitoes), typhus (by lice), AIDS, Syphilis, Herpes( all three by sexual contact), common cold etc. Certain terms are used to describe the method of occurrence of infectious diseases:- Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis of lungs is called Phthisis or Consumption. It is caused by tubercle bacillus-weak chest, dusty occupation, over-work, chronic worry, starvation, intemperance, early marriage, malaria, influenza, pleurisy; all these increase susceptibility to TB by lowering general vitality. Cure. B.C.G. vaccine; use of Streptomycin and Rifampicin. Smallpox: It is caused by a virus. The onset is sudden, with headache and backache followed by vomiting, fever and running of the nose. Eruption on the skin, small red pimples become pocks on the third day. Scabs fall on the 14th day leaving behind pits or scars on the skin. Cholera: It is caused by cholera vibrio. Characterized by passing copious colourless stools and also vomiting, pain in legs and back, cramps, suppression of urine and collapse. Malaria: Bite of female anopheles mosquito. Malarial parasites (protozoa) enter red-blood corpuscles where they multiply till the red blood corpuscles burst. The process is repeated. Plasmodium is the causal microbe in usual cases. However, a fatal type of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum (which is spread through mosquitoes) Symptoms: Repeated attacks of high fever with shivering and a feeling of cold, and its going away with sweating. Quinine, obtained from the bark of Cinchona is widely used in cases of malaria. Filaria: It is caused by the bite of a male mosquito-it generally occurs in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and practically all those places with poor drainage. Other important diseases carried through the bites of insects are Kala-Azar: By the bite of bed bug. African sleeping sickness: By Tse-tse fly (Trypanosome gambiense -causal microbe) Diabetes: Inability of pancreas to secrete sufficient insulin to make use of sugar in the food. The excess sugar is excreted through urine. Typhoid : Typhoid bacillus. Infection conveyed mostly through water or milk. Pyorrhea: An infection of gums which causes edges of the tooth sockets to bleed easily. In later stages, there is constant discharge of pus. Mumps: The swelling of the salivary glands in front of the ears which makes the face look dull. Fluid diet and rest in bed is the best cure. Rabies or Hydrophobia: A disease caused by the bite of a mad dog, cat or jackal. There is no cure, until the symptoms have developed. The best treatment is inoculation invented by Louis Pasteur. Diphtheria: It is a children’s disease, which causes the inflammation of the throat. It is highly infectious, and the best way to fight it is immunize the children by diphtheria vaccine. Poliomyelitis: Infantile paralysis. It is a viral infection of the nerves of movement. Usually the muscles affected are those of legs or arms, but if the breathing organs are affected, the results are disastrous. Polio begins with sore throat, fever and sometimes vomiting. The Salk vaccine prevents infection. Meningitis: It means inflammation of the meninges. Encephalitis : This is an infection of the brain caused by a virus.



AIDS: The Acquired Human Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome is caused by the infections of HIV-3 virus. Symptoms include unexplained loss of weight, opportunistic infections like pneumonia, TB etc. So far, there is no known cure for this disease. It is spread by means of shared syringes, sexual intercourse etc.

VACCINATION

A vaccine is a biological preparation which gives the vaccinated person immunity from a specified illness for a considerable period of time. In most of the vaccines, either dead or weakened germs of a particular diseases (the germs are always of the same disease against which the person is to be secured) are injected (or given orally in certain cases) inside the person’s body. The germs on entering the body prompt the body to create its internal defences against the germs, in the form of antibodies (antibodies are those chemicals which are released by the body to fight any external attack of a disease). Since the germs injected are too weak to cause any disease but the body is ready with its own defences to fight it, a vaccine provides protection against a disease for a considerable period. So in future, if an attack of a disease takes place, the body is always ready to fight it. It can be likened to a defence force put on constant alert which can repel the enemy attack any time.

NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES

Those diseases which are caused by the lack of essential ingredients or vitamins in food such as scurvy, rickets, anemia. Scurvy: It is due to the deficiency of vitamin C. Vitamin C is found in fruits and vegetables like lemons, oranges, tomatoes, etc. The gums swell and bleed, and there are bruises underneath the skin. Rickets: A disease of bones caused by the deficiency of Vitamin D. A disease (caused by the deficiency of vitamin B) and characterized by gastric disturbance, skin eruption and nervous derangement. Beri-Beri: Caused by the lack of vitamin B1, which is mostly found in the outer covering of grains. People eating polished rice polished rice suffer from it. The symptoms are neuritis (degeneration of the nerves) which leads to the weakness of muscles, swelling of the limbs, etc. Marasmus and Kwashiorkor: Both are caused due to Protein Energy Malnutrition. Infections: Are diseases caused by the introduction of germs in the body: (I) by direct contact, (ii) through air, (iii) through food and water, (iv) by insects, or even through clothes. Contagious Diseases: Are those which are caused by actual physical contact with the patient. Calories of Heat: An adult requires 3,500 food calories per day. These are supplied by: 1. Proteins (1st class) - 250 calories 2. Proteins (2nd class) - 250 calories 3. Fats - 930 calories 4. Carbohydrates - 2050 calories Food calorie or large calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram (1,000 grams) of water through 10C. An average resident of rural areas in India needs 2400 Calories per day while the requirement per day in rural areas is 2200 Calories of food. BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY: Of all the bones in the human body, stapes (the ear-bone) is the smallest while fibula (the thigh-bone) is the biggest. Preservatives are those substances which do not allow the organic substances to decompose, e.g., common salt. Examples include citric acid, Sodium Metabenzoate.



FOOD AND NUTRITION

Our diet contains substances known as proximal principles, essential for maintenance of life and health. Fats and Energy Producers: Fats are in oils, ghee and butter. Carbohydrates are in sugars, starches, etc. Unsaturated fats are good from the health point of view, and are advised for heart-patients. Saturated fats create cholesterol in the arteries, which can block them, leading to heart problems. Carbohydrates, Proteins and Vitamins are Body builders. Found in eggs, meat, pulses beans, milk and cheese. Water and Vitamins are necessary for health. Balanced diet: Is one which contains all the necessary proximal principles in the right proportion required for the maintenance of health. We cannot get all these in a single article of food. To get these in right proportion, we have to mix certain articles in our diet and thus we require a `mixed diet’ or a balanced diet. Vitamins are found naturally in certain foods and the absence of any of these leads to one or the other of the ‘deficiency disease’ which may even cause death. Vitamins are both water soluble and fat soluble. Vitamin A: It is a general health-giving vitamin and it increases resistance to infection and tones up the whole system. It ensures good appetite, promotes growth and makes for long life. Its deficiency causes night blindness, disorders of skin and respiratory diseases. Found in milk, butter, egg yolk, ghee, carrot, tomatoes, fresh leafy and yellow vegetables, fresh fruits and cod liver oil. Vitamin B: Present in cereals, peas and beans. Protects the body from nerve diseases such as beri-beri, pellagra, and it cures pernicious anaemia, degeneration of sex glands and enlargement of liver and adrenals. Vitamin C: Ensures healthy teeth, bones, and protects the body against scurvy. Present in fresh vegetables, orange, lemon, lettuce, tomato, cabbage, turnip. Vitamin D: Present in milk, butter, ghee, cod liver oil, yolk of eggs, and it is also produced under the skin by rays of the sun. Promotes bone formation and prevents rickets. Vitamins E: It has vital influence on organs of reproduction. Its absence causes sterility. It is present in germinating wheat. Vitamin K: Found in fish, oats, wheat. It helps in coagulation of blood. Blood Groups : Dr. Costtello and later Dr. Moss in 1910 were responsible for classification of blood; the blood groups are AB, A, B, and O. Patients must be given transfusion of blood of their own group with the exception of Group O, which is universal. Another classification of blood groups is done on the basis of presence or absence of a chemical factor known as Rh factor (derived from Rhesus monkey). If a person has Rh in his blood, he will be referred to as Rh+ while an Rh negative person will not be having such a factor in his blood. This aspect also needs to be considered while transfusing blood because mixing Rh+ with Rh – blood leads to agglutination (clumping together) and immediate death. GLANDS: A gland is a group of cells which makes some useful chemical for the use of the body in its various reactions. There are two kinds of glands in the human body: 1. Exocrine glands - as liver, spleen, pancreas. The secretions are transported to the desired part by means of

a special channel called duct. 2. Endocrine Or Ductless glands - as pituitary( The Master Gland), suprarenal, thyroid. The secretions are

transported by means of blood to the desired part of the body. (i) Liver: The largest gland is in the body, it performs the following functions in the body - (1) Stores excessive sugar in the form of glycogen (insoluble carbohydrate), which helps in the digestion of fats.



Pancreas: It is both an ordinary as well as an endocrine gland. As an ordinary gland, it secretes pancreatic juice which, through pancreatic duct, goes to duodenum to help digestion there. As an Endocrine gland, it secretes insulin which helps utilizing sugar in the body, and its deficiency causes ‘diabetes’, a disease in which the patient passes sugar along with urine. Spleen: White blood corpuscles are formed here Pituitary Gland: Its secretion regulates growth and stature of the body, milk secretion in mammals, and influences sex organs. Adrenal Glands: They are small, yellowish glands just above the kidneys one on each side. Their secretion is known as adrenaline and noradrenaline. This secretion is released in emergencies and prepares the body to fight such situations by releasing excessive energy. Thyroid: Brownish red body situated in front of the neck. Its abnormal increase in size is known as goitre. Its secretion, known as thyroxine, is rich in iodine.

SENSE ORGANS (a) Sense of touch is due to touch corpuscles in the skin. (b) Sense of taste is due to taste buds in the papillae of the tongue. Tip of the tongue is most sensitive to

sweet taste, and the back part is sensitive to bitter taste. (c) Sense of sight: To see an object, its image must be formed on the retina. Convexity of the lens of the eye

increases when the object is nearer and it decreases when the object is far away to get the image in each case on the retina. The property of the lens by which it is able to adjust its convexity to form distinct image of the object at various distances from it on the retina is called accommodation. When ciliary muscles do no work properly to bring about accommodation of the lens, the eye becomes defective.

The human retina contains two types of cells: 1. Cone Cells-Meant for seeing during the day, also responsible for colour vision 2. Rod Cells: Meant for seeing in low intensity lights. Since humans have many more cone cells as compared to rod cells, they are much better at seeing the things in bright intensity as compared to other. Humans see with both the eyes together and both the eyes form separate images of an object. Those two separate images are then fused in the brain to create an impression of depth. (Otherwise, the human retina is a 2-D structure, does not give perception of depth). This difference in images in the two eyes is referred to as binocular disparity. (i) Myopia (or short-sightedness). When a person can see nearer objects distinctly but not distant ones, he is

said to be suffering from myopia. In this case the convexity of the lens of his eye cannot be sufficiently decreased to form the image of the distant object on the retina. It is remedied by the use of concave glasses.

(ii) Hypermetropia (or long-sightedness). When a person can see distant objects clearly but not the never he is said to be suffering from hypermetropia. It is remedied by the use of convex glasses.

(iii) Astigmatism. The person can see vertical liens clearly but not the horizontal ones, or vice versa. It is remedied by the use of cylindrical glasses.

(iv) Colour Blindness: If a person cannot distinguish between different colours (especially between red and green), he is said to be suffering from this defect.



SCIENTIFIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Physical Quantity Unit (International System)

Mass Kilogram Length Metre Time Second Resistance Ohm Electric Current Ampere Conductance Mho Capacitance Faraday Inductance Henry Energy Joule (107 ergs)

Work Joule Force Newton Power Watt (I Horse Power = 746 Watt) Heat Calorie Temperature Celsius (Kelvin) Pressure Newton/sq. metre Luminous Intensity Candela Radio-activity Curie Sound Intensity Decibel Frequency Hertz (Cycle/sec) Viscosity Centipoise Astronomical Distance Light Year Wavelength Angstrom



INDIAN POLITY THE PREAMBLE

ABBREVIATIONS USED 1. CAA - Constitutional Amendment act 2. SC - Supreme Court 3. HC - High Court 4. LS - Loksabha 5. RS - Rajyasabha 6. PM - Prime Minister 7. Art. - Article 8. AGI- Attorney General of India 9. CAG - Comptroller and Auditor-General of India 10. CEC - Chief Election Commissioner 11. SLA - State Legislative Assembly 12. UT - Union Territory

INTRODUCTION TO THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

The Constitution of a country sets out the fundamental canons of governance to be followed in that country and also delineates the division of power, privileges and responsibilities between different organs of government. The Indian Constitution, prepared after hectic deliberations by the Constituent Assembly, is possibly the lengthiest document of its kind in the world and has far more detailed provisions than any other comparable document. The tradition of having a written constitution started with the USA, which had adopted the first-ever written constitution in the world, after the end of the Civil War there in 1776. Much water has flown down the Ganges since. Still, England does not have a written constitution till date. The British judiciary and other parts of the polity work on the basis of conventions that have been evolved after centuries of collective experience. The Indian Constitution is the outcome of the debate, deliberations and research of a sovereign Constituent Assembly. Various Subject Committees like the Committee On Fundamental Rights and Union Constitution Committee had submitted their respective proposals and after a general discussion on all the proposals, a Drafting Committee chaired by Dr. BR Ambedkar was appointed. The Drafting Committee had the full authority to add, modify or delete any of the proposals submitted by the committees. The finalized draft of he Indian Constitution got the signature of the President of the Constituent Assembly, Dr. Rajender Prasad on Nov 26, 1949, which is referred to as the Date of Passing. Since the Constituent Assembly, which finalized the Constitution was duly elected by means of indirect election by the people of India, The Constitution of India derives its authority from the people of India.

SOURCES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

The Indian Constitution has borrowed heavily from other constitutions of the world and can be called a “beautiful patchwork”. India could not have afforded to experiment with something entirely new at a crucial juncture in its history. So the founding fathers of the Indian Constitution preferred to rely on the time-tested value of experience elsewhere and adopted those provisions which had proved to be successful and workable in other countries. Some of the prominent features which have been borrowed are as under. Feature Source / Inspiration 1. Fundamental Rights USA 2. The Parliamentary System of Government UK

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN, SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to ensure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status, and of opportunity; and to promote among them all; FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY, this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION



3. Directive Principles of State Policy Ireland (Eire) 4. Emergency Provisions Germany (Third Reich) 5. Amendment Procedure South Africa 6. Permeable To The Constitution of India France 7. Federal Model of Governance Canada The Preamble is, technically, not a part of the Constitution (and this has been confirmed by the SC also), but it contains the basic philosophy of the whole Constitution and the ideals of the constitution-makers. It can be used by the Courts to help them in interpretation of the Constitution in certain matters where the Constitution itself is silent.

THE FEDERAL SYSTEM

Article 1 of the Indian Constitution describes India as a “Union of States”. The term “Union” implies that I. the Indian federation is not the result of a voluntary agreement by the states themselves. As is well known, after India’s independence, more than 550 states were integrated into the Union of India by the then Home Minister, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, leading to his being branded as the “Iron Man of India”. So their inclusion in India is purely involuntary. II. the components of the Indian Union have no freedom to secede from it. (unlike the erstwhile USSR or the present-day USA where such freedom was/is vested in the states). The Indian federal system is unique in the sense that inspite of its being a federal set-up, it still does not have many features characteristic of a typical federal set-up (like the USA). In general, the Indian set-up has been mostly described as quasi-federal or semi-federal due to the fact that the balance of power tilts heavily in favour of the Centre i.e. the states enjoy comparatively lesser powers in most spheres as compared with the Centre. Some of the noteworthy points of difference, which illustrate the predominant role of the Centre Vs. States are as follows. I. The States in India do not have any separate constitution of their own (except Jammu and Kashmir which has a separate constitution as per the special agreement signed at the time of its accession to India). They derive their authority from the same Constitution of India. II. The States are dependent on the Centre for grants-in-aid and plan assistance to meet their development expenditures. The taxes collected by the States are not wholly appropriated by them, but they are distributed among the States as per the Finance Commission recommendations. III. The States do not have any say in the matter of Constitutional amendments (except for a few instances where their consultation may be obtained by the President or in certain special matters where at least half of the States must ratify the legislation after being passed by the Parliament)) IV. The Centre can alter, modify or change the boundaries, area or name of any state. V. There is no separate citizenship of a state (Single citizenship prevails in India whichever state a person is living in India) unlike the US where every state has a separate citizenship apart from the Union Citizenship (Double Citizenship).

POINTS TO REMEMBER Date of first sitting of the Constituent Assembly - Dec 9, 1946 Date of Passing of the Constitution - Nov 26, 1949 Date of Commencement of the Constitution - Jan. 26, 1950 Chairman, Constituent Assembly - Dr. Rajender Prasad Chairman, Drafting Committee - Dr. BR Ambedkar Advisor, Constituent Assembly - BN Rao Chairman, First Sitting - Sachidanand Sinha



VI. The President may assume all executive and legislative powers of any state if he is satisfied that the government of a state cannot be carried out according constitutional provisions (Art. 356)

TERRITORY OF THE UNION

The territory of India comprises the entire geographical territory over which the sovereignty of India, for the time being, prevails. On the other hand, the Union of India includes only those component units, i.e., the states, which share power with the Centre. The UTs are centrally administered areas governed by the President acting through an Administrator appointed by him. As on date, the territory of India consists of 29 states, 6 UTs and 1 National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT- Delhi is neither a full state nor a UT). The States Reorganization Act, 1956 reorganized the boundaries of different Indian States in order to meet local and linguistic demands. Interestingly, the Union Parliament can 1. form a new state 2. increase the area of any state 3. diminish the area of any state 4. alter the boundaries of any state 5. or alter the name of any state (Art. 4) by passing a resolution in both Houses of Parliament. Making use of this provision, several landmark changes have been brought about in the political composition of the Indian territory, some of which are found in the table below.

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS The Constitution of India embodies a number of Fundamental Rights in Part III of the Constitution to act as limitations on the Executive (government) as well as legislative powers (law-making). Though the FRs are modelled on the US pattern, the Indian Constitution makes a compromise between the principles of Parliamentary Sovereignty and Judicial Supremacy. In the US, the American President enjoys the power to nullify any decision made by the Federal Court while in the UK, whatever the Parliament says, is law. The Indian Constitution is a via-media between these two extremes. Herein follows a survey of some major Fundamental Rights granted under the Indian Constitution. Art 14: Says that the State shall guarantee equality to all persons before law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India. This provision debars the State from making any special privileges in favour of or any discrimination against any person in matters of application of any kind of law in India. The only exceptions to this provision are that 1. The President/ Governor shall not be answerable to any Court for performing the duties and actions connected with his office. 2. No criminal proceedings an be started or continued against any sitting President/ Governor.

