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T205-Part-1 Muneer AL_younis

A Primer

Reading - 1:

What is this systems thing about?Question-1:It is argued that the essence of systems thinking and

practice is in 'seeing' the world in a particular way. Why?Because how I see things affects the way I approach situations orundertake specific tasks.

Question-2:How you 'see' things influence heavily by all of the

following except:a. The culture of the society.b. Education.c. Training.d. Ideas.

Question-3:Systems thinking are involves looking at the ------between ------ of a whole rather than concentrating on the ------.

a. Interconnections; parts; parts.b. Interconnections; parts, whole.c. Whole; parts; parts.d. Whole; parts; interconnections.

Question-4:Name at least two sorts of people who can usesystem ideas?

1. As useful additions to the ' tools of thought '.

2. Give you new insights and understanding.

Reading - 2:

Ways of thinkingQuestion-1:What is Trap?

A way of thinking which is inappropriate for the context or issuebeing explored. A state of mind or way of thinking that limits whatwe can do and prevents us seeing ways of overcoming problemse.g. lobster pot.

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Question-2:Why it is useful to have different 'tools for thought',when you are stuck in your own thinking? (P. 11)

Question-3:A thinking as starts with a generation, a premisewhich is assumed to be turn and then deduces a conclusion abouta particular case is said to be:

a.Casual thinking.b.Logical thinking.

c.Reductionist thinking.d.Holistic thinking.

Question-4:the followings are things that can be noticed aboutlogical thinking. Except:

a.Attempts to be objective.b.Conclusion always follows from the premise.

c.The structure of this thinking is dynamic.d.It has the form 'if a, then b.'

Question-5:Logical thinking is a way of linking activities or events

together.True or False

Question-6:What is the difference between logicalthinkingandcasualthinking?

a) Logical thinkingIt starts with a generalization, a premise that is assumed true andthen deduces a conclusion about a particular case. Example "If all

cows are animals, and this is a cow, then it is an animal". Threecharacteristic of logical thinking:1. It attempts to be objective.2. Conclusion always follows from the premise.3. The structure is sequential, It has the form "if a, then b" as a

word chain suggests, logical thinking is a way of linkingideas or statements together.

Advantages: it is a powerful and useful way of thinking,

responsible for a good deal of the clarity we need to make sensibledecisions.

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Disadvantages: it is not good way of sorting out emotionalproblems.Logic alone is inadequate to deal with complex situations because

it deals with simple, timeless cause and effect links betweenstatements.

b) Causal thinking:Is a way of linking activities or events together, and considering thesituation as a network of multiple causes.

About this example, I made some points:1. It is objective.2. The same sequencing 'if a, then b, then c' and so on to the

conclusion.Causal thinking underlies much of science where the tendency isto look at simple cause and effects by isolating components orparts of a whole.

Question-7:Why logical and casual ways of thinking are not sogood at helping us to think about system?

1. Looking for general principles from instances: thetendency of much logical and causal thinking is to observethe characteristics of specific situations and try to derivegeneral principles or recognize general patterns about thechosen class of activities.

2. Ignoring subjective elements: logical and causal thinking

attempts to be rational and objective and ignore what areseen as subjective, emotional factors.

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3. Concentrating on simpler system: we cannot alwayspredict the behavior of 'complex' systems any changes canlead to unintended consequences.

4. Breaking situation down into similar parts where single

cause and effects are likely: systems are characterized byinterconnectedness and in particular by feedback loops.

Question-8:What is reductionist thinking?Looking for general principles from particular instances, ignoringsubjective elements, concentrating on simpler systems andbreaking situations down into smaller parts where single causeand effects are likely.

Reductionist methods cannot help to cope with problems that ariseas a result of the complexity and interconnectedness betweencomponents in a system

Question-9:Holistic thinking deals with the parts rather than thewhole.

True or False

Question-10:All ways of thinking simplifies reality except holisticthinking.

True or False

Question-11:The followings are all ways in which differentperspective can be gained, except:

a. Worldview.b. Role playing.c. Unintended consequences.d. Dynamic thinking.

Question-12:Explain the difference betweenperspective and

worldview.