ACT/LEGISLATION CHANGE 1. States Reorganization Act, 1956 Andhra, Kerala formed (Andhra-first state

on linguistic basis) 2. Bombay Reorganization Act, 1960 Gujarat, Maharashtra born as new states 3. The Panjab Reorganization Act, 1966 Panjab, Haryana and Chandigarh created 4. Mysore State Act, 1973 The name Mysore changed to Karnataka 5. State of Mizoram Act, 1986 Mizoram, earlier a UT, made a State 6. State of Arunachal Pradesh Act, 1986 Arunachal Pradesh elevated to statehood 7. Goa, Daman and Diu Reorganization Act, 1987 Goa made a state 8. Madhya Pradesh Reorganization Act, 2000 Chattisgarh was created 9. Bihar Reorganization Act, 2000 Jharkhand was made a new State 10. Uttar Pradesh Reorganisation Act Uttranchal was created



3. Only civil petitions (which claim compensation) can be filed against a sitting President or a Governor by means of a proper written notice to his office. 4. Foreign ambassadors and other Sovereigns enjoy these immunities. Art 15: Says that 1. the State shall not discriminate against any citizen on the grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them. 2. No citizen can be denied access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment on any of the above grounds. However, the State is authorized to make any special provisions for special sections of the society keeping in view their social conditions. Exercising this power, the government has made certain special provisions for women in India. For instance, the job reservations for SC/STs, criminal immunity for women in cases of adultery etc. Art 16 : Provides for equality of opportunity in matters of public employment i.e. government service. And prohibits any discrimination in this matter on the grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth or any of them. This article does not prohibit any kind of reservation/preferential treatment for any class of citizens who happen to be underprivileged or depressed for instance SC/STs, OBCs etc. Art 17- Prohibits untouchability in any form in India. As on date, any person 1. refusing admission to any person to any hospital, dispensary or educational institution. or 2. preventing any person from worshipping or offering prayers in any place of worship or 3. insulting a member of the Scheduled Castes on grounds of untouchability or 4. justifying or preaching untouchability in any form is punishable under the Untouchability Act, 1955 (as amended and up-to-date) Art 18 – Abolishes all titles which can be used as an addition to one’s name. However, this does not prevent the universities, the military or the government from conferring any honour on men of merit. In case of military or academic titles, the use of the title with the name of the person is allowed. Art. 19 - The Six Freedoms – All citizens shall have the right to a. freedom of speech and expression b. assemble peacefully and without arms c. form associations or unions. d. move freely throughout the territory of India. e. reside or settle in any part of India f. practice any profession, occupation or business. The government is empowered to impose any reasonable restrictions on any of these rights in the interests of law, public order, unity and integrity of India, friendly relations with foreign countries, decency or morality. It is to be noted that the Press in India derives its right to free expression from this article only. There is no separate article dealing with freedom of the Press in India. Art 20 – Prohibits 1. retrospective criminal legislation. The government cannot make any criminal law effective from a past date. 2. double punishment for the same offence. Art 21 – Guarantees personal liberty by providing that No person can be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to law Art. 22 – Contains safeguards against unreasonable arrest and detention by saying that 1. No such person, who is arrested, shall be detained in custody without being informed, as soon as possible, of the grounds for such arrest.



2. Such a person has a right to seek legal advice and consultation 3. The person concerned has to be produced in a Court of Law within 24 hours of arrest. Art 23 – Prohibits exploitation of humans beings as bonded labour, begaar or similar forms of unpaid, involuntary service. Art 24 - Bans the employment of any child below 14 years in any factory, mine or any other dangerous employment. Art 25 – India is a secular state i.e. is impartial and neutral towards all religions. The policy of secularism is made clear by provisions like 1. There is no “state” religion in India as is there in Pakistan, Sri Lanka and many other countries. 2. Every person is guaranteed the right to adopt, observe and propagate any religion of his liking subject only to public order, morality and health. 3. no religious education can be provided in any educational institution financed wholly by the government. Art 29 – The government will not impose upon a minority any culture other than the community’s own culture. Art 30 – Gives religious minorities the right to run their educational institutions in the manner they like and the government cannot discriminate against them in the matter of financial grants. Art 32 – Provides constitutional remedies for enforcement of fundamental rights granted in the Constitution, saying that The right to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of any of the fundamental rights is guaranteed. Consequently any person who feels that any of his fundamental rights has been violated can file a suitable writ petition in the Supreme Court directly to seek justice in the matter. Such appeals, however, can be made to the High Courts also under Art. 226. Five major types of writ petitions can be filed under this provision to secure the enforcement of fundamental rights: 1. Habeas Corpus: Literally, it means to produce the body of the person. This can be used in cases where a person has been arrested and detained without any lawful authority. In such cases, the Court can order the person to be realized if sufficient reasons do not exist for his arrest and detention. 2. Mandamus: Means a command and demands some activity on the part of the person to whom it is addressed. Briefly, it commands the person to perform some public or quasi-public legal duty, which he has failed to do. 3. Prohibition: The writ of prohibition is issued by the Supreme Court / High Court to a lower court forbidding it from continuing proceedings in excess of its powers in particular case or to arrogate a power which it does not enjoy under the law. 4. Certiorari: Means quashing the decision of a judicial tribunal so that its jurisdiction is properly used. 5. Quo Warranto: This proceeding lies in cases in which the Court enquires into the legality of a claim made by a party to a public office (the office must be created by a law or the Constitution). The FRs can be suspended only during Emergency by President’s order, as will be discussed shortly.



FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES The 42nd Amendment Act has introduced a set of 10 Fundamental Duties to be observed by all the citizens of India. Please note carefully that there is no constitutional provision for direct enforcement of these duties. The duties are 1. To abide by the Constitution and respect the National Flag and the National Anthem. 2. To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom. 3. To protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India. 4. To defend the country 5. To promote brotherhood among the Indian people. 6. To preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture 7. To protect and improve the natural environment 8. To develop scientific temper and the spirit of enquiry 9. To safeguard public property 10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity.

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

Contained in Part IV of the Indian Constitution, the directive principles are basic guidelines for the government to perform certain things and to achieve certain goals by these actions. Though they are non-justiciable in nature (cannot be enforced in a Court of Law), yet they are treated as fundamental canons in the governance of the country regardless of the political ideology of the party in power at the Centre. Most of these aim at the establishment of the social and economic democracy described in the Preamble to the Constitution. Some of the more important directives and the extent of the progress made in implementing them is discussed below. The directive under Art.39 has made one of the more remarkable progress stories so far as its implementation is concerned. It enjoins upon the State that it should try to ensure that ownership and control of material resources of the community are distributed so as to serve common good. In pursuance of this goal, intermediaries or zamindari has been abolished and land reform laws have been enacted in many states to ensure that the agricultural land is not monopolized by a few people. Under the relevant laws, surplus land (beyond the permissible limit, which varies from state to state) is distributed among the landless labourers. Of course, it is another story that land reforms in India have not been very successful due to vested political interests and the unwillingness of the landlords to give surplus land to the government. The directive in Art. 40 enjoins upon the government to have village panchayats as units of local self-government. With the 73rd Amendment Act, this has become a reality, wherein all villages in the country are supposed to have panchayats and regular elections are conducted after every five years. It might be noted that the village panchayats enjoy both civic and judicial authorities to an extent. Art. 45 contains a directive to the government to ensure Free Elementary Education upto 14 years of age. It has been made into a Fundamental Right, with the passage of the 93rd CAA by Parliament.



Art. 47 advises the enactment of prohibition of liquor and intoxicating drinks and drugs. Subsequent to this, many states have initiated some steps in this direction, but the results so far have not been very encouraging. Art. 44 : Enjoins upon the State to have a common set of personal laws ( personal laws deal with topics like marriage, divorce, succession etc.) which at the moment are different for different religious communities. The issue has been pending for want of sufficient political will.

PROCEDURE FOR AMENDMENT

The Indian Constitution is both flexible and rigid and contains many provisions to modify, add, delete or change it according to the changing needs and circumstances. An easier method has been prescribed for changing those provisions, which do not primarily affect the federal system. This has been done in two ways, 1. By providing that the changes in certain constitutional provisions shall not be deemed to be amendments. 2. Other provisions are changeable by following an amendment procedure described in Art. 368. (Even this has two categories)

I. A Constitutional Amendment Bill may be initiated in either house of Parliament and can be passed in each house by following the procedure below:

1. A majority (more than 50%) of the total membership of the House must be present on the day of voting 2. And out of those present and voting, at least two-thirds must vote for the bill. 3. If the above two conditions are fulfilled, the bill is deemed to have been passed in the respective House. It goes to the other House thereafter, where the same procedure is repeated. Upon passage in both the Houses in this manner, the bill goes to the President for his assent. The bill becomes an act only after getting presidential assent. II. However, if an amendment bill seeks to make any changes to any of the following provisions namely – A. The manner of Presidential elections. B. Extent of Executive powers of the Union and the States. C. The Supreme Courts and High Courts. D. Distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the States. E. Representation of the States in Parliament. The amendment bill in such cases must be ratified by at least 50% of the State Legislatures before the bill goes for Presidential assent. The President cannot refuse assent to a Constitution Amendment Bill as is the provision in case of ordinary bills. Thus the President is not competent to veto any amendment bill presented to him for assent. The States in India cannot initiate any bill for constitutional amendment. Notably, the procedure for a Joint Sitting of the Houses to resolve a deadlock between them in such cases, is not applicable to amendment bills. In essence, if one house passes an amendment bill and the other house does not, the bill lapses and will have to be introduced afresh in order to pass it.



THE UNION EXECUTIVE

The President and the Vice-President At the head of the Union Executive stands the President of India, who is elected by indirect election i.e. by an electoral college, in accordance with the system of proportional representation by a single transferable vote. This electoral college comprises A. Elected members of both Houses of Parliament

B. Elected members of State Legislative Assemblies Eligibility Conditions In order to contest for Indian Presidency, a person must 1. be a citizen of India 2. have completed 35 years of age 3. be eligible election to the Loksabha 4. not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or any State Government or under any local or other authority subject to the control of Central/State Governments. However, the sitting President or the Vice-President, the State Governor and a Minister at the Centre or in states are eligible to contest for presidential elections. The President is not a member of either House of Parliament or any State Legislature, and if such a person becomes President, he will be deemed to have vacated his seat in that House the moment he assumes Presidential office. His office tenure is 5 years from the date of assuming office, but he will be eligible for re-election. There is no bar on the number of times for which a person can become the President of India. However, his office may terminate before 5 years in case of 1. his resignation in writing which is addressed to the Vice-President of India 2. his removal by impeachment.

THE BASIC FEATURES THEORY Until 1971, it was widely thought that since the Indian Constitution does not contain any mention of the provisions which can be amended under this article or not, any part of the Constitution was amendable provided it fulfilled the requirements laid down in Art. 368. But in the legendary Keshvanand Bharati Vs. State of Kerala Case, it was ruled (overruling its own judgment in the Golak Nath Case) by the SC that though not expressly mentioned, there are certain provisions in the Constitution, which make up its “basic structure”, and therefore are not changeable at all. This decision is widely known as the “basic features theory”.

The basic features as spelt out by the SC are: 1. Sovereignty and territorial integrity of India 2. The federal system 3. Judicial Review 4. Parliamentary system of government

Strangely enough, fundamental rights have not been included in this theory. Consequently, in theory at least, it is competent for the Parliament to change or abolish any or all FRs contained in the Constitution. Very recently, secularism has been included in this list by the SC in the BJP Ruled States Vs. Union of India Case.

The above attempt of the SC to assert its authority was nullified by the 42nd AA which aimed at excluding all kinds of judicial review by the SC. Reacting to this, the SC ruled in the Minerva Mills Case that judicial review is one of the basic features and that it can not be taken away by any law. Summing up this complicated scenario, the net position is like this: 1. Any part of the Constitution is amendable according to Art. 368 provided it does not change any of the “basic features” mentioned above. 2. No Constituent Assembly needs to be convened nor any referendum needs to be conducted to make any amendment to the Constitution.



Impeachment (Art. 61): Impeachment is a semi-judicial procedure to remove the President of India. The President of India can be removed from office on one ground only i.e. violation of Constitution. The parliament may initiate a motion of impeachment in either House, which is then investigated by the other House. 1. A resolution of impeachment must be moved at least after 14 days of written notice, signed by at least one-fourths of the total members of that House. 2. The resolution is then discussed is passed by at least two-thirds of the total membership of the House. The President has the right to defend himself during such investigations. If, subsequently, a resolution is passed by at least two-thirds of the total membership of the House in which it originated, it will have the effect of removing the President from his post with effect from the date of passing. Emoluments and Allowances The President gets a monthly salary of Rs. 50000/- only apart from an official residence for use (free of cost). He is also eligible for an annual pension, if he is not re-elected as President. Normally, elections for choosing a new President are held before the expiry of the term of the outgoing President. Until a new President assumes charge, the outgoing President must continue to discharge his duties. In case of any vacancy in the President’s office due to death, resignation, impeachment etc., the elections must be held within 6 months of occurrence of such a vacancy. In such cases, the Vice-President discharges his duties. Any dispute regarding Presidential election shall be decided by the Supreme Court of India, whose decision will be exclusive and final in this regard. Powers, Privileges, Duties The Constitution says that the all the executive powers of the Union are vested in the President, making him the Head of the Indian State. Executive functions are those, which are left after taking out legislative and judicial functions. But these powers are circumscribed by many provisions like 1. The executive powers are exercisable by the President, in accordance with the advice of his Council of Ministers (Art 74). 2. However, the President may send back any Cabinet resolution, asking the Cabinet to reconsider it. But if the resolution again comes back to him for his assent, it is obligatory for him to sign it. The right to send back any resolution to the Cabinet can be exercised only once. The net result is that the President cannot act at his discretion or “sweet will” except in certain marginal cases referred to by the Supreme Court. Different Powers A. Administrative Powers: The Indian President remains the formal Head of the Union Administration and as such, all executive functions of the Union are expressed to be taken in his name. Further, all officers of the Union shall be subordinate to him and “He will have a right to be informed of the affairs of the Union”. (Art 78) Put simply, it means that he can ask for any file/document or information relating to the affairs of the Union. The administrative power includes the power to appoint and remove certain high dignitaries of the State. The President enjoys the power to appoint 1. The Prime Minister 2. Other Central Ministers on PM’s advice 3. The Attorney-General of India 4. The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India 5. Supreme Court Judges including the CJI 6. High Court Judges including the Chief Justice 7. The Governor of a State 8. The Finance Commission 9. The Union Public Service Commission and Joint Commission for a group of States 10. A special officer for SC/STs 11. A Commission on Scheduled Areas



12. A Commission on Official Languages 13. A special officer for Linguistic Minorities 14. The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners 15. A Commission for Backward Classes He is competent to remove 1. the Union Ministers (on the advice of the PM) 2. the Attorney-General of India 3. the Chairman or a member of the Union Public Service Commission on the report of the Supreme Court. 4. a Supreme Court/High Court Judge/Election Commissioner, on an address of Parliament. B. Military Powers: The President is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces in India and as such, has the right to declare war or peace with any country. However, such powers are subject to parliamentary control. C. Diplomatic Powers: The task of negotiating international treaties and agreements belongs to the President, who acts according to ministerial advice in such matters. This again is subject to ratification by the Parliament. D. Legislative Powers : The President is component part of the Union Parliament (though not a member of either House) and enjoys the following legislative powers : 1. Summoning, Prorogation, Dissolution: The President has the power to summon (call) or prorogue (end the

session) the Houses of Parliament and to dissolve the Loksabha. 2. He also enjoys the right to call a Joint Sitting of both the Houses to resolve a deadlock over any bill.( Art

108) 3. He addresses the first session after each general election and at the first session of each year. 4. He can nominate 12 members to the Rajya Sabha from persons with special achievements/experience in

literature, science, art and social service. Similarly, he has the right to nominate 2 Anglo-Indians to the Loksabha, if he feels their representation is not sufficient. It is obligatory to obtain Presidential sanction beforehand in case of certain bills like

1. a bill for forming a new state/change of state boundaries 2. a money bill 3. a bill affecting taxation in which states are also interested A Bill becomes an Act only after getting Presidential assent. The President is competent to take any of the following steps if a Bill is presented to him for his assent: A. He may give assent to the Bill enabling it to become a law B. He may withhold his assent C. He may return the Bill for reconsideration ( except Money Bills) to the Parliament. If the Bill is re-presented

to him in this case after reconsideration, it is obligatory for him to give his assent to it. The above is true of ordinary bills (bills except Money and Amendment Bills).



The President of India cannot refuse to sign a bill. At the most, he can withhold his assent from the bill, which is the equivalent of not approving a Bill. Also, there is no time-limit prescribed for him to give his assent to a Bill. Theoretically speaking, he may keep the Bill in his pocket for an indefinite time. An example in this regard is Mr. Zail Singh’s, who kept the Postal Amendment Bill with him and it lapsed without his approval once he retired from office. This type of veto power is known as “Pocket Veto”. In case of sending back the Bill for re-consideration, if the Bill again comes back to him, the only effect of sending back the bill is suspending the process of assent for some days. This is referred to as “Suspensive Veto”. Ordinance-Making Power The President enjoys the power to issue an ordinance at a time, when the Parliament is not in session. An ordinance, for all practical purposes, has the effect of a normal law passed by the Parliament. This power is exercised by him on Cabinet advice. The ordinance issued by the President must be passed by the Parliament within 6 weeks of reassembly otherwise it will cease to be in operation. (Art 123) The Pardoning Powers He can grant pardon, reprieve, respite, suspension, remission or commutation in punishment in cases where death sentence is awarded by the Courts (even by a Court-Martial). He is the only authority for pardoning a death sentence. Miscellaneous Powers 1. Power to draw up and notify the lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes for each state separately and UTs. 2. To refer any matter to the Supreme Court for its advice (Art. 143) Emergency Powers (Part XVIII) Three types of emergency have been prescribed under the Constitution to deal with exigencies. The President can A. declare a “Proclamation of Emergency” due to threat to the security of India or any part of it. It can be imposed even in the anticipation of such a threat. The proclamation of emergency must be passed by both Houses with special majority within one month of its issuance. It can last for six months by passing each such resolution by the requisite majority. Because of war, external attack or armed rebellion. (Art.352). An example is the infamous emergency imposed in 1975 by Mrs. Indira Gandhi. Please note that whenever the word “Emergency” alone is used, it refers to the National Emergency. During such an Emergency, the Union can direct the States to perform their Executive functions in the manner specified by it, thus bringing the States under the complete control of the Union (without suspending it). During such times, the Parliament will be authorized to make laws in respect of the State List also (which it normally does not do). Whenever a proclamation of emergency is issued, the rights granted by Art. 19 are immediately suspended. Any other FR can be suspended depending on a special presidential order except the Right To Life. But since the emergency order has to be ultimately approved by the Parliament and it is within its right to disapprove it, the final authority to suspend any FR in India remains the Indian Parliament. B. proclaim a state emergency (Art 356) due to breakdown of governmental machinery in any state if he is satisfied that the government there cannot be carried out according to Constitutional provisions. Such breakdown may occur due to a political deadlock (as in UP where no government could be formed even after election owing to a hung assembly) or failure of the state government to comply with directions of the Union. In such cases, the President suspends the assembly of that state and rules the state through the Governor, who is his nominee. That is why this is popularly known as the “President’s Rule”. It has been applied more than 106 times till date. In such cases, the President may assume to himself any or all of the powers of the State Legislature. Normally, it is imposed for two months initially, and is to be approved by the Parliament. This duration can be extended, however, by six months each upto maximum of three years by passing resolutions in the Parliament.



C. declare a Financial Emergency under Art. 360 if he feels that the creditworthiness of India or any part of it is in danger. The objective of such an emergency is to maintain financial stability of India by controlling the expenditures and by reducing the salaries of all government servants. Such an emergency has never been imposed so far.

THE UNION COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

While the Prime Minister is selected by the President, all other ministers are appointed by him on the advice of the Prime Minister. While selecting a Prime Minister, the President is restricted to the leader of the majority party at the Centre or the person who is in a position to form a government and prove his majority later on. The allocation of portfolios to the Ministers is also done by the President as per the Prime Ministerial advice. The PM is at the head of the Council of Ministers and the Council cannot continue to exist in the event of resignation or death of the Prime Minister. The term Council of Minister refers to all the Ministers, whether Cabinet, State or Deputy Ministers. In reality, there is no classification of ministers in our Constitution. All this done has been following the British practice in this regard. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Loksabha (Art 75). Theoretically, if a no-trust motion is passed against even one of the ministers in the Parliament, the whole Council is supposed to resign as a consequence (which has not taken place so far). The entire Council of Ministers seldom meets as a single body. It is the Cabinet, an inner group within the Council, which takes all major decisions and which shapes the government policy. While Cabinet Ministers can attend all Cabinet meetings as a matter of right, the Deputy Ministers and Ministers of State can come to the meeting only if they are invited. Ministers may be chosen from either House of Parliament and a minister, who is member of one house, has a right to speak and participate in the proceedings of the other House, but he cannot vote there. A person who is not a member of either, can be appointed a minister, but he must get elected to either House of Parliament within 6 months of his appointment.

THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL OF INDIA

The Attorney-General of India is the first law officer of the GOI and he is expected to give advice on legal matters referred to him by the President. He also represents and defends the cases against the GOI in different Courts. The AGI is possibly the only person under the Indian system who can take part in the proceedings of the Parliament or any parliamentary committee, but cannot vote. The AGI is appointed by the President and holds officer at the latter’s pleasure. A person, in order to be appointed the AGI, must have the qualifications, which are required of an SC Judge. He receives a monthly retainer.

THE COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR-GENERAL

The CAG performs the duties of 1. auditing and reporting on all expenditures from the Consolidated Fund of India and the Contingency Fund of India and of each state to determine whether the expenditure has been as per law. 2. auditing and reporting on all trading, manufacturing, profit and loss account etc. kept by any department of the Union or a State. The CAG report is kept before the Parliament and is examined by the Public Accounts Committee of Parliament, which brings to the notice of Parliament any discrepancies found by it.



To be appointed by the President, the CAG will have a normal term of office for 6 years or until 65 years of age, whichever is earlier. However, he may resign any time by writing to the President. Otherwise, the only grounds and mode for his removal are the same as that of an SC Judge i.e. on impeachment by an address of Parliament.

THE UNION LEGISLATURE

Comprises the President, the Loksabha and the Rajyasabha. The Loksabha: Has a mixed composition with a total sanctioned strength of 550 elected members (530 from States and 20 at the most from UTs). A maximum of 2 members from the Anglo-Indian community may be nominated to the Loksabha by the President if he feels that they are not sufficiently represented. Members of the Loksabha are elected by an electoral college of all adult citizens (of not less 18 years and who is not disqualified for non-residence, unsoundness of mind, crime or corrupt or illegal practices- Universal Adult Franchise –Art. 326). The normal duration of a Loksabha is 5 years, unless dissolved earlier by the President. The duration can be increased by a maximum of 1 year at a time only during an Emergency. The Speaker: The Speaker is the person who presides over the Loksabha sittings. Soon after its formation, the new Loksabha chooses its Speaker and the Deputy Speaker. Since the newly –constituted Loksabha is yet to elect a Speaker who can administer the oath of office and secrecy to all the new MPs, the House normally elects a Pro Tem (sort of temporary) Speaker to conduct the business during that time. The Speaker conducts the business of the House as per the Rules of Business. The Speaker may cease to be so 1. if he loses the Loksabha membership for some reason 2. if he submits his resignation in writing to the Deputy Speaker and vice-versa. 3. If he is removed from the post by a Loksabha resolution supported by a majority all the members of the House. Normally, the Speaker exercises the casting vote in case of a tie over a bill in the House. Besides, the LS Speaker presides over a Joint Sitting of both the Houses. The Speaker also ratifies a bill as Money Bill and his decision in this matter is final. During a vacancy in the office of the LS Speaker, the Deputy Speaker performs his duties. After the first General Elections in 1951, GV Mavlankar became the first Speaker of the Loksabha. The Rajyasabha : It is a permanent House (cannot be dissolved ) with a member having a term of 6 years. One-thirds of its members retire after every two years. Consequently, there will be an election of one-thirds of the Rajyasabha at the beginning of every 3rd year. It is the duty of the President to summon both Houses of Parliament at such intervals that not more than 6 months elapse between two successive sessions. The Vice-President of India is the ex-office Chairman of the Rajyasabha. During his absence, the Deputy Chairman discharges his duties in the House.



LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURES For Bills Other Than Money Bills May be introduced in either House by a Minister or a private member. A private member has to seek prior permission of the House before introducing the Bill, which is normally given. After introduction in the House, the Bill is discussed by the House and is thereafter put to vote. In case of bills other than Money Bills, a simple majority is required to pass them (at least 50 percent of those present and voting in the House must approve it.) After being passed in this manner in one House, Bill goes to the other House. Upon receipt in the other House, it undergoes all the stages again as it has in the earlier House. The other House may subsequently 1. reject the Bill altogether 2. pass the Bill with amendments. If on return to the originating House, the amendments are accepted by it, the Bill goes to the President for his assent. However, if the originating House does not agree to the amendments proposed by the other House, there is a deadlock and the provision of a Joint Sitting may be applied in such cases. 3. may take no action on it. If more than 6 months elapse in this manner, a Joint Sitting may be summoned by the President. Though in most spheres, the LS and the RS are equal in the matter of their rights, there are certain special privileges enjoyed by the LS and the RS separately. For example, 1. only the Rajyasabha can recommend the creation of one or more All-India Services. 2. Only the Rajyasabha can pass a resolution to enable the Parliament to make a law on any thing contained in the State List. Similarly, the Loksabha enjoys certain special powers like the unique ability to introduce a money bill and its dominant role in passing it. Money Bills A Bill is defined as a Money Bill if it contains any of the following provisions ONLY: A. imposition, abolition, reduction, alteration, remission or regulation of any tax B. taking out/depositing money from/into the Consolidated Fund/ Contingency Fund of India (Art. 110) On the other hand, a Financial Bill is a Bill which deals with taxation plus some other provisions. That is why the Annual Budget is known as the Annual Finance Bill because it contains many provisions apart from those related to taxes. A Money Bill can be introduced only in the Loksabha on the recommendations of the President. The decision of the Speaker of the LS is final in certifying whether a Bill is a Money Bill or not. The Rajyasabha cannot initiate a Money Bill nor can it reject or amend it after passage by the Loksabha. The Rajyasabha must return a Money Bill within 14 days of receipt, after which the Loksabha may accept any of its recommendations. In case the RS recommendations are accepted by the LS, the Bill will be deemed to have been passed by both the Houses. In case the LS does not accept the RS recommendations, the Bill will be deemed to have been passed by both the Houses. If the RS does not return the Bill within 14 days of its receipt, it will be deemed to have been passed. The net result is that the RS does not have much say in matters of Money or Finance Bills. For example, in case of Annual Budget, the Rajyasabha can discuss it or propose amendments to it but it is not obligatory for the LS to accept them. The President is bound to give his assent to a Money Bill so passed in the first instance itself and cannot withhold his assent or send it back to Parliament.



In the Loksabha, estimates of expenditures are submitted in the form of Demands-For-Grants on particular heads and are followed by a vote of the House on each of those heads. After voting, the grants so made by the LS and the expenditures charged on the Consolidated Fund of India (which are non-votable like the salaries of SC./HC Judges, President’s salary and other office expenses) are included in an Appropriation Bill, providing legal authority for drawing money from the Consolidated Fund of India.

PUBLIC ACCOUNTS COMMITTEE

This Committee examines the Appropriation Accounts and report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India so that the irregularities noticed by the CAG may be discussed by the House and remedial steps taken. It investigates whether the money is legally distributed for its intended purpose or not.

THE STATE EXECUTIVE

Our Constitution provides for a federal set-up and contains provisions for the administration of the Union and the State governments. The procedure laid down for the governance of the States is equally applicable to all, except Jammu and Kashmir. The Governor The State Governor is largely parallel to the Union President in matters of his role in the legislative and executive process. The Governor, appointed by the President, holds office at the President’s pleasure and enjoys the formal executive authority in a state. Any Indian Citizen above 35 years of age is eligible for Governorship, but he must not hold any office of profit, nor he be a member of the Union or a State Legislature. The powers of appointment to the State Council of Ministers, the Advocate-General, recommending Money- Bills etc. enjoyed by the Governor are largely analogous to those held by the President at the Centre. The normal office term of a Governor is 5 years, terminable earlier by resignation to the President or dismissal by the President. Salary, Allowances The Governor gets a monthly salary plus an official residence free of cost and other allowances and privileges as per law. THE STATE LEGISLATURE Some of the states are unicameral i.e. have got only the State Legislative Assembly. In some others, apart from it, there is a State Legislative Council e.g. Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir. The SLC is largely analogous to the Rajyasabha while the State Legislative Assembly is the equivalent of the Rajyasabha.

SPECIAL STATUS OF J&K Under Art. 370, the State of Jammu and Kashmir enjoys certain special privileges as compared to other States in the Union e.g. 1. J&K has its separate State Constitution which no other state in India has. 2. No Constitutional Amendment Act passed by the Parliament is applicable to J&K unless it is extended so by

a Presidential order 3. The President’s rule (Art.356) cannot be applied in J and K. 4. No proclamation under Art.352 (National Emergency) can be applied to J&K, without the concurrence of

the State Government. 5. The Directive Principles of State Policy do not apply to J&K and the Fundamental Right To Property still

exists in the State.



THE INDIAN JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The Supreme Court of India sits at the apex of the judicial system in India and the Parliament is competent to make any changes regarding its constitution, jurisdiction and the salaries payable to its judges. The Supreme Court comprises a Chief Justice of India and 25 other Judges. Besides, the CJI, with presidential consent, can request a retired SC Judge to act as a Temporary Judge in case of lack of quorum. Qualifications and Tenures of Judges A person, in order to be appointed an SC Judge must 1. be a citizen of India 2. Be either a distinguished jurist or have at least 10 years’ High Court practice as an advocate OR 3. have been a High Court Judge for at least 5 years. No minimum age nor any fixed tenure has been prescribed. An SC Judge may cease to be so 1. on attaining the age of 65 years 2. by sending his resignation to the President 3. being impeached The only grounds upon which an SC Judge can be removed are: A. proven misbehaviour B. incapacity An SC Judge gets a monthly salary plus an official residence free of cost while the CJI receives a monthly salary of Rs. 36000/-, apart from an official residence free of cost. The Constitution secures the independence of the SC judges by several means, i.e. 1. In matters of appointments to the SC, the President is required to consult, apart from his Council, the CJI. It has been recently ruled by the SC that consultation here means that the advice so given by the CJI is binding on the government and it cannot supersede the advice so made by the CJI. 2. They cannot be removed except on a Joint Address by both chambers on specified grounds. 3. That the SC Judges' salaries cannot be changed to their disadvantage during their tenure. 4. That no SC judge shall act or plead in any Court in India after retirement. Jurisdiction: The SC enjoys an overriding power to entertain appeal, without any limitation upon its discretion. An appeal to the Supreme Court lies not only from the decision of any lower Courts within India, but also from the decisions of any tribunal in India. As A Federal Court Art 131 gives the Supreme Court exclusive power to decide on disputes between the Union and the States or between two or more States. Since such a case will always go to the Supreme Court only, this is known as the original jurisdiction of the SC. Only certain classes of disputes are excluded from this category i.e. a dispute arising out of interference with inter-state water supplies, matters referred to the Finance Commission. As A Court of Appeal An appeal to the SC always lies if a death sentence has been given to a person by any of the lower courts/tribunals. But appeals to the SC in civil cases decided by an HC will be entertained only if the case involves an important question of law and constitutional interpretation and is certified so by the HC concerned. Of course, the SC enjoys unlimited power of judicial review by means of its Special Leave Petition, to hear any case arising from any Court / Tribunal within India, except Military Tribunals. Advisory Jurisdiction Under Art. 143, the Supreme Court can give its advice on any matter refereed to it by the President. However, it is to be noted once a presidential reference is made to the SC on an issue, it is not bonding on the SC to give its advice nor is it binding on the GOI to accept such advice. A case in point is the presidential



reference to the SC on the Ayodhya dispute. In this case, the SC had declined to give any advice, saying that it was a purely political question. As A Guarantor of The Constitution The Supreme Court is the final interpreter the Constitution and Other laws. It tries to ensure adherence to both and thus acts a guarantor of individual rights in India granted by the law and the Constitution. THE HIGH COURTS A High Court stands at the head of the judiciary in each state. But the Parliament has the power to establish a common High Court for two or more states (like the common HC for the North-Eastern states). A High Court comprises a Chief Justice and a number of other Judges, as may be decided by the President. The HC enjoys the jurisdiction over the territorial limits of the state and has the power of superintendence and control over all Courts and Tribunals in that area. In order to be appointed an HC Judge, a person must 1. be an Indian citizen 2. not be above 62 years of age 3. have held a judicial office in India OR 4. have been an advocate of an HC or of two more such courts in succession In appointing HC Judges, the President shall consult the CJI, the State Governor (and also the CJ of the State HC in case a judge other than the CJ is to be appointed) an HC Judge holds office till 62 years of age. However, the Judge may vacate his post 1. by resignation in writing to the President 2. on appointment as an SC Judge 3. by impeachment in Parliament. The mode of removal of both SC and HC Judges is the same i.e. impeachment by Parliament and both hold office during “good behviour”. Both categories of Judges, in addition to a monthly salary, are entitled to the use of an official residence, free of cost.

THE FINANCE COMMISSION

A Finance Commission will be appointed by the President every five years (Art. 280) to report on the distribution of financial resources between the Union and the States. It is the duty of the FC to report on the 1. allocation of divisible tax resources between the Centre and the States. 2. the principles which should govern the grants-in-aid of the States’ revenues out of the Consolidated Fund of India. 3. any other matter referred to the Commission by the President. The 12th Finance Commission, under the chairmanship of Dr. C. Rangrajan, is working on the issue at present.

THE UNION AND STATE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSIONS

There is a Union Public Service Commission to conduct examinations for appointment to Union posts, advise on any matters referred to it by the President, transfers/promotions and other service matters. The number of the UPSC members is decided by the President. The Commission members shall hold office for 6 years from the date of appointment. Sufficient provisions have been made to guard the independence of the UPSC. For example, a UPSC member can be removed by the President only on the report of the SC, which will conduct an enquiry into the case. The UPSC presents an annual report to the government on its functioning and this report is tabled in the parliament. Please note that



the work of the Commission is purely advisory and the government may refuse to implement the recommendations for appointments made by the UPSC, for which it has give reasons. The final appointing authority for the All-India Services is the President. In each state, there is a State Public Service Commission, appointments to which are made by the Governor concerned. A Joint Commission may also be constituted by the President on the states’ request.

ELECTIONS IN INDIA

The Indian Constitution does not describe the details of the election process, it prescribes only essential guidelines, the rest is left to legislation. In India, the general principle of elections is Universal Adult Franchise i.e. every citizen who is 18+ years of age is entitled to vote for Loksabha elections regardless of any consideration of caste, color, creed, sex, place of residence and the like. (provided he has not been disqualified otherwise on grounds of non-residence, crime, unsoundness of mind, corrupt or illegal practices) In pursuance of the authority granted by the Constitution, the Representation of People’s Act-1951 and the Delimitation Commission Act-1962 have been enacted, which describe in detail the electoral process to be followed in elections and the mode of formation of electoral constituencies. All electoral disputes connected with LS/RS elections are challengeable only in a High Court by means of an Election Petition, with an appeal to the Supreme Court while the disputes concerning any Presidential elections can be taken to the Supreme Court only. The Constitution provides for an Election Commission consisting of a Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners, as may be decided by the President from time to time (Art 324). The Election Commission is charged with the duty of conducting, supervising and controlling the entire machinery and the procedure for elections to Parliament, State Legislative Assemblies, offices of President and Vice-President of India. The CEC cannot be removed from his post except in a manner similar to an SC Judge i.e. proved misbehaviour/incapacity. The other Commissioners may be removed by the President on the CEC’s recommendation. The election process regarding the Loksabha elections is initiated on the recommendations of the Home Ministry. A specified period is given for filing nomination, which must be supported by at least 10 electors. A security deposit is also to be given with the Returning Officer of the constituency, which is forfeited if the candidate fails to get at least one-sixth of total valid votes polled in that election. The results are declared by the Returning Officer of the constituency concerned. The results can, however, be withheld by the EC in cases 1. where the constituency has been identified as being communally sensitive 2. the victory margin between two topmost competing candidates is less than 5 percent of valid votes polled Recounting may be ordered in such cases by the EC. The EC also performs the task of recognizing political parties. Around 43 recognized political parties exist in India, which may be either of the two types: 1. National parties are those parties, which secure a minimum of 5% total votes in any previous Loksabha elections OR 5 percent votes in at least 4 State Assembly Elections e.g. the Congress, the BJP. 2. All other parties which do not fulfill the above criteria are classified as regional parties e.g. Akali Dal, Muslim league, Revolutionary Socialist Party. Notably, the increase or decrease in the no. of districts in any state has no impact on the number of Loksabha constituencies which is fixed by the Delimitation Commission. For instance, the current no. of seats is based on the 1971 Census Report. The number of LS of seats has now been frozen till 2026 in deference to requests by some states.