Perspective is about you bringing to aparticularsituation based onyour own involvement in that situation. Worldview is about thevalues you bring to any situation. Therefore, it is less common tochange our worldview.

So, in terms of perspective you can say 'if you should been in myposition, you should have done the same', whilst it is very muchharder to imagine yourself into someone else's worldview.System thinking embodies "worldview" and "perspective"

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Question-13:Compare "reductionism and holistic approach ofthinking through suitable illustration?

Reductionist thinking

Breaking the whole picture into smaller parts which will lead tosimple cause-and-effect relationships. Looking for general principles from particular instances,

ignoring subjective elements, concentrating on simplersystems and breaking situations down into smaller partswhere single cause and effects are likely.

Reductionist methods cannot help to cope with problems thatarise as a result of the complexity and interconnectednessbetween components in a system.

Holistic thinking Deals with wholes rather than parts. The problem is that it is not always clear what is whole and

what is part. A person is a whole, and can be a part in anothersituation.

Start with looking at the whole, and if this doesnt make senselook at the bigger whole of which it forms a part.

The problem with this idea is that it isn't always clear what a

whole is and what is a part. A person is a whole but he/she willbe a part of a group. This approach is opposite of Reductionist thinking. In the

same time they can be complementary.

Question-14: What are the three different ways of gaining newperspectives of a system?

1. To be clear and explicit about your own point of view.2. Getting a different perspective is to make a serious effort to

see the system through the eyes of others.3. Looking for the unintended consequences of its operation

Reading - 3:

Systems thinking

Question-1:Holistic thinking is a specialized branch of systems

thinking. True or False

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Question-2:What is the difference between systematicandsystemic?

Systematic: means 'having a plan or a method'. Deals with

orderly, methodical thinking. Systematic thinking is morereductionist, since it reduces the general activity to a set ofdiscrete part that only recognizes the importance of theprevious and next steps.

Systemic: means 'affecting entire body or organism'. It dealswith behavior of whole. If we iterate back to an earlier step offollow a different set of step in response to external influence

we are starting become more holistic.Question-3:Reductionist methods can help to cope with problemsthat arise as a result of the complexity and interconnectednessbetween components in a system.

True or False

Question-4:A holistic approach emphasizes that the simplificationshould be accomplished in a way that doesn't overlooked the

significant connectedness.True or False

Reading - 4:

Types of situations

Question-1:What are causes of being stuck or trapped in yourthinking about complex situations?

Being stuck or trapped in our thinking is relay on the way we thinkand it is also about the types of situations we have to face.

Question-2:What is the different between difficulties andmesses?

Key features Difficulties Messes

Scale of the

situation Smaller than messes

Refer to simpler.

limited sorts of situations

Less people are involved.

A difficulty covers a smallerarea.

Bigger than difficulties

Nastier and more taxing ones.

Messes usually have more seriousimplications.

More people are involved. A mess covers a larger area.

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It includes fewer aspects.

It appears in a simple guise.

Difficulties usually have ashorter time scale.

Difficulties are easier totackle, and they are lesscomplicated.

It includes a number of interlockingaspects.

It may appear in a number ofdifferent guises.

Mess usually have a longer time scale(months or years)

Messes are more difficult to tackle,and they are more complicated.

Certainty or

Uncertainty Difficulty is fairly clear cut;

it's quite easy to put a labelon it, or to explain tosomeone else what thesituation is.

With difficulty answer andthe main characteristics areknown.

With a difficulty we cantake for granted the overwhole context and purposeof the activity.

Can be controlled.

All factors relevant to the

situation are known and canbe addressed.

With difficulty we knowenough to tackle it or weknow what we need toknow.

With mess there is much more aboutwhich one is simply unsure; it's noteasy to determine the sides of the

problem.

with mess it usually doesn't make

much sense to talk about "an answer" mess calls into question my priorities

and assumptions; we are not sure howmuch weight to give to differentconsiderations.

With mess more aspects are beyondour direct control.

Mess is fuzzy; it's hard to determinewhat is involved in the problem and

who and what isn't because thedifferent elements in it are closelytied to other areas of activity.