THE SCHEDULED CASTES AND SCHEDULED TRIBES

The Constitution–makers, realizing the less-developed socio-economic status of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes, provided certain concessions so as to bring them on par with other people and enable them to join the national mainstream. Two specific provisions guarantee this, namely 1. Art 334- Provides 15 percent seats to SCs and 7.5 percent seats for the Scheduled Tribes in the Parliament and State Legislative Houses. This reservation has recently been extended by another 10 years. It will now continue upto 2010 AD. 2. Art 335- It gives reservations to the SC/STs (15 and 7.5 percent respectively) in jobs under the Union of India and the States.

OFFICIAL LANGUAGES

Hindi has been prescribed by the Constitution as the official language of the Union (subject to the condition that English will also continue for a limited period of 15 years for official purposes (Art. 351). However, the use of English can be further extended for a specified period and the Parliament has made the Official Languages Act, 1963 in pursuance of this power. Consequently, both English and Hindi (Devnagari script) are recognized as official languages and can be used for official purposes of the Union.

IMPORTANT SCHEDULES

Till date, the Constitution has 12 schedules attached to it, of which the most important are 7th Schedule: Contains Legislative Lists - 1. Union List: Legislative subjects over which the Union Parliament exercises exclusive jurisdiction e.g. Communications, Railways, Defence, Currency etc. Contains 97 subjects till date. 2. State List: Legislative subjects over which the states enjoy the exclusive power of law-making e.g. public health, sanitation, octroi duty. Contains 66 subjects till date. 3. Concurrent List: Over which both the Parliament and the Assembles enjoy equal power of legislation e.g. marriage laws, arbitration, tourism, education etc. Contains 47 subjects till date The residuary power of legislation (subjects which have been left out of these lists) in India belongs to the Parliament. When the Constitution was originally passed, it had 395 articles and 8 schedules. As on date, it contains 443 articles and 12 schedules. 8th Schedule: Contains 18 Official Languages. The latest three entrants on the list are Sindhi, Manipuri and Konkani. 9th Schedule: Contains those provisions over which the Courts do not enjoy any power of judicial review e.g. Land Reform Laws. Such laws cannot be challenged in any Court. 10th Schedule: The Anti-Defection Law is included in the 10th schedule. It contains provisions for disqualifying MP/MLAs who change their parties after getting elected to the House. However, it makes an important exception. If at least one-third members of a party leave party and join another one, this is counted as a split and does not attract the disqualification provisions. The decision of the speaker of the House is final regarding disqualification with a final appeal to the Supreme Court.



11th Schedule: Provides for village panchayats as units of local self-government and regular elections to them, every 5 years. For this purpose, it also envisages a State Election Commission and a State Finance Commission in each state. The three-tier system comprising village-level panchayats, block-level samitis and district-level Zila-Parishads was recommended by the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee 12th Schedule: Contains provisions regarding urban local bodies (municipalities etc.).

SOME MAJOR CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS

Constitutional Amendment

Act

PROVISIONS

1st CAA’51 Restrictions imposed on Right to Speech and Expression 24th CAA’71 Education shifted to the Concurrent List, Parliament has the power to amend any part of

the Constitution 35th CAA’75 Sikkim made an associate State of India 36th CAA’75 Sikkim made a full state of India 42nd CAA’76 Words Socialist, Secular added to the Preamble

DPSPs were given priority over FRs Fundamental Duties were added

44th CAA’78 Fundamental Right To Property Abolished 61st CAA’89 Voting age lowered from 21 to 18 years 73rd CAA’93 Panchayati Raj (Local Self-Government) 74th CAA’93 Urban Local Bodies 84th CAA’99 Women’s Reservation Bill 93rd CAA’02 Education made a Fundamental Right

MISCELLANY

Number of seats in Loksabha Uttar Pradesh - 85 (highest), Bihar – 52, Maharashtra – 48, Madhya Pradesh – 40 Number of seats in Rajysabha Uttar Pradesh –34 (highest), Goa –1 (Minimum) Number of seats in State Assemblies Uttar Pradesh –425 (highest), Bihar –324 Madhya Pradesh –320 Andhra Pradesh –294 West Bengal –294

INDIAN PRESIDENTS SO FAR NAME TENURE NAME TENURE 1. Dr. Rajender Prasad 1950-62 2. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 1962-67 3. Dr. Zakir Hussain 1967-69 (Died) 4. V. Venkatgiri 1969-1969 (Acting) 5. Justice M. Hidayatullah 1969-1969 6. V. Venkatgiri 1969-1974 7. Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed 1974-1977(Died) 8. BD Jatti 1977-1977 (Acting) 9. Neelam S. Reddy 1977-1982 10. Giani Zail Singh 1982-1987



11. M. Hidayatullah 1982-1982 (Officiating) 12. R. Venkatraman 1987-1992 ` 13. Dr. S.D. Sharma 1992-1997 14. K.R. Narayanan 1997-2002 15. DR. APJ Abdul Kalam 2002- 2007 16. Mrs. Prathiba Patil 2007 – Till Date

INDIAN PRIME MINISTERS SO FAR NAME TENURE NAME TENURE 1. JL Nehru 1947-1964 2. Gulzari Lal Nanda 1964-1964 (Acting) 3. Lal Bahadur Shastri 1964-1966 (Died) 4. Gulzari Lal Nanda 1966-1966 (Acting) 5. Indira Gandhi 1966-1977 6. Morarji Desai 1977-1979 7. Charan Singh 1979-1980 8. Indira Gandhi 1980-1984 (Died) 9. Rajiv Gandhi 1984-1989 10. VP Singh 1989-1990 11. Chandar Shekhar 1990-1991 12. PV Narsimha Rao 1991-1996 13. AB Vajpayee 1996-1996 (Resigned) 14. HD Deve Gowda 1996-1997 15. IK Gujral 1997-1998 16. AB Vajpayee 1998-1999 (Lost No Confidence Motion) 17. AB Vajpayee 1999 - 2004 18. Dr. Manmohan Singh May 2004 - Till date

SOME IMPORTANT POLITICAL TERMS

1. Lameduck Government: Is defined as that government which has lost the motion of no-confidence in the Loksabha and does not have the constitutional authority to run the government. Still on being asked by the President, such a government has to continue until alternative arrangements are made. Such a government is referred to as a lameduck government. 2. Left Parties: Are those parties that adopt a radical political ideology. For instance, the CPI, CPI(M) and RSP etc. 3. Right Parties: Are defined as those parties which adopt a politically conservative ideology e.g. the BJP, Shiv Sena etc. 4. Centrist Parties: Are those which adopt a political position which is a via media between the leftist and the rightist political ideologies. 5. Cut Motion: A motion moved to effect a cut in the Annual Budget. If an insignificant cut is proposed, such a motion is known as a token cut-motion. It has great political significance because if it is carried through in the Parliament, the government is under moral obligation to resign as a consequence. 6. Zero Hour: That time during parliamentary proceedings in the day when any matter of urgent national importance without any prior notice.



7. Starred Question: Those the answers to which are given orally by the Minister concerned in the Parliament. 8. Unstarred Questions: The answers to which are given in writing in Parliament by the Minister concerned. 9. Vote-On–Account: Is passed without discussions pending final approval by the Parliament if money is required urgently. 10. Guillotine: A motion is said to be guillotined if it is passed without any discussion on it in parliament in view of urgency of the issue under question. 11. Filibuster: Is a person who, in order to block the passage of a bill in Parliament, makes a long speech just before voting is going to take place. This term has British origins. Such a person and such a speech, both are referred to as filibuster. 12. Whip: A whip is a person who regulates the presence and conduct of the members of a particular political party in Parliament. He is supposed to ensure their presence and voting on particular days and in a particular manner. Before voting on any matter in Parliament, an order is issued by the whip to all party MPs. Such an order is also known as a whip. Under the provisions of the Anti-Defection Law, violating a party whip can attract disqualification from Parliament. However, as per current provisions, which are likely to undergo drastic change in future, party splits (i.e. if one-thirds or more legislators from a particular party leave it and join another one) are not termed as defections and do not attract the penal provisions described above.



THE POTPOURRI

MISCELLANEOUS TERMS Arbitration: Is a method for resolving a dispute, generally of an industrial nature, between the employer and his employees by reference to impartial parties - called arbitrators. Annuity: A fixed amount paid once a year or at interval of a stipulated period. Appreciation of Money: It is a rise in the value of money caused by a fall in the general price level. Balance of Trade: The difference between the imports and exports of a country. It is favourable when the value of exported goods exceeds the value of imported gods. And it is unfavourable if the imports exceed exports. Bankers’ Cheque: A cheque by one bank on another. Bank Rate: The rate at which the Central Bank (Reserve Bank of India) will discount first class bills of exchange. In other words, interest rate charged by the RBI from commercial banks. Ultimately, it has an impact on the interest rates prevailing in the country in general. Barter: To trade by exchanging one commodity for another. Bearer: The term “or bear”, or “to bear”, on bill or cheque denotes that any person holding the same has the same right in respect of it, as the person who issued it. Bill of Credit: A letter authorizing the advance of money to a specified person, implying thereby the obligation on the part of the writer to repay that amount. Bilateralism : It denotes a system of special trade and payment arrangements between two countries. Carat: Measure or weight for precious stones, about 4 grains; 24 carat gold is the purest gold, thus 22 carat gold means a piece of gold in which 22 parts are pure gold and 2 parts of an alloy, usually copper. Cartel: Is a combination of business, enterprises or corporations, generally in the same trade formed with a view to controlling prices and enjoying monopoly. For instance OPEC, an organization of countries exporting oil, is an international cartel. Central Bank: A bank which is (a) banker to the Government, (b) banker to the commercial banks, and (c) manages the currency and credit policy of that country. The Reserve Bank of India is the Central Bank of India. Continental Drift: It has long been held by the scientists and the geographers that million of years ago Antarctica, India and Africa formed one single land mass. The theory, given by Wagner, has now been firmly proved with the discovery of fossils of hippopotamus n the Antarctica; earlier the fossils of this animal were found in India and Africa only. Clearing House: The place where clerks from the banks meet daily, bringing with them all bills paid into their bank or drawn on each other on that day. The bills are then exchanged and outstanding differences settled. Collectivism: The socialist theory that all productive capital (land, mines, factories, etc.) should be owned by the society collectively, or the State, and industry carried on under common ownership. It is also called State Socialism. Co-operative Farming: It means joint farming, where the farmers pool their lands together and divide the produce at the end of the harvest in proportion to their land put in the pool. They retain their proprietary rights



in the land, and they can withdraw their land from the pool after giving due notice and paying for the improvements brought about in the land. Collective Farming: It is mostly practiced in Communist countries, and it differs from co-operative farming in as much as that the land does not belong to the individual farmer. He has no initiative, but he is a mere tool in the hands of the State. Usually the area of a collective farm is much larger e.g. China. Letter of Credit: A letter from a bank, firm or one person, to another authorizing payment to a third person of a specific sum, for which the sender assumes full responsibility. Crossed Cheque: A cheque is crossed for protection. In a crossed cheque two parallel lines are drawn across its face and the words ‘and Co.’ are written between the lines. Such a cheque must be paid into one’s own account in the bank and then realized. Debentures: A debenture is a certificate issued by a company to its creditors promising the payment of a stated sum at fixed rate of interest, after specified period of time. A debenture is the first charge on the assets of the company. Deficit Financing: It is an important Keynesian device which is used to finance the economic development of a country, when it has failed to provide resources to execute plans of economic development by tapping such sources of finance as savings, taxes, foreign loans and internal loans. It is a double-edged sword which proves a source of bane to the society, if used unwisely but proves a source of boon to the society when it is used for speeding up the tempo of economic development. There is a close correlation between deficit financing and inflation. In order to counter-balance the inflationary tendencies of deficit financing, the Government has to frame an extensive framework of economic control and taxation. One of the conditions imposed by IMF for extending loans is that the country reduces its budget deficits. Devaluation: Is a deliberate reduction in the value of the home currency relatively to foreign currency. It is done always by a governmental action, and is resorted to in order to reduce imports and increase exports. India has devalued its currency many times, the latest instance being in 1991. Of late so many countries, viz., U.K., U.S.A., and France have resorted to this expedient to balance their payments position. Diminishing Returns: As we go on applying the successive doses of labour and capital towards the cultivation of land, other things remaining the same, the marginal return from each successive does goes on diminishing. Embargo: The prohibition by a government on the sailing of the ships of another nation from a port for a specified time. It also means prohibiting the import and export of a certain commodity. Excise Duty: It is the duty charged on goods manufactured within the country; excise duties on sugar, match-box, cloth, etc., have been levied by the Government of India. Fiduciary Issue: It is putting into circulation paper money which has not been covered by any reserve of gold kept with the Central Bank. Floating Currency: On account of too wide a fluctuation between the official and unofficial rates of various currencies of the world, some of the countries decided not to fix any particular rate of the currency vis-a-vis others and let the value be determined on a daily basis. Free on Board (f.o.b.): It signifies that the seller of goods has borne the expenses of putting them on board of the ship and the goods will be supplied at the port at a certain price which would include freight, insurance, etc. Free Trade: A tariff system which treats foreign imports and home produced articles on the same basis, either taxing both equally or exempting both. Gift Tax: It is levied on property transferred from one generation to another either through inheritance, bequest, or through settlements. The basic justification for taxes on inheritance is that the community has the right to limit each individual’s freedom to pass on his property intact to his successors. The general gift tax is a tax which will include taxes on inheritance and succession as well as gift. Such gifts are made to avoid the payment of the inheritance tax and death duty.



Gilt-edged Securities: Stocks on which interest is not only safe but is also sufficiently high. Gold Standard: It is a system of currency based on the free coinage of gold. It presupposes that the State will sell and buy gold at fixed price in terms of the local currency. For all practical purposes, the system is dead now. Hard Currency: Is the currency of a country in relation to which we have an adverse balance of payment i.e., which is hard to be obtained. Hire Purchase: A system for the purchase of goods by which they are obtained on hire, and each payment is also treated as a part payment of the purchase price. Lay-off: Removal of labour from service on account of fall in sales. It is different from retrenchment, which is necessitated by modernization or rationalization. Legal Tender: Any form of money which is legal quittance of a debt, and which cannot be refused by the creditors. Limited Company: Is one in which the shareholders’ responsibility is limited to the extent of the value of the shares in it. Limited Liability: Liability of the shareholders of a company is limited to the extent of the value of their shares. Malthusian Theory of Population: According to this theory, the food supply increases in arithmetical progression, while the population increases in geometrical progression leading to overpopulation. Ultimately forces to check growth of population become very necessary. In a way Malthus has been proved wrong because in spite of a steep rise in population, the availability of foodgrain has not diminished. In India food production in 1991 touched 177.3 million tonnes from 54 million tonnes in 1951. Mixed Economy: A mixed economy is one in which both pubic and private sectors have an important role to play. India has opted for a mixed economy with a proviso that a few industrial fields of vital national importance have been reserved for the public sector. Marginal Utility: Is the difference made in the total utility of a commodity by consuming one unit more or less of that particular commodity. Moratorium: It is the State’s action under which a creditor’s right to take legal action against a debtor for realization of debt-money is kept under suspension for a specified period. It is declared in times of a financial crisis. Open Cheque: An uncrossed cheque payable on presentation to “bearer or order”, as the case may be. Open Credit: Credit, given by a banker to a customer without guarantee or security. Patents: A patent is an exclusive right granted under the Patents Act to the inventor for a new and useful technical invention. This is done with a view to encouraging new invention. Preference Shares and Preference Stock: Are shares or stock entitled to a fixed divided before any distribution of profits can be made amongst the holders of ordinary shares or stock. Private Limited Company: Minimum and maximum number of persons who may form a private limited company is two and fifty respectively. It is a company which by its Articles: (a) Restricts the right to transfer the shares; if any; (b) Limits the number of its members (exclusive of person); (i) Who are in the employment of the company, and (ii) Who have continued to be members after the employment ceased to fifty; and (c) Prohibits any invitation to the public to subscribe for the shares, if any, or debentures of the company.



Public Company: A limited company whose capital consists of shares publicly subscribed. Public Sector: A term which is generally applied to State enterprises or undertakings, i.e., those concerns or industries which are nationalized and run by the State. Rebate: It is the refundable part of payment made, or commission, says, towards insurance policy or the like. Recession: An economic phenomenon, when there is excess of production over demand. It is temporary setback to the economy of the country when the money market becomes tight and demand for goods diminishes. Mr. Ravi Batra, an Indian born economist now settled in USA had predicted a global depression in 1990. He has been proved wrong, though recession did appear in the USA in 1991. Reflation: A state of affairs when money market is tight, so more money is put into circulation by creating more jobs or by providing cheap credit. Royalty: It is a lump sum payment for certain kind of ownership or privilege, e.g., royalty paid for extracting oil from oil fields or mining coal from a coal-mine, or a share of the sale price of book paid by the publisher to the author. Sinking Fund: Is a fund created by setting apart a portion of the profits of a company or the revenue of a government with the object of paying off a debt or a loan; or the appropriation of profits for redemption of a liability. Soft Currency: It is the currency of the country in relation to which we have a favourable balance of payment. Wealth Tax: It has been imposed to bring about a socialistic pattern of society, to raise more finances for the Plans, to rationalize the country’s tax structure and to meet its growing needs. The rates of wealth tax have undergone considerable rationalization.



HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, CONSTITUTIONAL AND DIPLOMATIC TERMS

Adjournment Motion: A motion moved by a member in a legislature when it is desired to draw the attention of the executive to a matter of urgent public importance or interest. Amnesty: General pardon, especially for offences against the State. Apartheid (Malanism): African word which means complete segregation of the non-whites practiced in South Africa. It is the policy of racial discrimination practiced in the South Africa until many years back. Armistice: Policy of economic self-sufficiency of a nation. Secured at the cost of other nations; especially practiced by many nations during 1920. Black-out: Sudden extinction of all lights; safeguard against air raids. Bicameral System: The form of legislature which has two Chambers or Houses as opposed to unicameral system having only one House of legislature. Buffer State: A smaller State lying between potentially hostile larger States, lessening the risk of war between them. Poland was a buffer State between Germany and Russia; Belgium is a buffer State between France and Germany. Cabinet Government: Is the form of government in which the Executive, a Council of Ministers, is responsible to the legislature. It is also called parliamentary system. Cold War: A state of apparent peace between two powerful countries or blocs, but they show malice against each other through press, radio, etc. Bernard M. Baruch first used the term while addressing the South Carolina Legislative Body, on April 16, 1947. It is often used to describe the relationship that had existed between the Soviet Union and the Western Powers since 1947. The cold war has now almost abated with the frequent summits between President Bush and Mr. Gorbachev, the Soviet leader. USSR is in no position to assert itself, as it is threatened with disintegration and economic collapse. In the 1990s, a unipolar world is likely to emerge, dominated by USA. Charge d’Affaires: An official in a diplomatic mission or an embassy who acts for an ambassador in his absence. Consuls: Commercial representative abroad are styled as Consuls. Condominium: It is joint rule of territory by two or more nations, as Sudan was under the joint rule of England and Egypt till 1955. Casting Vote: It is the deciding vote of the Chairman, when there is a tie, i.e., equality of votes. Dialectical Materialism: Logical method of historical analysis associated with the name of Karl Marx and his collaborator Engles. Marx had borrowed this method from Hegel, according to whom history was the product of the clash of opposing ideas. He viewed history as a conflict between two opposing forces, thesis and anti-thesis, which is resolved by the emergence of a new force, synthesis. Present conditions are due to a class struggle between the capitalists, who are motivated by private profit, and the workers, who resist exploitation. This conflict will inevitably lead to a revolution by which the workers will overthrow capitalism and capture power themselves. Marxian ideology has not stood the ravages of time. It is being discarded by most of the countries which had embraced it earlier. Demagogy: Instigation of the people by lies, false promises, half-truths, appeal to passions, etc. Extradition: Giving over a fugitive for justice by one country to the other.



Fourth Estate: It applies to the press, first used by Edmund Burke. Fascism: A nationalist, anti-Communist and authoritarian political system evolved by Mussolini and his followers in Italy after 1922. Italian fascism served as a model to similar movements in other countries including Germany where it assumed the form of Nazism. Fifth Column: It applies to those people who work secretly against the interests of their own country by carrying on false propaganda or by other means; they are sympathizers of the enemy. Glasnost: A term coined by Mr. Gorbachev. It implied more openness of the Society and freeing the media from the overwhelming control of the State. Genetic Engineering: It is the name given to the introduction of human choice & design criteria into the construction & combinations of genes. This refers not to breeding by selection, a traditional process but to the biochemical alteration of the actual DNA in cells. Many people regard this development as fraught with enormous significance like nuclear power, it can lead to good, to evil, to accidental hazards, not all of which can be foreseen. Green Revolution: The term applied for the steep rise in the production of agricultural products, during the past few years. The Green Revolution in India was initiated in India in the 60s under the guidance of Dr. Norman Borlaug of the USA, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. The Green Revolution was made possible by : (i) more and better use of fertilizers (ii) intensive cultivation (iii) the hybrid varieties (iv) pesticides and insecticides, and (v) availability of assured means of irrigation. It has boosted farm output tremendously, leading to self-sufficiency in the output of foodgrain. The Green Revolution in India has had two major drawbacks, 1. It is confined to foodgrain only, there has been no such revolution in pulses or edible oils, which are being imported even now. 2. It has been confined to north India only. Euro Dollar: These are usual American dollars but in possession of those, who are not citizens of United States. They are called Euro-dollars, because they are mostly held by the countries of W. Europe. Exchange Rate: The rate at which one currency is exchanged with another. Fixed Exchange Rates: When the exchange rate of the currency is fixed by the concerned government and it can be changed either by devaluation or revaluation. Basket of Currencies: 14 currencies whose average value has been taken to calculate the value of S.D.R. Similarly, the rupee exchange rate is announced on the basis of average value of half of dozen basket currencies. Acid Rain: Is the name given to rain, snow or sleet contaminated with acid substances so that its acidity is greater than the limit expected by normal concentrations of carbon dioxide dissolved in the rain to give carbonic acid. The increased acidity is caused by larger concentrations of a number of contaminants, particularly the strong acids, nitric and suphuric which arise from industrial effluents containing oxides and nitrogen and sulphur. Biological Warfare: The use for warlike purposes of bacteria, viruses, fungi or other biological agents. These can be used to spread distress, incapacity, disease or death among the enemy’s people or livestock. Secret attacks by biological agents are supposed to be easy and it may affect the population without damaging buildings or bridges. In 1975 the Biological Weapons Convention 1972 signed by Britain, the United States and USSR, came into force outlawing germs warfare. Iraq, it was feared, could have use of these weapons during the Gulf War of 1991.



Hot Line: The direct telephone and teleprinter link set up in August, 1963 between Kremlin (U.S.S.R.) and the Pentagon (Washington) to avoid accidental war. Now, any line of speedy communication ready for an emergency. Iron Curtain: A term coined by Sir Winston Churchill, applied to such countries as did not give other countries any information concerning their internal affairs. The term was applied to Soviet Russia and her satellites. L.S.D.: Lysergic Acid Diethylamide; a drug which produces many symptoms of schizophrenia, it causes strange sensation, first discovered accidentally by Albert Hoffman, a Swiss chemist. The Hippies are addicted to this drug. Lead Bank: The Gadgil Group had in 1969 recommended that the nationalized banks should be asked to take over the complete development activity of backward areas. Each bank was to be attached with a certain backward region of a district, it was to be the responsibility of the bank to look after the development of the backward region. The bank was to undertake more or less a techno-economic survey in order to take over all the financial and developmental needs. McCarthyism: The policy of screening the U.S. civil and military officials to discover their communist tendencies, adopted by John McCarthy, a U.S. Senator. It evoked strong protests from all quarters thus resulting in the censuring of his policy; the Rosenbergs were electrocuted on account of this policy. Marxism: The system of thought developed by Kari Marx (1818-83), a German Jew, along with Engels. According to him, the State throughout history has been a device for the exploitation of the masses by a dominant class; class struggle has been the main agency of historical change; the capitalist State contains the germs of its own destruction; a revolution is inevitable; and after a transitional period known as the dictatorship of the proletariat, a stateless and classless society will come into being. Naturalization: Act or process by which an alien is allowed to enjoy the privileges of a natural born citizen, as such he ceases to be an alien. Ombudsman: A system whereby there is a standing committee to redress public grievances. Oligarchy: A Government in which the supreme power is in the hands of a privileged few. Panch Sheel: Five principles enunciated by the Prime Ministers of India and of People’s Republic of China in 1954 as the basis for international co-operation. They are:

(1) Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty (2) non-aggression (3) non-interference in each other’s internal affairs (4) equality and mutual benefits (5) peaceful co-existence.

PULSARS: These are the remnants of stellar explosions. They are sources of radio energy pulsating at regular intervals; these were accidentally observed by the Cambridge astronomers in 1960. Some 40 of them have been traced so far out of an estimated 16,000 lying in the plane of our galaxy. Paper Gold: Also known as Special Drawing Rights (S.D.R.) allotted to members of the International Monetary Fund in proportion to their quota in the fund so that the expanding world trade can be financed on international faith and co-operation. This international money is existing only in the Fund’s books and changing hands only on ledger sheets, but the members of the Fund are obliged to accept it as payment. Parliamentary Government: In contrast to the presidential system, parliamentary government is one in which the real executive (a cabinet headed by the Prime Minister) is responsible to the legislature. It is also called a cabinet from of government. Perestroika: Another term coined by the Soviet leader Mr. Gorbachev. It implies restructuring of the economic system in order to increase production and make available more consumer products to the people.



Plebiscite: Referendum regarding political self-determination and future political status. Many organizations are demanding a plebiscite in Kashmir to decide its future political status, whether the Kashmiris want to live with India or Pakistan or independently. Presidential Government: A form of government in which the President, who is the real executive head, is independent of the control of the legislature, as in U.S.A. The President is the Head of State as well as of the Government. Quorum: The minimum number of officers or members of a society or legislature that must be present to make the proceedings valid. Referendum: A process or device by which all important laws and constitutional amendments, after they have been passed by the legislative body, are referred to the vote of the electorate. The people may ratify or reject them. This procedure is mostly followed in Switzerland. Republic: A State, especially a democratic State, which has a non-hereditary head (the President) as distinguished from a State like Britain which has a hereditary head (King or Queen) with limited powers, of course. Responsible Government: The form of Government in which the executive is responsible to the elected legislature. It is also called parliamentary or cabinet form of government. “Rule of Law”: means that all persons are equal in the eye of law without any distinction of status, colour, caste and sex, and that the government cannot exercise any arbitrary powers. Sea of Tranquillity: One of the sites for landing of spacecraft on the moon. Apollo-XI landed there in July, 1969. Snap Division: A vote or division taken unexpectedly and in which respective strength of different parties may not be correctly indicated. Socialism: A political and economic theory according to which land, transport, chief industries, natural resources (e.g. coal, water-power), etc. should be owned and managed by the State, or by public bodies in the interests of the community as a whole. Spoils System: Is the practice of giving offices as reward by a successful party leader to his partisans for their services. It prevails mostly in the U.S.A. Totalitarianism: A form of rule in which the State (or those who are in power) dominates every sphere of the individual’s life. Territorial Waters: Refer to the belt of sea under a State’s territorial jurisdiction. Formerly it was 3 nautical miles. Now many States have extended their jurisdiction to 12 nautical miles. Some countries of Latin America have threatened to increase their territorial waters up to 200 nautical miles. Veto: Constitutional right of a person to reject or prohibit something. Whip: Organizing secretary of a parliamentary party, with authority over its members to maintain discipline and secure attendance at parliamentary debates and voting. Whip also means an order given by such a secretary to members of the party to attend a debate and vote. Young Turks: The term applied to the radical element in a particular party who demand sweeping reforms to bring about faster development. The term was first used for the group led by Kamaal Ataturk of Turkey, the group wanted radical religious and economic reforms. Zionism: Literal meaning pertaining to the Jews; this movement was started towards the end of the 19th century with the object of establishing a national home for the Jews in Palestine. The terms now implies the expanding frontiers of Israel.



LEGAL TERMS Attorney, Power of: A document under seal authorizing the person to whom it is given to act in all respects as the agent of the granter of the power in relation to matters specified in the documents. Copyright: The exclusive right of an author in his literary or artistic work. It is vested in the author for a period of fifty years. Circumstantial Evidence: Evidence based on the circumstances of a case, and sufficiently strong to establish the guilt. Caveat Emptor: A legal maxim meaning ‘Let the buyer beware,’ the buyer purchases at his own risk. Contempt of Court: Disobedience or disregard of the judgment or orders of the Court. Decree: The award or decision of a court or arbitrator. Lease: Contract by which a lessor, usually in consideration of rent, conveys land or tenement to a lessee for a specified time. Libel: Any publication or statement calculated to injure one’s reputation or character. Letters Patent: A document under seal of the government authorizing an individual or body to do some act or enjoy some privilege. Mandamus: Writ issued by a superior court directing the State or inferior court, to whom it is issued, to perform some specified act pertaining to its office. Mortgage: A deed transferring property to creditor as security for the payment of a debt. Plaintiff: One who brings a suit in a court of law. Proxy: One who acts for another one, or the written authorization for such action.

LITERARY, ARTISTIC AND JOURNALISTIC TERMS

MEDICAL TERMS Allergy: A condition in which a person is sensitive or susceptible to the effects of any drug or an article. Hay fever, asthma, eczema are allergic diseases.

Term Meaning Aesthetic Appreciation of the beautiful; in good taste Ballad A short narrative poem, adapted for reciting or singing Ballet Is a combination of four arts dancing, music, painting and drama Blue Books British Parliamentary Reports so named on account of blue covers Yellow Books Official books of the Poland government Orange Books Official publications by the Hungarian government White Papers Issued by the Government of India on matters of national importance Blueprint Final documents having received finishing touches Blue Stockings A term used to describe a lady with literary tastes Calligraphy Beautiful penmanship or art of writing Cubism A form of modern art introduced by Picasso, Spanish painter, in which human

beings are presented in geometrical figures. Hieroglyphics Pictographic language introduced by the ancient Egyptians Jingoism Boisterous or noisy way of expressing excessive patriotism Lithography Drawing or writing on lithographic stone so that impression in ink can be taken

on paper Malapropism Derives its name from a character of Mrs. Malaprop in Sheridan’s Rivals; she

misused words which sounded alike Nom de plum (pen name) An assumed name under which a person writes to hide his identity Orthography Art of correct spelling Philology Science of language Renaissance Revival of art and learning in Europe in the 15th century Spoonerism Laughable involuntary transposition of sounds of spoken words such as “Snoving

Leopard” for “Loving Shepherd” Yellow Journalism Indulging in sensational journalistic writing Chequebook Journalism Publishing news stories for monetary consideration



Anaemia: Bloodlessness due to lack of red blood corpuscles or of haemoglobin, a condition in which person becomes pale in colour and weak in health. Anaesthetic: A kind of drug which produces temporary insensibility to touch and pain, with or without the loss of consciousness. The best known anaesthetic is chloroform. Analgesic: A drug which relieves pain, e.g. Aspirin. Antacid: A drug which counteracts acidity in the stomach. Antibiotics: This is a name given to a series of drugs like penicillin and streptomycin, these are preparations from moulds or mould-like organisms which destroy bacteria and prevent their growth. Their use has revolutionized medicine. Antibody: Specific substances produced in the blood as a reaction to an antigen. Antidote: A remedy for counteracting poison. Antiseptic: A drug which destroys germs, e.g., dettol, carbolic acid. Autopsy: A post-mortem examination of a body. Bacillus: A rod-shaped micro-organism. For example, tubercle bacillus causes tuberculosis. Biopsy: : Taking out tissues out of a living body to examine them during investigation of a disease. Bacteria: Germs not visible to naked eye causing several types of diseases. Beri-beri: A vitamin B deficiency disease marked by muscular atrophy. It causes numbness of arms and legs and swelling of the feet and arms. Eating of polished rice can cause it. Blood Pressure: It is the pressure exerted by blood against the blood vessels; chronic anxiety, worry and kidney trouble cause high blood pressure; low blood pressure results in fainting attacks. Bronchitis: It is caused by the inflammation of the tubes leading from the winds pipe to the lungs. The best treatment is to take rest, and depend upon easily digestible food. Caesarian Operation : Delivery of a child by cutting open the walls of the abdomen and womb, when the delivery is impossible in a natural way. This is named after Julius Caesar, who was born this way. Cancer: A malignant growth of tissue which is not co-ordinated with normal body growth; it serves no useful purpose, it can affect any part of the human body, excessive smoking may cause lung cancer, it is neither contagious nor communicable; it can be treated with radioisotopes of cobalt. Intensive research is on to discover an effect cure for cancer. Cardiograph: An instrument for recording the movements of heart. Cataract: Clouding of the lens of the eye, which prevents clear vision; mostly cured with an operation. Chicken-pox: A very infectious disease. It is caused by a virus occurring commonly in children. One attack usually gives life-long immunity. Cholera: An acute bacterial infection characterized by severe vomiting and passing of loose motions frequently, drying of the tissues and painful cramps. It spreads by infected food and water. Diarrhoea: Loose stools due to many causes. Diphtheria: An acute infectious disease caused by the growth of a membrane in the throat. It may result in death, since breathing is stopped. Dysentery: Passing of stools with blood and mucus.



Eczema: A disease due to the inflammation of the skin. It is of two types, dry or wet. In the second type, water oozes out of the skin. Endemic: A disease which prevails in a particular area on account of the surrounding conditions, such as Malaria and Leprosy. Enteric: Typhoid fever Enzymes: Organic catalysts which accelerate chemical processes occurring in living organisms. For example, fermentation of sugars into alcohol requires the presence of enzymes. Ptyalin in saliva is another example. Epidemic: A disease which often attacks the people of a locality, and spreads quickly to other parts also. Epilepsy: A disease in which the patient falls down unconscious with spasm and froth in the mouth. Influenza: A highly contagious disease which is preceded by headache, body pain, throat, cough, and a general feeling of fatigue; it results in watery nose, bad throat and hoarse voice. One should avoid crowds. It is a viral disease and no cure for it has not been developed so far. Gonorrhea: A venereal disease. Gout: A disease with inflammation, especially of great toe. Gynaecology : The study of the diseases of women. Hay Fever: It is one of the allergic diseases and is caused by abnormal sensitivity to certain grass pollens found in early summer. Homeopathy: A system of medicine discovered by Hahnemann, a German physician. It is based on two assumptions. (1) Diseases may be cured by producing the symptoms of the same disease by giving drugs. (2) Drugs have more potent effect, when given in small doses. Hypermetropia (Long sightedness): One can see the object at greater distances but not the nearer ones; it can be remedied by convex lenses. Immunity: Power of the living organism to resist and overcome diseases. Insulin: The internal secretion of the pancreas used in the treatment of diabetes. Jaundice: Yellow coloration of the skin and other tissues of the body by excess of the bile pigment present in the blood and the lymph. Kala-azar: Known also as Mediterranean fever. It mostly occurs in tropical countries and its symptoms are the growth and swelling of spleen and liver, etc. In India, its major epicenters are Bihar and West Bengal. Leprosy: Endemic disease caused by germ similar to that of tuberculosis; it affects the skin and the nerves; deformities arise in the body. Leukaemia: There is a great increase in the number of white cells in the system, red corpuscles break down causing anaemia, there is swelling of the spleen also. Measles: An acute infectious human disease with red rash. Meningitis: An infection of the membranes of the brain. Mumps: An infectious disease usually occurring in childhood marked by the swelling of the glands in front of the ears. One attack gives life-long immunity.