With mess we don't know enough andwe are uncertain even what we needto know.

Other

differences Difficulties are bounded and

their limits are known.

Difficulties involve more

hard complexity).

Messes are unbounded situations andthey are more extensive.

Messes involve soft complexity

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Question-3:For each of the following problems decide whether itis a difficulty or a mess:

1. A buyer faced with the choice of which supplier to use. Thechoice is from a list of regular suppliers each of which is subjectto uncertainties. (Difficulty).

2. A small business proprietor trying to decide whether to expandher business into a new area of activity. (Mess)

3. A civil servant face with setting a quota for the number of codthat can be caught in the North Sea in the coming year. (Mess)

4. a farmer deciding whether or not to apply a particular type ofherbicide to a field sown with wheat (difficulty)

Reading - 5:

Types of complexity

Question-1:What do we mean by complexity, and how it arises?

Complexity is not just matter of there being many differentfactors and interconnections to bear in mind, of uncertainty

concerning some of them, of a multitude of combinations andpermutations of possible decisions and events to allow for,evaluate and select.Complexity arises from the different perspective within whichthey can be interpreted and the degree of emotional

involvements people have in the situation.

Question-2:What is the different between hard and softcomplexity?

Hard complexity:

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Involved rational factors which tend to involve technical orcomputationalcomplexity.

(Difficulties involve more hard complexity). Generating difficult computational problems: (illustrated by the

game of chess). Ex: calculating March budget.

Soft complexity: Involve emotional factors which involve the way people view

and interact with the situation. (Messes involve soft complexity). The description of events is ambiguous. Ex: considering divorce issue.

Question-3:Clarify the difference between difficulties and messesin terms hard and soft complexity?

The idea of soft and hard complexity relate to those of difficultiesand mess whereby difficulty involve more hard complexity andmesses more soft complexity but most situation will involve both.

Distinguishing between the two sorts of complexity clarifies futurethe difference between difficulties and messes.

Difficulties: being well-defined and more limited situations, mainlyinvolve hard complexity.

difficultMesses are ill-defined; they include large measures of both hard

and soft complexity.

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Question-4:which of the following cases primarily involve hardcomplexity, and which soft complexity?1. A bookie wondering whether to adjust the odds he is offering.

Hard complexity2. A historian trying to account for particular social changes.

Soft complexity3. An insurance underwriter trying to decide rates for motor

insurance. Hard complexity4. An engineer choosing between different possible designs for

a bridge. Hard complexity5. A planner deciding how big a bridge is needed and where it

should be located. Soft complexity

Reading - 6:

Types of systems

Question-1:A system is defined as a set of componentsinterconnected for a purpose. Elaborate on this definition?

1.A system is an assembly of components connected together inan organized way.

2.The components are affected by being in the system and thebehavior of the system is changed if they leave it.

3.This organized assembly of components does something.

4.This assembly as a whole has been identified by someone whois interested in it.

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5.Putting a boundary around this organized assembly ofcomponents distinguishes it from its context or environment.

Question-2:Define what is meant by the environmentand theboundaryof a system of interest?

The term system is closely associated with two other terms:1.Environment comprising those elements, activities, people,

ideas and so on that are not part of the system but whichmay nevertheless be important in understanding it. System isthe foreground; environment is the background, the relevant

context of the system.2.Boundary it basically defines where the system ends and

the environment being.

Reading - 7:

Systems concepts

Question-1:List the characteristics ofa notional system?

1. A purpose: it does, or can be perceived to so something.

2. An environment that affects it.3. A boundary distinguishing it from the environment.4. A namer - someone who is interested in it.5. Inputs and outputs.6. Transformational processes that convert inputs to outputs.7. Parts (subsystems) that interact.8. Hierarchy.9. Communication.10. Control.

11. Emergence.12. Dynamism.13. Dependency - addition, alteration or removal of parts

changes both the part and the system.

Question-2:Explain the benefits of redrawing a boundary whenyou are stuck?

Redrawing a boundary helps solve problems or open up newopportunities. When we are stuck, it is often the case that you are

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thinking in terms of an inappropriate or unhelpful boundary, andredrawing that boundary will generate other views of the issues.

Question-3:List some of the criteria that will help in drawing aboundary?

1. Interest and concern: The boundary separates thoseaspects which are the most important to you and those ofsecondary importance.

2. Influence and control: boundaries can separate thoseaspects of the issue which are under the control; this can helpyou to become clear about the areas where you have powerto make changes, and those which you have to accept asthey are.

3. Time: Boundaries can be drawn round aspects of the short-term problems and the longer ones.

Question-4:What is meant by Emergent property?

Emergent property is that behavior that can only be associated tothat level and cannot be deduced from the components.

Question-5:It is argued that the notion of hierarchies, levels andemergent properties is central to much systems thinking. Explain?(P. 51-55(

Question-6:How are levels distinguished? Or how did I recognizewhen I have got to another level? (P. 56(

Question-7:Any method of thinking about things which works byignoring interconnections is going to make mistakes when it comesto systems. Explain some of these mistakes?(P 57-61(

Reading - 8:

Representing systems

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Question-1:There are three ways of representing systems. Whatthey are?

1. Using language (Metaphors)2. Using pictured (diagrams such as system maps, and multiplecause diagrams)

3. Using mathematics (quantitative models)

Question-2:Define the wordmodelingandmodel?

Modeling 'is any process of abstracting and representingcertain aspects of a situation in a simplified form with somepredefined purpose in mind.'

Model 'is a simplified representation of certain aspects of arealsituation, constructed for some defined purpose.'

Question-3:Diagrams have advantages over words forrepresenting systems. What are these advantages?

1.Interconnections visually, rather than verbally.2.Communication with other people.

Diagramming

Reading 1What is a diagram?

Question 1:Discuss the implication of internal model?

1. We all have our own 'internal models' of how things workbased on our experiences and our interpretation of thoseexperiences. These 'internal models' shape our thoughts andactions and lead us to expect certain outcomes from certainactivities.

2. Although 'internal models' are personal we also use them toshare our ideas and understandings by comparing them with

those held by others through the conversations we have andthe things we do.

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Question 2: Discuss ways of distinction between diagrams?

As there is variety in the types of diagrams we can see and use we

need to think more broadly about what diagrams are trying torepresent. One distinction which follows on from the distinctionabove is:1. Analogue representations: these diagrams look similar to the

object or objects it portrays.2. Schematic representations: these are plans or diagrams

which represent the essence of 'real word' objects orphenomena, but do not look similar to them Maps and plans areprime examples.

3. Conceptual representations: these diagrams largely try todescribe interrelationships between ideas or processes thatcannot be readily observed, but are put forward as a model foracceptance by others.

A second distinction arising from this discussion relates to whichbuilding blocks (words, lines, symbols, pictures, and numbers) thatwe use to represent things dominate the diagram:1. Pictorial diagrams: pictures and symbols dominate.2. Non pictorial diagrams: words and lines dominate.

Reading 2Why do people use diagram?

Question 1:Discuss some of the advantages (reasons) of usingdiagrams?

1. Sharing information and seeing someone else's ideas indiagrammatic form can give a new view of what they are trying

to communicate.2. Suggest new and unexpected relationships between ideasabout a situation.

3. Suggest new and unexpected ways of moving forward in asituation.

Question 2:What are the implications of using diagrams by thefollowing?a) Visualizers and verbalizers: when verbalizers communicate they

need to make an effort to use diagrams to supplement, or evenplace words, while visualizes need to remember that for some

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people diagrams need more textual support than they mightexpect.

b) Gender and cognitive styles: cognitive style plays a large part inthe way we use and see diagrams. As a generalization, men

tend to prefer liner processes with clear cause and effect whilewomen tend to prefer associative logic and situations wherecause and effect are less clear.

Question 3:Why authors use diagrams?1. To illustrate what something looks like.2. To demonstrate how objects or ideas or quantities are

organized or related.3. To decorate and enhance the text to make it more pleasing to

read.Question 4:Why diagrams are considered as a characteristicfeature of systems approaches to understanding complexsituations?