Myopia (Short-sightedness): When a person can see nearer objects distinctly but not the distant ones, it can be correct by using concave lenses. Pasteurization: The heating and then sudden cooling of a liquid to a certain temperature to kill all germs. Milk is treated in this way by Pasteur’s method of sterilization. Penicillin: A new antibiotic drug obtained from moulds which has revolutionized the whole medical treatment. It kills pus germs, and is a specific cure for pneumonia and venereal diseases. Photosynthesis: The phenomenon by which the plants assimilate their food from the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. It is also called carbon assimilation. Piles: There are various veins in the rectum or around the anus. The immediate cause of the disease is pressure on the veins, which prevents the free flow of blood. It is mainly due to constipation and pregnancy. If it grows patient suffers from pain after the bowels have been emptied. Pneumonia : An inflammatory condition of the lung tissue accompanied by pain in the chest. Pyorrhea: An infection of the gums. Teeth become loose on account of excessive bleeding and discharge of pus. Rheumatism: Its cause is unknown and its symptoms are fever and pain in the joints followed by disease of the valves of the heart. Rickets: A disease caused due to the deficiency of vitamin D, common in children. The bones get softened, bent and become deformed. Ringworm: It is an infectious disease and is caused by a fungus. Hair wither and bluish patches are formed and it is accompanied by severe itching. Serum : It is a fluid, which is separated when blood clots. Scurvy: It is bleeding disorder caused by the lack of vitamin C and can be best cured by lime juice which contains vitamin C. Smallpox: An acute infectious disease characterized by fever, severe headache, and pain in the joints and rash. The best safeguard is vaccination invented by Edward Jenner. Sphygmomanometer: It is an apparatus for measuring blood pressure. Sprain: Overstretching of the ligaments due to injury to a joint. Sulfa Drugs: A name referring to a group of new drugs used in the treatment of various bacterial disease. Sulphonamide cures pneumonia, gonorrhoea, etc. Sulphanamide: A name referring to a group of new drugs used in the treatment of various bacterial diseases. Bayer, the German chemist, was the first to discover it. It is employed for curing venereal diseases, dysentery and also as an antiseptic. Syphilis: A contagious venereal disease due to an infection caused by sexual intercourse. Its cure was discovered by Paul Ehrlich. Tetanus: It is a disease caused by Tetanus bacillus found in rich soil or the dung of a horse. The disease affects the nervous system and it can prove fatal. However, now it is possible to get immunity by anti-tetanus injection. Trachoma: An infectious disease of the eye. Typhoid Fever: Characterized by prolonged fever, enlargement of the spleen, profuse coloured rashes and perforation of the intestines.



Typhus: It is a disease caused by the bite of lice which carry germs. It is very frequent after wars etc. They damage or destroy the cells, they produce virus disease; polio, small pox and rabies are typical examples. Virus is a parasite, it cannot be destroyed without damaging the cells, no specific treatment has so far been found for the disease caused by the virus, the best example is common cold. Whooping Cough: An infectious cough, generally among children. There are three stages. In the first stage one gets cold, etc., second is of typical cough and in the final stage the patient starts recovering. Yellow fever: It is a dangerous disease and its symptoms are jaundice; weakness, black vomit and fever. It is caused by a certain type of a mosquito found in the tropical regions.

SCIENTIFIC TERMS AND INSTRUMENTS

Absolute Zero: The lowest temperature conceivable which is equal to - 273o C, that can be indicated by the gas thermometer. At this temperature volume of any gas occupies no space; it gets liquefied. Atomic Number: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic number. Hydrogen has its atomic number 1, helium 2. Alternating Current: A current that flows in one direction during first half revolution of a coil and in opposite direction during the second half revolution is called alternating current. Alloy: A homogeneous mixture of a metal with another metal or a non-metal. Allotropy: The properly possessed by certain elements to exist in more than one form, similar chemically but dissimilar physically, e.g., there are several allotropic forms of carbon and sulphur. Amorphous: Substances which are non-crystalline, such as amorphous carbon. Amalgam: The compound of two or more elements, one of which is essentially mercury. Antenna: The portion, usually a wire or wires, of a transmitter or a receiving set that sends out or receives radio waves in space. It may have various shapes. Some are large dish-like structures, others have odd spring-like projections. Apollo: The name of the United States project to land man on the moon. Apollo XI landed on the moon in July, 1969. Artificial Gravity: This is actually the creation of centrifugal force by causing a craft-life object, the popularly known space station, to slowly rotate. This is just one more attempt to imitate the natural environment. Atlantis: The space shuttle Atlantis was launched on April 5, 1991, and in it the US astronants walked in space for the first time in five years. The crew of four men and a woman deployed a scientific satelite to study the gamma rays. Astronaut: “Star-sailor” or one who is chosen to go on flights into space. Atomic Fission: The splitting of a heavy element into two smaller units yielding a great amount of energy. Atomic Fusion: The joining of two very light elements to make a bigger unit yielding a great amount of energy. Antimissile: An explosive missile launched to intercept and destroy another missile on flight. Anti-ballistic missile (ABM): It is a device to destroy the guided missiles of the enemy carrying nuclear warhead.



Altimeter: An instrument used in aircraft to measure altitude, Aneroid barometer is the main part of this instrument and it registers the decrease of pressure with height. Anemometer: An instrument for measuring the strength of the wind. Ammeter: An instrument for measuring the amperage of an electric current. Audiometer: An instrument for measuring the intensity of sound. Barometer: An instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. It was invented by Torricelli. Binoculars: An instrument for viewing distant objects more distinctly; it has a high magnifying power, and it can cover much wider field of view. Calorie: It is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram water by one degree centigrade. Catalysis: The action of a catalyst in changing the rate of a chemical action without its own participation in the reaction. Chlorination: Addition of liquid chlorine or bleaching powder to drinking water for sterilizing it. Conduction: It is the process of transmission of heat in which energy is handed over from one particle to another. Convection: It is the process of transmission of heat in which energy is communicated by the actual motion of particles of the medium. Cosmic rays: They are radiations which appear to be coming from the inter-stellar space. They possess a much greater penetrating power, but a shorter wavelength. Cape Kennedy: The launching area for the main United States East Coast Missile Range, located on the east coast of Florida, about 150 miles north of Miami Beach. India’s INSATIA was launched from here in April 82. Capsule: The original container for the astronauts in their orbiting flights around the earth. It is sealed tight and can maintain for an extended period of time an environment suitable for life to exit. Command Module: the section of the Apollo spacecraft which houses the crew of three astronauts and which is the only re-entering unit of the main sub-system used during the long flight. Communications Satellite: A satellite which is equipped to act as a middle relay station for a transmitting and receiving station pair thousands of miles apart. These would’nt have to rely upon ground cables which are not always available between the two points. Cardiogram: Medical instrument for tracing movement of heart. Chronometer: An accurate time measuring instrument kept on board of the ship. Clean Bomb: Newly designed U.S. bomb with a much less fall-out so as to cover a smaller area. Crescograph: An instrument for recording the growth of plants; invented by J.C. Bose. Cyclotron: It is an atom smasher. Compass, Mariner’s: Invented by the Chinese, this is an instrument by which the magnetic meridian is indicated, i.e., direction can be known on board of ship. It consists of a horizontal bowel containing alcohol and water, a card with 32 points, and a needle for pointing out the meridian. Computer: Electronic brain - is an automatic, very useful electronic machine designed to solve complex mathematical problems in a few seconds. It is being used in various business establishments.



Docking: The joining together of two separate unit in space although the two are not launched at the same time. This requires very careful selection of orbit and speed of the chasing vehicle to catch up with the pursued vehicle. Deliquescence: Certain substances like calcium chloride absorb moisture, when exposed to air and finally pass into a liquid form. Dialysis: Colloidal particles are retained by porous membrane, while crystalloids pass out, such as the process of separating sugar solution from starch solution. Dialysis machine is often used when the kidneys malfunction. Dehydrating agent : A substance which removes water from other substances. Deuterium: An isotope of hydrogen having twice the mass of ordinary hydrogen; it is called heavy hydrogen. Dynamo: An instrument for transforming mechanical energy into electrical energy. It depends on the principle of electro-magnetic induction. Dynamite: A powerful explosive, chief ingredient nitroglycerine. It was first invented by Nobel in 1867. Escape Velocity: Speed of about 25,000 miles an hour or 7 miles a second. A rocket launched with this speed will travel in a path that takes it right away from the earth. If the speed is less, the rocket will just go round the earth. Early Bird: The first commercial satellite for communicating television wireless message across the continents by the U.S.A. in 1964. Electron: It is a unit negative charge, distributed around the nucleus of an atom in orbits. Electrolysis: The process of splitting up an electrolyte or an acid solution by the passage of an electric current. Electroplating: It is the process whereby the coating of one metal can be deposited over the other metal. Dictaphone: It is a dictating and reproducing machine used in offices. Electron Microscope: A very powerful microscope which can magnify the image many times more than an ordinary microscope; employed for determining the composition of crystals. Epidiascope: A machine for projecting slides on the screen-usually for exhibiting cinema advertisements. Escalator: Is a flight of stairs that moves, so that it carries us to the top while we stand still. Fermentation: Slow decomposition of organic compounds brought about by living organisms called enzymes or chemical agents. Heavy water: It is a compound of heavy hydrogen (deuterium) and oxygen. The deuterium atom is twice as heavy as the hydrogen atom. Heavy water is used in nuclear research, and also for manufacturing compounds containing deuterium. Horse Power: It is the capacity of an agent which can perform 550-foot pound of work in one second. I HP = 746 Watt Infra-red: The invisible radiations lying beyond the red part of the spectrum are infra-red. The rays possess relatively greater heating capacity than visible radiations. Isobars: Atoms of different elements possessing the same atomic weight but different atomic numbers. Isotopes: It literally means `something in the same place’, i.e., the same place in the Periodic Table. They are elements the atoms of which have similar outsides but different insides; they have the same atomic number but different atomic weights.



Galvanometer: For detection of small currents. Guided Missile: A missile which can be guided (controlled) from the ground; it carries atomic war-head with a range of 10,000 kms. Geiger Counter: A device which can measure the level of radiation. Goddard, Dr. R.H.: An explorer of the early 1920’s in the field of rocketry. He did so much work laying the foundation for modern rocketry that he has been called the “Father of Modern Rocketry.” Geiger-Muller Counter: It is an instrument for recording the amount of radiation emitted by a source of radio-activity. Gravimeter: An instrument for taking gravity measurements under water, to determine the presence of oil deposits under water. Gyroscope: It is fitted as a stabilizer in ships and torpedoes. Hydrometer: Instrument to determine specific gravity of liquids. Usually in the form of a glass bulb. Hygrometer: An instrument for measuring the amount of water vapours in the atmosphere. A simple form of hygrometer consists of two vertical thermometers affixed to a frame. Hydrophone: An instrument for measuring sounds under water. Heat of Re-entry: Generated by friction between the surface of the earth and the air molecules. Heat Shield: A material placed in the front of the re-entering craft actually in the back with craft turned around which receives most of the heat generated and ablates away, carrying the excessive heat with it. Hydrogen Bomb: It is produced by the fusion of nuclei of lighter elements to form a heavier element. In nuclear fusion the two nuclei of light hydrogen element fuse to form a nucleus of greater mass, and in that fusion a large amount of energy is released. Jet Propulsion: A method of obtaining motion which makes use of Newton’s Third Law. A jet of particles is sent out of a nozzle with the resulting reaction of the craft moving in the opposite direction. Kilowatt-Hour: It is the unit of electrical energy; it is the amount of energy produced when one kilowatt of work is done in one hour. It is also called the Board of Trade Units. Kaleidoscope: This is an instrument by which a variety of beautiful images can be obtained by rotating it. It consists of a tube containing pieces of coloured glass. Lactometer: An instrument for determining the purity of milk. LASER: (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). It is a U.S. invention made by Dr. C. Gilbert Young. It is a kind of electric torch, whose powerfully concentrated pencil like beam of light can penetrate through a steel girder or diamonds in a fraction of a second. It can kill ulcer cells or cells in an eye tumour in a millionth of a second. It can transmit telephone conversation and television broadcasts. Laser beam can be employed for welding eye cornea, in the electronic industry and also for cutting metal sheets. Lunar Excursion Module: Unit which takes the two astronauts down to lunar surface, permits them to inspect the near lunar surface and then lifts them up back into orbit to join up with the rest of the spacecraft. Missile: Anything launched with the purpose of striking a target. Megaphone: An instrument for carrying sound to a far off distance. Microphone: It renders the sound audible, and also raises its pitch.



Neutron Bomb: It has been developed by the United States. The bomb would cause negligible damage to the buildings and other installations, but people would be killed instantly through radiation. Its deadly effect would be confined to a radius of few kms. Odometer: An instrument by which the distance covered by wheeled vehicles is recorded. Oscillograph: An instrument for recording electrical or mechanical vibrations. Ore: The mineral from which the metal can be extracted profitably. Osmosis: It is the flow of the solvent through a semi-permeable membrane from a less concentrated into a more concentrated solution. Osmosis occurs as a result of some pressure exerted by the molecules. Periscope: It is employed in submarines or trench warfare to give a clear view of the objects on the surface of ocean or ground. Phobos 2: The Soviet Union launched Phobos 2 to study the planet Mars. It entered Mars orbit on Jan 29, 1989 with two landers for deployment on the planet’s surface. But contact with the spacecraft was lost on March 27, 1989 when its antenna failed to look on earth. Scientific data of great importance have been collected. Photometer: An instrument used for the comparison of illuminating power. Pressure Suit: A suit worn to protect the wearer against sudden loss of cabin pressure which would cut off his oxygen supply and cause bubbles to form in his circulatory system and kill him. Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants manufacture their carbohydrates from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight. Phonograph: Invented by Edison in 1877; it is used for reproducing sound. Phosphorescence: Certain substances (compounds of alkaline and alkaline earth), when exposed to light shine in the dark. This effect is called phosphorescence. Producer Gas: It is a mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen made by passing air over red hot coke. Potentiometer: For measuring potential difference between two points. Pyrometer: An instrument for measuring high temperature from a distance. Photo-Electric Cell: The instrument which registers light intensities and transforms them into electromagnetic waves; it is used in television. Quantum Theory: The theory by Max Planck, that all electromagnetic radiations are emitted in tiny amounts called quanta. Radio-isotopes: They are chemical twins, i.e., chemically these substances behave exactly like, but physically they are different. They emit radiation, i.e., Alpha, Beta and gamma rays. They are produced in nuclear reactors by irradiating various elements. They are used in medicine, industry and agriculture. Refrigerator: This is a machine for creating low temperature in an enclosed space. Now-a-days, refrigerators are extensively employed to store fruits, vegetables, medicines, etc., and thus prevent them from decomposing. RADAR: Radio, Angle, Direction and Range. One of the most far-reaching modern developments of wireless waves has been the grown of radio location technique or radar. It is an instrument for detecting the presence of any aircraft (its distance, speed and direction). Radio Telescope: A telescope with parabolic dishes of huge diameter (200 to 300) which can scan slowly the radio waves, and focus them on the antenna, and thus it can measure their strength and frequency, so it



makes it possible to pinpoint invisible stars. A Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, the largest in Asia is in operation at the Inter-University Centre For Astronomy and Astro-Physics at Pune. Rendezvous: The join together at a chosen meeting place. The actual joining is called “docking”. Rocket: A device which can produce thrust by burning fuel and is capable of moving itself as a result of reaction. Rain gauge: An instrument used for the recording of rainfall at a particular place. Sublimation: In which solids pass directly to vapour state either on heating or cooling and vice versa e.g. iodine. Stainless steel: The steel with 12 per cent of chromium which is rendered rust proof for cutlery and utensils. Seismometer: An apparatus for measuring and recording earthquake shocks. Supersonic Aircraft: An airplane which can fly at a speed greater than that of sound i.e. about 1250 km per hour. Submarine: A vessel that may be submerged by filling the tanks with water and then propelled under water; used chiefly in times of war or firing torpedoes. By means of a periscope which is jutting out, the submariner Semaphore: A signalling device consisting of two moveable arms worked by levers, it is termed as flag signalling. Saccharmometer: Instrument to determine amount of sugar in a solution by light. Used in breweries. Sextant: An optical instrument used for finding out the altitude of celestial bodies and their angular distances. The invention is attributed to John Hadley. Spectrometer: An instrument by which the angular deviation of a light ray through a prism can be determined. Space Suit: A suit which can give the necessary emergency environment for an astronaut in case of cabin pressure failure. If he wishes to go out and around the ship, he will wear the suit temporarily while in space. Stethoscope: An instrument by which the movements and condition of heart and lungs can be easily heard and analyzed. It was invented by Laennec. Sphygmomanometer: Instrument for measuring pressure of blood in the arteries. Telescope: A machine which records automatically messages received on telephone wires; and they are typed out. It is extensively used by the business houses, newspapers and the telegraph department. Theodolite: An instrument used by the surveyors for measuring the angles of elevation and depression. Thermocouple: A pair of dissimilar metals so joined as to produce a thermo-electric effect when the contact surfaces are at different temperatures. Transformer: It is an electrical apparatus and is used to convert high voltage to low and vice versa. Tachometer: They are horizontal wheels propelled by steam, air or water and they provide power for the propulsion of many ships or for generating electricity. Nowadays gas turbines have also become popular Voyager 2: In August 1989, an extraordinary 12 year odyssey reached its culmination when the spacecraft made its approach to the planet Neptune. Originally slated to reach only Jupiter and Saturn in a mission that would have been over in 1981, Voyager performed far beyond expectations. By closing on to Neptune, the spacecraft had discovered three complete rings around the planet as well as six new moons, with a life expectancy of at least 20 more years, Voyager then headed out towards the edge of the solar system. Volatile: Substances can vaporize with a slight application of heat for example, Iodine.



Water Gas: A fuel gas mix of carbon mono-oxide and hydrogen (COH2) made by passing steam over red hot coke. Weightlessness: The absence of weight due to other forces being introduced to counteract the force of weight. It is generally felt far away from any strong gravitational field in a region where all fields are weak. X-Rays: Discovered by Roentgen (Germany) in 1895 (so-called ‘X’ means unknown). He found that when an electric current was applied to one end of the Crooke’s tube (vacuum tube), the glass at the other end began to glow. Later he discovered that the invisible rays had remarkable power of penetration. They are employed for detecting fractures in the human body, also for treatment of certain diseases, for they destroy certain unwanted cells, also for detecting the position of atoms in crystals.