Diagrams allow the relationships between parts of thesituation to be seen at the same time as the partsthemselves.

Seeing the individual components and their connections toother components at the same time.

Question 5:Why diagrams can be helpful in clarifying yourthinking?

They can summarize complex situations, allowing you toappreciate the complexity while seeing the individualcomponents and the connections between the components.

They can give you new insights into a situation by makingyou think carefully about the components and connectionsand by helping you to learn more effectively.

Question 6:Reading diagram is an equally useful skill to that ofdrawing diagrams?

Help you understand what other people are trying to convey. Helps you be critical of the diagrams you draw yourself.

Question 7:There is a need to be critical of what information isbeing conveyed by diagrams. So, it is suggested that a set ofquestions can be used as an approach to help you. Discuss oneset of diagrams?

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Reading 3

Why do systems thinking use diagrams?Question 1:Define the concept of a system as used in thiscourse, and the implications of each part of the definition?

1. A system is an assembly of components connectedtogether in an organized way.

2. The components are affected by being in the system andare changed if they leave it.

3. The assembly of components does something.4. The assembly has been identified by someone as being of

interest.

Question 2:Discuss kinds of diagrams that are recommended foruse in the following and why?

a. Understanding:b. Connectivity:c. Future analysis:d. Diagnosis:e. Planning and implementation:

Concept File 1Learning, thinking and doing

Reading - 1

Learning and reflection

Question-1: When we avoid trying to find out why we have failed tolearn something, there are long and short term implications. List these

implications?

In the short-term, we abandon a goal to succeed in learning some subjector skill which might have been important to us.In the long-term, we learn to live with the idea of accepting failure by

judging ourselves or others negatively we aren't clever enough or theteacher wasn't interesting enough and so on.

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Question-2: Why most of the activities in T205 are designed to be

reflective?

T205 includes many activities that are specifically designed to be

reflective. The reasons are as follows:First, reflection is essential for the development of understanding and ofthe ability to make use of complex ideas and concepts. Second, it's alsoessential for raising awareness about how we learn and might improveour learning.

Question-3:Reflection is defined as 'the minds' conversion with itself.Explain the meaning of reflection?

Reflection is both an academic concept and also a word in common use,combining ideas of thinking, musing, pondering and so on. This everydaymeaning is a good basis from which to start: reflection is very much to dowith thinking. However one of the most important things about reflectionis that it enables us to think about our own thinking. Such reflectionmight be summed up in the phrase, `the mind's conversation with itself '.

Question-4:Using reflection internationally requires two distinctivekinds of thinking. List and explain the implications of these kinds?

When we use reflection intentionally, as part of course study, it requirestwo distinctive kinds of thinking.First it requires the kind of reflectiveness just mentioned. It requires thatwe direct our attention onto our own thinking and abilities.

The second kind of thinking that reflection requires is critical analysisof ideas and experiences, so that meanings are questioned and theoriestested out.

Question-5:Why do we need to reflect more often on new material thanfamiliar material?

When we are learning a new topic, we need to spend time putting newmaterial into our own words, trying out new ideas, using what we alreadyknow, and seeing where the new material `fits in'.

Reading - 2

What is learning?

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Question-1:Why it is important think about what learning is, how wedefine it and what it involves?

Spending time thinking about what learning is, how we define it and what

it involves, is important for two reasons. First it reminds us of thediversity there is in what and how people learn, and this can help toenlarge the repertoire of approaches we use ourselves. Second, throughappreciating the diverse requirements of different kinds of learning, wecan review the effectiveness of the strategies we use ourselves to achievespecific outcomes.

Question-2:Usually people define learning in terms of a process or anoutcome. Explain? (Page 17-19)

Question-3: There are three kinds of learning according to the MUD

scheme. Explain each kind and how we use it?

1. Memorizing

We sometimes have to remember words, names, symbols and other signs,simply because there is a convention that they will stand for someaccepted meaning. This is the kind of learning we use, for example, whenwe memorize road signs, or the conversion of metric to imperialmeasures, or lists of words in a foreign language.

You may need it if you try to remember certain definitions.Unfortunately, we are not likely to understand complex ideas andexperiences by applying the methods of rote learning, which typicallyinvolve repetition, silently or aloud, association with visual or auditorycues, and strategies such as mnemonics and rhyming.

Is not always the kind used in rote memorization. We may be able toremember something, for example, because we can draw on our generalunderstanding or knowledge to help us to recall that piece of information.

2. Understanding

Much more important than memorizing, where academic study isconcerned, is understanding. This is the kind of learning which requireswillingness by the learner to work with ideas and concepts, and awillingness to explore whether an idea has really been mastered or only

partially grasped.

The methods appropriate for this kind of learning typically require the

learner to work actively with new information and ideas.

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The learner is active because he or she is applying ideas to differentcontexts, or checking out relationships in a variety of scenarios, or testingout generalizations against many different cases.

Perhaps the most telling activity of all is to try to teach another what wehave just learned.

3. Doing

Learning how to act or perform in particular ways is essential for thedevelopment of all kinds of intellectual and physical skills. For example,we need to be able to learn how to create a variety of kinds of writtencommunication, or how to present complex information in a cleardiagram, or to decide how a team will structure its work, and so on.

Most of us have probably decorated a room to reasonable effect, but theexpert decorator not only produces a good end result, but does so morequickly and with minimal waste

The learning we need in order to become proficient in a skill or aperformance of some kind may well draw on both memorization andunderstanding (as outlined above), but it will also require other activities.The learner needs experience of practicing the skill under controlledconditions and with effective feedback which enables the development of

improved performance and strengthened capability..

Question-4: What is learning?

Learning is an interactive process between people and their social andphysical environment which results in changes to people's knowledge,attitudes and practices.

Reading - 3Model of the learning process

Question-1:Explain what happens when we learn, in light of the

following models:

a. The acquisitive model.

b. The constructivist model.

c. The experiential model.

a. The acquisitive model.

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This model of learning starts from a focus on the observable behavior ofthe learner and on the idea that this can be changed by feedback from thelearning environment.

Learners add to their store of knowledge those items that are required forthem to achieve their current goal.

It is essential to this process that learners have feedback regularly on howeffectively they are achieving the desired learning outcome at each stage.If the learning is part of an education or training programme, thefeedback is likely to result from some form of assessed performance andto include the response of a tutor. Feedback gives the learner informationabout how close they are to achieving the required outcomes so that they

can modify and develop what they do in the required direction.

It also has some similarities with everyday thinking about learning, inthat people commonly think of learning as knowing more: knowledge is afixed object which one has more or less of, and learning is the process ofacquiring more of it.

The limitations of this model have frequently been recognized. Learningis not a passive process of absorption of an input, unmodified. It is anactive process where the same input does not reliably produce the desired

output. The same input and feedback will not produce good results withalllearners, or even with the same learner all of the time.

Nonetheless, in spite of its flaws, the acquisitive model is often implicitin the way we teach and learn.

b. The constructivist model.

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This model of learning concentrates on what happens during the processof learning. It identifies the central role of concepts and understandingsthat learners bring to new learning and the way in which new and oldideas interact. Its starting point is that learners use their existing

frameworks of understanding to interpret what is being taught, and thatthese existing ideas influence the speed and effectiveness with which newideas are learned.

This model of learning has been developed from studies of the kinds oflearning required in higher education, and dissatisfaction with theacquisitive approach in this context. Its primary focus is on learning as away of changing one's understanding, in particular coming to understandsome aspect of an academic field of study (Ramsden, 1988). The learning

process is seen as a product of the relationship between threeinterconnecting factors:1. What students already know or can do.2. What students think the subject they are studying is about and what it

takes to learn it.3. What teachers do, the tasks they set and the way these are interpreted

by students.

c. The experiential model.

The main proponent of this approach to learning, David Kolb, put

forward a theory which he intended to be sufficiently general to accountfor all forms of learning (Kolb, 1984). He argued that there are fourdistinctive kinds of knowledge and that each is associated with adistinctive kind of learning. The four kinds of learning are:

1. Concrete experiencing,2. Reflective observation,3. Abstract analysis,4. Active experimentation.

Kolb suggested that the ideal form of learning was one that integrated allfour of these, integration being achieved by a cyclical progression

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through them in the way shown in Figure 3.4. The result of the journeyround the cycle is the transformation of experience into knowledge, andthis forms the basis of Kolb's definition of learning: the production ofknowledge through the transformation of experience.