DIFFERENT AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE

SOMETHING ON SCIENTIFIC UNITS

AREA TOPIC OF STUDYAnatomy Study of bodily structure by cutting up animal bodies Archaeology Study of ancient civilization from old monuments by excavations Avionics Electronic Control in aircraft Astrophysics Physical nature and composition of stars Acoustics Sound, its production, transmission and effects Ballistics Launching projectiles into the atmosphere or space Biochemistry Physio-chemical processes the life phenomena of plants and animals Callisthenics Exercises for promoting beauty and strength Cartography Making geographical maps Cosmography Description, mapping of general features of the universe or earth Cybernetics Study of control in machines Cryogenics Study of production, application and control of very low temperatures Demography Statistics of birth, diseases, etc., illustrating conditions of community Entomology Study of insects Ethnology Races and their relations to one another and their characteristics Eugenics Science of production of superior human beings Ecology Study of living beings Vs. their environment Etymology Origins of words Ethnography Regional distribution of the races of mankind Genealogy Descent of a family in the shape of with branches Gastronomy Art and science of good eating Geophysics Matter and energy which brings about changes in the earth’s surface Geodesy Shape and area of the earth Horticulture Art of garden cultivation Hydropathy Medical treatment by external and internal application of water Hydroponics Soilless agriculture, also called water culture Heliotherapy Use of sun-baths in healing diseases Histology Study if internal body structure by microscope Lexicography Dictionary- making Metereology Science of weather and climate Mycology Study of fungi Nephrology Study of kidney disorders Ornithology Study of birds Oncology Study of cancers and tumours Ontology Study of knowledge



MAJOR MEASUREMENTS

Acre: An area of 43,000 square feet. Originally, the area a yoke of oxen could plough in one day. Astronomical Unit (A.U.): 93,000,000 miles, the average distance of the earth from the sun. Used in astronomy. BTU: British Thermal Unit. Amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit (252 calories). Decibel: Unit of relative loudness of sound. One decibel is the smallest amount of change detectable by the human ear. Hertz: Modern unit for measurement of wave frequencies (equivalent to “cycles per second”). Horsepower: The power needed to lift 33,000 pounds a distance of one foot in one minute. Karat (Kt.): A measure of the purity of gold, indicating how many part out of 24 are pure. For example, 18 karat gold is ¾ pure. Sometimes spelt carat. Knot: A unit used for measuring the speed of ship. Light Year: 5,880,000,000,000 miles, the distance light travels in a year at the rate of 186,281.7 miles per second. (If astronomical unit were represented by one inch, a light year would be represented by about one mile.). Used for measurements in interstellar space. Parsec: Approximately 3.26 light-year or 19.2 trillion miles. Term is combination of first syllables of parallax and second, and distance is that of imaginary star when lines drawn from it to both earth and sun form a maximum angle or parallax of one second (1/3600 degrees). Used for measuring interstellar distances. Roentgen: Dosage unit of radiation exposure produced by X-rays. Curie and Rutherford are also the units of measuring radioactivity. Watt: Unit of power. The power used by a current of one ampere across a potential difference of one volt equals one watt.

SOME INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY LINES

MAJOR INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Durand Line Between Pakistan and Afghanistan Hindenburg Line Between Germany and Poland Hot Line A 24-hour telecom link to avoid war by misunderstanding by

maintaining a constant touch over telephone Mannerheim Line Line of fortification on Russo-Finnish border McMohan Line Boundary between India and China Maginot Line Line of fortification between France and Germany Plimsoll Line Line on the hull of the ship to avoid overloading Radcliffe Line Between India and Pakistan 38th Parallel The line dividing North Korea from South Korea 17th Parallel Boundary between the erstwhile North and South Vietnam 24th Parallel Pakistan claims that the 24th parallel should be the line of

demarcation between India and Pakistan, a claim which has been rejected by India



The United Nations Organization (UNO) celebrated its 50th anniversary in October, 1995. It is an association of 189 countries which have pledged themselves to maintain international peace and security and co-operate in solving international political, economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems towards achieving this end. The name United Nations was coined by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and was first used in the Declaration by United Nations in 1942 during the Second World War. Its membership is open to all peace-loving nations which accept the obligations of the Charter and are willing and able to carry them out in practice. Taiwan and Vatican are not members of the UNO. Very recently, Switzerland has also sought the membership of the UN. Official Languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish Flag of the UN: Contains the UN emblem in white centered on a light blue background. Principal Organs of the UN: General Assembly, The Secretariat, The Security Council, The Trusteeship Council, The Economic and Social Council and International Court of Justice. Headquarters: New York City The General Assembly is a major organ of the UN. The Assembly meets at least once a year and elects the non-permanent members of the Security Council. The Security Council has 15 members, out of which are 5 permanent members (P-5) and the rest 10 are non-permanent members, elected for a 2-year term. The permanent members have the power to veto any resolution of the Security Council. The Security Council is the major policy-making body of the UN. New member-countries are admitted by the General Assembly on the recommendations of the Security Council. Permanent Members of the Security Council (P-5): China, France, Russia, UK, USA

OTHER SPECIALIZED INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES

Name of the Agency Headquarters 1. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Vienna 2. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) Vienna 3. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Rome 4. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Paris 5. United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees (UNHCR) Geneva 6. World Health Organization (WHO) Geneva 7. World Trade Organization (WTO) Geneva 8. International Telecommunications Union (ITU) Geneva 9. International Labour Organization (ILO) Geneva 10. International Monetary Fund (IMF) Washington D.C. 11. International Bank For Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) Washington D.C. 12. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Montreal 13. International Postal Union (IPU) Berne 14. Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries (OPEC) Vienna - (Not under UN)



NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 1. Amnesty International: A world-wide human rights organizations with headquarters in London. It is a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize also. 2. The Red Cross: Established by Henri Dunant in 1859, it is engaged in humanitarian work across the world. Headquarters : Geneva 3. Scouts and Guides: A worldwide organized movement for young people started by Baden Powell. The World Scouts Bureau is in Geneva.

NATIONAL HONOURS AND AWARDS Bharat Ratna and national honours and awards are presented on Republic Day in recognition of exceptional and distinguished services of high order in any field. Bharat Ratna: The award is given for exceptional work for the advancement of art, literature and science and in recognition of public service of the highest order. Some exemplary persons who were hounoured by this award are C. Subramaniam, Jayaprakash Narayan, Amartya Sen, Ravi Shankar, Lata Mangeshkar, Bismillah Khan. Padma Vibhushan: The award is given for exceptional and distinguished services in any field including service rendered by government servants. Padma Bhushan: The award is given for distinguished service of a high order in any field, including service rendered by government servants.

GALLANTRY AWARDS

Param Vir Chakra: The highest decoration for valour is the Param Vir Chakra which is awarded for the most conspicuous bravery or some daring or pre-eminent act of valour or self-sacrifice in the presence of the enemy, whether on land, at sea or in the air. Mahavir Chakra: Mahavir Chakra is the second highest decoration and is awarded for acts of conspicuous gallantry in the presence of enemy, whether on land, at sea or in the air. Ashok Chakra: The medal is awarded for the most conspicuous bravery or some daring or prominent act of valour or self-sacrifice on land, at sea or in the air. Kirti Chakra: The decoration is awarded for conspicuous gallantry. It is made of standard silver and is circular in shape. The obverse and the reverse are exactly the same as in Ashok Chakra. Shaurya Chakra: The decoration is awarded for an act of gallantry. It is exactly like Ashok Chakra, except that it is made of bronze.



OTHER NATIONAL AWARDS

Arjuna Awards: The Arjuna Award is given for excellence in any sport. It carries an amount of Rs. 1.5 lakh. B.D. Goenka Award: Given for excellence in journalism. The award consists of a citation, a sun chariot and Rs. 1 lakh in cash. Bhartiya Jnanpith Award: The Jnanpith Award has been sponsored by Bharatiya Jnanpith, a cultural-literary society, founded in 1944 by the noted industrialist, Mr. Shanti Prasad Jain, with the twin object of rediscovering the neglected treasures of Indian philosophy and of encouraging creative writing in various modern Indian languages. The award carries with it a cash prize of Rs. 5 lakh, a citation plaque and a replica of the Vagdevi, the symbol of outstanding literary achievement. The award is given to any Indian writer in any of the 18 languages mentioned in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. It is given for outstanding contribution to creative writing in a specified period of 15 years but excluding the five years immediately preceding the year. It carries a cash component of Rs. 5 lakh. C.K. Nayudu Award: Given to exceptionally good cricket players. Chameli Devi Jain Award: Given to outstanding woman journalists. Dada Saheb Phalke Award: Given for outstanding contribution to filmmaking. The award, the highest official recognition for film personalities, consists of a cash prize, which has been raised to Rs. Two lakhs, a ‘Swarna Kamal’, and a shawl. Introduced in 1971, the Dada Saheb Phalke award was first given to Devika Rani. Dayawati Modi Award: The Dayawati Modi Foundation gives the award for outstanding contributions in the field of culture for Art, Culture and Education. Dhanvantri Award: Given to outstanding medical researchers. The award carries a citation, a gold medal and a bronze statue of Dhanvantri, the god of healing. Dronacharya Award: The award, instituted in 1985, is given to eminent coaches who have successfully trained international sportspersons and teams. It carries a statuette of sportspersons and teams. It carries a statuette of legendary archer Guru Dronacharya, a scroll and Rs. 2,50,000 in cash. G. D. Birla Award: Given in the field of science. Gandhi Peace Prize: Honour carrying the highest amount of cash in India. This is awarded for exemplary work in the field of peace-making efforts and constructive work for the betterment of society (at national or international level)



INTERNATIONAL AWARDS AND HONOURS Golden Panda Award: The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) gives the Golden Panda Award to persons making outstanding films/ documentaries on environmental issues. Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament and Development: Given at international level, for outstanding contributions in any or all of these fields by the Government of India. Jamnalal Bajaj Award: Given for outstanding contribution in the field of constructive work and also for spreading Gandhian values outside India. Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding: The honour is in recognition “for outstanding contribution to the promotion of international understanding, goodwill and friendship among the people of the world”. It carries a citation, a trophy and Rs. 15 lakh in cash and is administered by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations. Kalinga Prize: Given by UNESCO, the Kalinga Prize is presented annually to a person or persons in recognition of his / her outstanding contribution towards popularization of science and technology. The award carries a silver medal and a cash component of $1,000. Pulitzer Prize: The highest American prize for literature and also journalism. Right Livelihood Award: Also known as the Alternative Nobel Prize. Given by the Right Livelihood Foundation of Sweden, it recognizes significant achievements in social and constructive work in any field. Templeton Prize: Prize for progress in religion. The prize is the world’s richest annual prize for achievement in any field. Volvo Environmental Prize: Given in recognition of work on how the world’s energy resources can be made to suffice as the world’s population grows and the global environment becomes threatened. Nobel Prize: Started as per the will of the inventor of dynamite, Alfred Nobel, these are given in six different fields. The Nobel Prize is regarded as the highest distinction in its respective field. The six fields are : 1. Physics 2. Chemistry 3. Medicine and Physiology 4. Literature 5. Economics 6. Peace



BOOKS ‘N’ AUTHORS A Bend in the River : V.S. Naipaul A Brush with Life : Satish Gujral A Captain’s Dairy : Alec Stewart A Foreign Policy for India : I.K. Gujral A General and His Army : George Vladimov A Himalayan Love Story : Namita Gokhale A Last Leap South : Vladimir Zhirinovsky A Secular Agenda : Arun Shourie A Suitable Boy : Vikram Seth A Thousand Suns : Dominique Lapierre A Tryst With Destiny : Stanley Wolfer A Tunnel of Time – An Autobiographny : R.K. Laxman Abbot : Walter Scott Adhe Adhure : Mohan Rakesh Adonis : P.B. Shelley Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The : Mark Twain Adventures of Robinson Crusoe : Daniel Defoe Adventures of Sherlock Holmes : Sir Arthur Canan Doyle Adventures of Tom Sawyer, The : Mark Twain Affluent Society, The : J.K. Galbraith Age of Reason : Jean Paul Sartre Agni Pariksha : Acharya Tulsi Agni Veena : Kazi Nazrul Islam Agony and the Ecstasy, The : Irving Stone Ain-I-Akbari : Abul Fazal Ajatshatru : Jai Shankar Prasad Akbarnama : Abul Fazal Alice in Wonderland : Lewis Carroll All is Well that Ends Well : William Shakespeare All the King’s Men : Robert Penn Warren All the President’s Men : Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward All the Prime Minister’s Men : Janardhan Thakur All Things Bright and Beautiful : James Herroit An Autobiography : Jawaharlal Nehru An Equal Music : Vikram Seth An Eye to China : David Selbourne An Idealist View of Life : Dr. S. Radhakrishnan An Unfinished Dream : Dr. Verghese Kurien Ananadmath : Bankim Chandra Chatterjee Ancient Mariner, The : Samuel Taylor Coleridge And Quiet Flows the Don : Mikhail Sholokhov Animal Farm, The : George Orwell Anna Karenina : Leo Tolstoy Antony and Cleopatra : William Shakespeare Apple Cart : George Bernard Shaw Arabian Nights : Sir Richard Burton Arms and the Man : George Bernard Shaw Around the World in Eighty Days : Jules Verne



Arthashastra : Kautilya As You Like It : William Shakespeare Ashtadhyayi : Panini Asian Drama : Gunar Myrdal Autobiography of an Unknown Indian : Nirad C. Chaudhari Bang-I-Dara : Mohammad Iqbal Beloved : Toni Morrison Ben Hur : Lewis Wallace Between the Lines : Kuldip Nayar Beyond Boundaries - A Memoir : Swaraj Paul Bharat Bharati : Maithili Sharan Gupta Birds and Boats : Mark Twain Birth and Evolution of the Soul : Annie Besant Blasphemy : Tehmina Durrani Blind Men of Hindoostan – Indo-Pak Nuclear War : Gen. Krishna-Swamy Sundarji Brief History of Time, A : Stephen Hawking Broken Wings : Sarojini Naidu Bubble, The : Mulk Raj Anand Buddha Charitam : Ashvaghosha Bunch of Old Letters, A : Jawaharlal Mehru Byzantium : W.B. Yeats Canterbury Tales, The : Geoffery Chaucer Catch –22 : Joseph Heller Chidambara : Sumitranandan Pant Chitra : Rabindranath Tagore Comedy of Errors : William Shakespeare Communist Manifesto : Karl Marx Company of Women, The : Khushwant Singh Confessions of a Lover : Mulk Raj Anand Conquest of Self : M.K. Gandhi Conservationist, The : Nadine Gordimer Continent of Circe : Nirad C. Chaudhuri Coolie : Mulk Raj Anand Crime and Punishment : Fyodor Dostoevsky Critique of the Pure Reason, A : Immanuel Kant Crossing the Threshold of Hope : Pope John Paul II Dangerous Place, A : Daniel Patrick Moynihan Das Kapital : Karl Marx Dashkumar Charitam : Dandin Daughter of the East : Benazir Bhutto David Copperfield : Charles Dickens Descent of Man : Charles Darwin Deserted Village : Oliver Goldsmith Devdas : Sharat Chandra Chatterjee Development as Freedom : Amartya Sen Dharamshastra : Manu Diana – Her True Story : Andrew Martin Discovery of India : Jawarharwal Nehru Disgrace : J.M. Coetzee Divine Comedy : A. Dante



Divine Life : Swami Sivananda Doctor Zhivago : Boris Pasternak Doctor’s Dilemma : George Bernard Shaw Don Juan : George Bryon Don Quixote : Saavendra Miguel de Cervantes Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde : Robert Lousis Stevenson Dragon’s Seed : Pearl S. Buck Dragon’s Teeth : U.B. Sinclair Durgeshnandini : Bankim Chandra Chatterjee Earth : Emile Zola East West : Salman Rushdie East Wind : Pearl S. Buck Edwina and Nehru : Catherine Clement Emma : Jane Austen Ends and Means : Aldous Huxley Enemies : Maxim Gorky English August : Upamanyu Chatterjee Essays on Gita : Aurobindo Ghosh Fall of a Sparrow, The : Salim Ali Far From the Madding Crowd : Thomas Hardy Farewell to Arms, A : Earnest Hemingway Farm House : George Orwell Fasting and Feasting : Anita Desai Faust : J.W. Von Goethe For Whom the Bells Toll : Earnest Hemingway Fortynine Days : Amrita Pritam Freedom at Midnight : Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre Freedom from Fear : Aung San Suu Kyi Friends, Not Masters : Ayub Khan Ganadevata : Tara Shankar Bandopadhaya Gardener : Rabindranath Tagore Gathering Storm : Winston Churchil Geet Govinda : Jaya Dev Ghasiram Kotwal : Vijay Tendulkar Gita Rahasya : Bal Gangadhar Tilak Gitanjali : Rabinderanath Tagore Glimpses of World History : Jawaharlal Nehru Godaan : Munshi Prem Chand Godfather, The : Mario Puzo Golden Gate, The : Vikram Seth Gone with the Wind : Margaret Mitchell Good Earth : Pearl S. Buck Gora : Rabindranath Tagore Grammar of Politics : Harold Laski Great Expectations : Charles Dickens Guide, The : R.K. Narayan Gul-e-Naghma : Firaq Gorakhpuri Gulag Archipelago : Alexander Solzhenitsyn Gulistan Bostan : Sheikh Saadi



Gulliver’s Travels : Jonathan Swift Hamlet : William Shakespeare Harsha Charita : Bana Bhatta Heat and Dust : Ruth Prawer Jhabwala Himayalyan Blunder : J.P. Dalvi Hind Swaraj : M.K. Gandhi Hindu View of Life : Dr. S. Radhakrishnan His Excellency : Emile Zola Hungry Stones : Rabindranath Tagore I Dare : Parmesh Dangwal I Follow the Mahatma : K.M. Munshi Idols : Sunil Gavaskar If I am Assassinated : Z.A. Bhutto Illiad : Homer Imperial Woman : Pearl S. Buck Importance of Being Earnest : Oscar Wilde In Memoriam : Lord Alfred Tennyson In Search of Gandhi : Richard Attenborough India – A Wounded Civilisation : V.S. Naipaul India Divided : Rajendra Prasad India – From Curzon to Nehru and After : Durga Dass India is for Sale : Chitra Subramaniam India Today : Rajni Palme Dutt India Unbound : Gurcharan Das India Wins Freedom : Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Indica : Megasthenes Inner Circle, The : Jonathan First Inside the CBI : Joginder Singh Insider, The : P.V. Narasimha Rao Invisible Man, The : H.G. Wells It’s Always Possible : Kiran Bedi Jobs for Millions : V.V. Giri Judgement, The : Kuldip Nayar Julius Caeser : William Shakespeare Jungle Book : Rudyard Kipling Jurassic Park : Michael Crichton Kadambari : Bana Bhatt Kagaz Te Canvas : Amrita Pritam Kali Aandhi : Kamleshwar Kamadhenu : Kubernath Ray Kamasutra : Vatsyayan Kamayani : Jai Shankar Prasad Kapal Kundala : Bankim Chandra Chaterjee Kashmir – A Tragedy of Errors : Tavleen Singh Kashmir – Behind the Vale : M.J. Akbar Kayakalp : Munshi Prem Chand Kim : Rudyard Kipling King Lear : William Shakespeare Kitni Navon Main Kitni Bar : S.H. Vatsyayan Kore Kagaz : Amrita Pritam



Kubla Khan : Samuel Taylor Coleridge Kulliyat : Ghalib Kumar Sambhava : Kalidas La Divine Comedia : A. Dante Lady Chatterley’s Lover : D.H. Lawrence Lajja : Taslima Nasreen Last Analysis : Saul Bellow Last Burden : Upamanyu Chatterjee Le Contract Social (The Social contract) : J.J. Rousseau Leaves of Grass : Walt Whiteman Les Miserables : Victor’ Hugo Leviathan : Thomas Hobbes Life Divine : Aurbindo Ghosh Lolita : V. Nabokov

Long Walk to Freedom : Nelson Mandela Lost Child : Mulk Raj Anand Love and Longing in Bombay : Vikram Chandra Love Story : Eric Segal Lycidas : John Milton

Macbeth : William Shakespeare Mahatma Gandhi : Romain Rolland Main Waqt Ke Hoon Samane : Girija Kumar Mathur Malavikagnimitra : Kalidas Malgudi Days : R.K. Narayan

Malti Madhav : Bhavabhuti Man and Superman : George Bernard Shaw Maneaters of Kumaon : Jim Corbett Man for All Seasons, A : Robert Bolt Managing the Future : Peter F. Drucker Marriage and Morals : Bertrand Russel Masters, The : C.P. Snow Maurice : E.M. Forster Mayor of Casterbridge, The : Thomas Hardy Meghdoot : Kalidas Mein Kampf : Adolf Hilter Memories of Hope : Charles de Gaulle Merchant of Venice, The : William Shakespeare Middle March : George Eliot Midnight’s Children : Salman Rushdie Midnight Diaries : Boris Yelstin Midsummer Night’s Dream, A : William Shakespeare Mill on the Floss : George Eliot Million Mutinies Now, A : V.S. Naipaul Moor’s Last Sigh, The : Salman Rushdie Mother : Maxim Gorky Mother India : Katherine Mayo Mountbatten and the Partition of India : Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre Mrinalini : Bankim Chandra Chatterjee



Mritunjaya : Shivaji Sawant Much Ado About Nothing : William Shakespeare Mudrarakshasa : Vishakhadatta Murder in the Cathedral : T.S.Eliot My Days : R.K. Narayan My Experiments with Truth : M.K. Gandhi My Presidential Years : R Venkataraman My Son’s Father : Dom Moraes My South Block Years : J.N. Dixit My Struggles : E.K. Nayanar My Truth : Indira Gandhi Naked Triangle, The : Balwant Gargi Nana : Emile Zola Natya Shastra : Bharat Muni Neela Chand : Shiv Prasad Singh Netaji – Dead or Alive? : Samar Guha Nice Guys Finish Second : B.K. Nehru Nine Days’ Wonder : George Orwell Niti-Shataka : Bhartrihari No Full Stops in India : Mark Tully

1984 : George Orwell Odyssey : Homer Of Human Bondage : W. Samerset Maugham Old Man and the Sea, The : Ernest Hemingway Oliver Twist : Charles Dickens Origin of Species : Charles Darwin Othello : William Shakespeare Our Films, Their Films : Satyajit Ray Paddy Clarke Ha, Ha, Ha : Roddy Doyle Pakistan Cut to Size : D.R. Mankekar Pakistan Papers : Mani Shankar Aiyer Pakistan – The Gathering Storm : Benazir Bhutto Panchatantra : Vishnu Sharma Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained : John Milton Passage to England, A : E.M. Forster Pather Panchali : Bibhuti Bhushan Bandyopadhayaya Pickwick Papers : Charles Dickens Pilgrim’s Progress, The : John Bunyan Politics : Aristotle Post Office : Rabindranath Tagore Power and Glory : Graham Greene Pratham Pratishruti : Ashapurna Devi Pride and Prejudice : Jane Austen Prince, The : Niccolo Machiavelli Princess in Love : Anna Pasternak Principia : Isaac Newton Prison Diary : Jayaprakash Narayan Prisoner’s Scrapbook, A : L.K.Advani Prithviraj Raso : Chandra Bardai Raghuvamsa : Kalidas



Rajtarangini : Kalhana Ramcharita Manas : Tulsidas Ramayana : Maharishi Valmiki Rangbhoomi : Munshi Prem chand Rang-e-Shairi : Firaq Gorakhpuri Ratnavali : Harsha Vardhan Ravi Paar (Across the Ravi ) : Gulzar Razor’s Edge : W. Somerset Maugham Reflections on the French Revolution : Edmund Burke Republic : Plato Return of the Aryans : Bhagwan S. Gidwani Return of the Native, The : Thomas Hardy Revenue Stamp, The : Amrita Pritam Riding the Nuclear Tiger : N.Ram Ritu Samhara : Kalidas Rivals, The : R.B. Sheridan Robinson Crusoe : Daniel Defoe Romeo and Juliet : William Shakespeare Rubaiyat : Omar Khayyam Rubaiyat-I-Omar Khayyam : Edward Fitzgerald Rukh Te Rishi : Harbhajan Singh Saket : Maithili Sharan Gupta Sakharam Binder : Vijay Tendulkar Satanic Verses : Salman Rushdie Satyartha Prakash : Swami Dayanand Scarlet Pimpernel, The : Baroness Orczy Schindler’s List : Thomas Keneally Second World War, The : Winston Churchill Sense and Sensibility : Jane Austen Shahnama : Firdausi Shakuntala : Kalidas Shame : Salman Rushdie Shape of Things to Come : H.G. Wells She Stoops to Conquer : Oliver Goldsmith Socialite Evenings : Shoba De Sohrab and Rustam : Matthew Arnold Sole Survivor : Derek Hansen Song of India, The : Saroniji Naidu Song of Solomon : Toni Morrison Sonnets, The : William Shakespeare Sons and Lovers : D.H. Lawrence Sound and the Fury, The : William Faulkner Soz-I-Watan : Munshi Prem Chand Speed Post : Shobha De Starry Nights : Shobha De Stopping by Woods : Robert Frost Story of My Experiments with Truth, The : Mahatama Gandhi Story of Civilisation, The : Will Durant Story of Philosphy, The : Will Durant Sunny Days : Sunil Gavaskar Surviving Men : Shobha De Swami and Friends : R.K. Narayan Swapnavasvadatta : Bhasa Sword and the Sickle, The : Mulk Raj Anand



Tale of Two Cities, A : Charles Dickens Tales from Shakespeare : Charles Lamb Tales of Sherlock Holmes : Sir Arthur Conan Doyle Tamas : Bhisham Sahni Tarkash : Javed Akhtar Tempest, The : William Shakespeare The Calcutta Chromosome : Amitav Ghosh The Corrupt Society : Chandan Mitra The Dark Side of Camelot : Seymore Hersh The God of Small Things : Arunadhati Roy The Ground Beneath Her Feet : Salman Rushdie The Interpreter of Maladies : Jhumpa Lahiri The Knights of Falsehood : K.P.S. Gill The Lord of the Rings : J.R.R. Tolkien The Moor’s Last Sigh : Salman Rushdie The Pathology of Corruption : S.S.Gill The Seagull : Antony Chekhov The Sikhs : Patwant Singh The Silent Cry : Kenzaburo Oe Three Musketeers : Alexander Dumas Time Machine : H.G. Wells Toad in My Garden : Ruchira Mukherjee Traveller, The : Oliver Goldsmith Truth, Love and a Little Malice : Khushwant Singh Two Leaves and a Bud : Mulk Raj Anand Ugly Duckling, The : H.C. Anderson Ulysses : James Joyce Unhappy India : Lala Lajpat Rai Unto This Last : John Ruskin Untouchable : Mulk Raj Anand Untold Story : General B.M. Kaul Upturned Soil, The : Mikhail Sholohov Urvashi : Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar’ Uttar Ramcharita : Bhava Bhuti Vicar of Wakefield, The : Oliver Goldsmith View from the UN : U Thant Village, The : Mulk Raj Anand Vinay Patrika : Tulsidas Virangana : Maithili Sharan Gupta Waiting for Godot : Thomas Becket Waiting for the Mahatma : R.K. Narayan Wake Up India : Annie Besant War of Indian Independence, The : Vir Savarkar We, the People : N.A. Pakhivala Wealth of Nations, The : Adam Smith Week With Gandhi, A : Louis Fischer West Wind : Pearl S. Buck Westward Ho : Charles Kingsley What the Body Remembers : Shauna Singh Baldwin



Widening Divide : Rafiq Zakaria Wings of Fire : A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Wonder That Was India, The : A.L. Basham Worshipping False Gods : Arun Shourie Wuthering Heights : Emile Bronte Yama : Mahadevi Varma Yashodhara : Maithili Sharan Gupta Zhivago, Dr. : Boris Pasternak Zulfi, My Friend : Piloo Mody

FIRST IN THE WORLD

Asian to win Nobel Prize (for Literature) : Rabindernath Tagore (India; 1913) Asian woman to cross the English Channel : Arti Saha (India; 1959) Chairman of People’s Republic of China : Mao Tse-Tung (1949) Chinese pilgrim to visit India : Fahien (401-410) Englishman to receive Nobel Prize for Literature : Rudyard Kipling (1907) European to visit China : Macro Polo (Italy; 13th C. AD) Foreigner to receive Bharat Ratna : Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1987) Governor General of Pakistan : Mohammed Ali Jinnah (1947) Man cosmonaut in space : Yuri Gagarin (former U.S.S.R; 1961) Man to climb Mount Everest twice : Nawang Gombu (India) Man to fly over both North and South Poles : Richard E. Byrd (U.S.) Man to fly over the English Channel : Louis Bleriot (France; 1909) Man to make a solo flight around the world : Wiley Post (1933) Man to set foot on moon : Neil Armstrong Man to walk in space : Alexei Leonov (former USSR) Men on Mt. Everest without Oxygen : Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler Man to climb Mount Everest : Tenzing Norgay (India) and

Edmund Hillary (New Zealand) (1953)

Mongol Emperor of China : Kublai Khan (13th C.AD) Muslim Invader of India : Mohammad-bin-Qasim (8th AD) Person to sail round the world : Magellan (Portuguese; 1519 – 1522) Pope to visit India : Pope Paul VI (1964) President of Chinese Republic : Sun Yat-sen(1921-1925) President of U.S.A. : George Washington(1789–1797) Prime Minister of Great Britain : Robert Walpole Prime Minister of Pakistan : Liaquat Ali Khan (1947) Secretary General of UN : Trygve Lie (Norway; 1946-1953) Speaker in Hindi at the UN : Atal Behari Vajpayee(India,1977) Swimmer to swim several Straits in one year : Mihir Sen (India; 1966) Test Tube Baby : Louise Joy Brown (England;1978) Woman cosmonaut in space : Valentina Tereshkova (USSR; 1963) Woman Judge of International Court of Justice : Rosalyn Higgins (Britain; 1995) Woman Judge of Supreme Court : Santra Day O’Connor (U.S.)



Woman President of a country : Maria Estela Peron (Argentina) Woman President of UN General Assembly : Vijaylakshmi Pandit (India; 1953) Woman Prime Minister of a country : S. Bhandaranaike (Sri Lanka; 1960) Woman to climb Mount Everest twice : Santosh Yadav (1993) Woman to climb Mount Everest : Junko Tabei (Japan; 1975) Woman to reach North Pole : Ann Bancroft (1986) Woman to travel South Pole alone : Liv Arnesen(Norway 1995

FIRST IN INDIA

Actress of the talkies : Zubeida, Alam Ara (1931) Actress to win Padma Shri Award : Nargis Dutt (1958) Bharat Ratna Award winner : C. Rajagopalachari (1954) British Governor General of Indian Union : Lord Mountbatten Captain of Test Cricket : C.K. Nayudu (1932) Century in Test cricket : Lala Amarnath (1933-1934) Chief Election Commissioner : Sukumar Sen (1950-1958) Chief Justice of India : Hiralal J. Kania (1950-1951) Commander-in-Chief : K.M. Cariappa (1949-1953) Cosmonaut : Rakesh Sharma (1984) Dada Saheb Phalke Award winner : Devika Rani Roerich (1969) Dancer to perform abroad : Uday Shankar Deputy Prime Minister : Vallabhbhai Patel (1947-1950) Emperor of Mughal Dynasty : Babar (1526-1530) English Song : My Heart is Beating … from Julie Field Marshal : S.H.F.J. Manekshaw (1973) Film Star Chief Minister : M.G. Ramachandran (Tamil Nadu) F. M. to present Budget three times in a row : Manmohan Singh (1993, 1994, 1995) Finix Award winner : Sr. P.C. Sorcar Geometer : Baudhayana, Sulva Sutras (800 BC) Governor General of British India : Warren Hastings (1774-1785) Grammarian : Panini, Ashtadhyaayi (6th C. BC) Home Minister : Vallabhbhai Patel (1946) ICS Officer : Satyendranath Tagore Indian chief of Air Staff : S. Mukherjee (1954-1960) Indian Chief of Army Staff : M. Rajendra Singh Indian Governor General of Indian Union : C. Rajagopalachari Indian Woman President of Indian National Congress : Sarojini Naidu (1925)

Jain Tirthankara : Rishabha Dev Jnanpith Award winner : G. Sankara Kurup, Odakuzhal (1965) Lady of the Indian Films : Devika Rani Roerich Lawgiver : Manu Smriti Man to climb Mount Everest without oxygen : Phu Darjee (1984) Managing Director of World Bank : Gautam Kazi (1995) Member of British Parliament : Dadabhai Naoroji (1862) Member of Viceroy’s Executive Council : Sir S.P. Sinha (1909) Miss Universe : Sushmita Sen (1994) Miss World : Reita Faria (1966)



Nishan-I-Pakistan Award winner : Morarji Desai (1991) Nobel Prize winner : Rabindranath Tagore, Gitanjali (1913) Oscar winner : Bhanu Athaiya Patricide : Ajatashatru’s killing of Bimbisara Pilot : J.R.D. Tata, Tata Airlines (1929) Presentation of Budget : R. Chetty, Finance Minister Presentation of General Budget : C.D. Deshmukh, Finance Minister(1952) President : Rajendra Prasad (1950-1962) President of Indian National Congress : W.C. Bannerjee (1885) President to die in harness : Zakir Hussain (1967-1969) Prime Minister : Jawaharlal Nehru (1947-1964) Prime Minister assassinated : Indira Gandhi (1984) Prime Minister to die in harness : Jawaharlal Nehru (1964) Prime Minister to head a minority government : Choudhary Charan Singh (1979- 1980) Prime Minister who did not face Parliament : Charan Singh Raman Magasasay Award Winner : Vinoba Bhave (1958) Recipient of World Food Prize : M.S. Swaminathan (1987) Slave Ruler of India : Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210) Speaker in Hindi at the UN : Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1977) Speaker of Lok Sabha : GV Mavalankar (1952-1957) Subscriber Telephone Dialling (STD) : Between Lucknow and Kanpur (1960) Test-tube baby : Baby Harsha or Indira (1986) Vice President : S. Radhakrishnan (1952-1962) Viceroy of India : Lord Canning (1858-1862) Woman (Muslim) Ruler of India : Razia Sultana (1236-1240) Woman Judge : Anna Chandi, Kerala Woman Ambassador : Vijaylakshmi Pandit (USSR) Woman at Antarctica : Meher Moos (1976) Woman Central Minister : Rajkumari Amrit Kaur (Health) Woman Chief Justice (of High Court) : Leila Seth (Himachal Pradesh, 1991) Woman Chief Minister : Sucheta Kripalani (UP, 1963-1967) Woman Foreign Minister : Lakshmi N. Menon (1957-1966) Woman Secretary General of Rajya Sabha : V.S. Rama Devi (1993) Woman Governor : Sarojini Naidu (Uttar Pradesh, 1947) Woman IAS Officer : Anna Rajam George (1950) Woman IPS Officer : Kiran Bedi (1974) Woman jet commander : Saudamini Deshmukh Woman Jnanpith Award winner : Ashapurna Devi, Prathama Pratishruti Woman Judge of Supreme Court : Meera Sahib Fatima Beevi (1989) Woman pilot (Indian Airlines) : Durba Banerjee (1966-1988) Woman President of Indian National Congress : Annie Besant (1917) Woman President of UN General Assembly : Vijaylakshmi Pandit (1953) Woman Prime Minister : Indira Gandhi (1966-1977, 1980-1984)



Woman Sahitya Akademi Award winner : Amrita Pritam, Sunehre (1956) Woman to climb Mount Everest : Bachendri Pal (1984) Woman to perform a solo flight : Harita Kaur Deol (1994) Woman to swim across English Channel : Arati Saha (1959) Woman to swim across the Strait of Gibraltar : Arti Pradhan Woman to win an Asiad gold : Kamaljit Sandhu (1970) Woman to go in Space : Kalpana Chawla (November 1997) Woman President of India : Prathiba Patil

DANCE, MUSIC, CULTURE……. Birju Maharaj : Kathak Gopi Krishna : Kathak Indrani Rahman : Odissi Vilayat Khan : Sitar Vishwamohan Bhatt : Guitar Zakir Hussain : Tabla Kelucharan Mahapatra : Odissi Leela Samson : Bharatnatyam Raja and Radha Reddy : Kuchipudi Rukmini Devi : Bharatnatyam Sachin Shankar : Creative Shambhu Maharaj : Kathak Sanyukta Panigrahi : Odissi Sitara Devi : Kathak Sonal Mansingh : Bharatnatyam, Odissi Uday Shankar : Kathakali Yamini Krishnamurthi : Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi

COMPOSERS/MUSICIANS Amir Khusro : Hindustani (Khayal) Bade Ghulam Ali Khan : Musician Bhatkande : Hindustani (Malerkarta) Bhimsen Joshi : Classical Faizazuddin Dagar : Dhrupad Onkarnath Thakur : Musician Siddheswari Devi : Musician Tansen : Dhrupad Thyagaraja : Carnatic Zahiruddin Dagar : Dhrupad

INSTRUMENTALISTS

Amjad Ali Khan : Sarod Bhajan Sopori : Santoor Bismillah Khan : Shehnai Buddhadev Desgupta : Sarod Buddhaditya Mukherjee : Sitar Hari Prasad Chaurasia : Flute Pannalal Ghosh : Flute Shafat Ahmad Khan : Tabla



Sharan Rani : Sarod Shiv Kumar Sharma : Santoor V.G. Jog : Violin Zubin Mehta : Violin Zakir Hussain : Tabla Mandolin Srinivas : Mandolin

VOCALISTS

Begum Akhtar : Ghazal Girija Devi : Hindustani Ghulam Ali : Ghazal M. Balamurali Krishna : Carnatic Mallikarjun Mansoor : Hindustani Mehndi Hasan : Ghazal Naina Devi : Dadra and Thumri Rahim Fahimuddin Dagar : Hindustani Vishnu Digambar Paluskar : Hindustani Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande : Hindustani Shruti Shirodkar, Gangu Bai Hangal : Vocalists Shobha Mudgal, Parvin Sultana : Vocalists Pt. Bhim Sen Joshi, Pt. Jasraj : All Vocalists

Documents

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