The cyclical process shown in Figure 3.4 can begin anywhere. Starting atthe `top', we have concrete experiencing, on which we can reflect anddraw out observations. Active experimentation combines therefore thefruits of both concrete experience and abstract analysis, and when we putour experimental ideas into practice, we generate another episode forconcrete experiencing so that the cycle can begin over again.

Kolb argues that all four stages in the experiential learning cycle are

essential for the full integration of direct, concrete experience and actionwith knowledge and theories about the world. Kolb's theory requires thateach stage be given its full value by the learner, with outcomes that feedforward into the next stage of the model - wherever we begin on thecycle.

Thus if our learning begins with some kind of formal teaching, we arestarting the Kolb cycle at the bottom - abstract conceptualization.

Kolb's argument is that much education and training stops there andleaves the learning process incomplete, with knowledge that has not beenreflected on and digested, nor used in action and integrated into the

person's way of seeing the world and accounting for its effects.

The process of completing an assignment, for example, may correspondquite closely to a movement round the Kolb cycle. Course material givesus new ideas or theories to check out in practice.

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The model in Figure 3.4 shows a single cycle of learning, for simplicity'ssake. However, if learning does progress through each of these stages asecond, third or more times, it is not a simple repetitive process but aspiral, progressive movement in which the content of our learning will be

different at each successive working through of the cycle.

Although I have given you an example which begins the cycle at theabstract conceptualization stage, experiential learning is most commonlyassociated with a process beginning at the top of the diagram with directconcrete experiencing. He argued that we should reflect much more onour direct experience as a way of integrating theory with practice and oftaking into account the full effects of our ideas and theories in action. Heargued that `head knowledge' alone, which does not take into account the

practical and emotional effects of theories and abstractions, was at bestlimiting of human potential and at worst dangerous.

Kolb's four-stage model has been used as the basis for a typology oflearning styles which is listed in Table 3.1. Each of the four styles has

been identified with a particular type of learner behavior that ischaracteristic of that approach to learning.

The required basis for change however is self awareness, and that is oneof the aims of the next activity, which has two parts. Part 1 may be

completed at any time during the course, though it builds on the work youhave been doing on the experiential model of learning and is necessaryfor understanding in Part 2.

Reading - 4

Learning to act: managing and systems practice

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Question-1:What does it means to be a system practitioner?

First, I believe a good systems practitioner will be more competent at

handling complex situations, more capable of managing their workingand domestic lives, and more able to learn not only how to learn but alsohow to act more effectively by using systemic concepts and techniques.Two keywords in that description are learningand managing.

The trouble with the term managing is that it has come to be associatedwith the work of those whose job title includes the designation `Manager'or `Director' or `Executive'; somebody with identifiable seniority. As aresult many people think that managing is something a bit different,

special even - and certainly not what they do. This feeling occurs evenwhen the person's work is very varied and involves a range of contactswith other people. For example, as an academic I spend a large proportionof my time trying to get things done with and through other people. But Icertainly don't think of myself as a manager. Part of the misunderstandingcomes from the idea that managing is all about controlling people andtheir activities through the application of financial and other resources. Atone time, managers saw this as their primary task. As time has moved on,managers have seen that their role includes a much wider brief; gettingthings done through other people and enabling people to solve the

problems confronting them and to seek better ways of working.

Concept File 2

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The individual: Workplace and self-development

Reading 4People are differentQuestion 1: Explain some of the different ways in which peopleapproach decision making, problem solving and creativity in thecontext of Kirton's 'Adaptor Innovator' dimension?

People towards the Adaptorend prefer stable and well-structuredworking environments. They value themselves for being efficient'.They tend to focus on one task at a time, and they tend to work by

making incremental changes that improve present methods andpractices, suggesting small numbers of well through options whichcan be accommodated without upsetting existing situation. As aresult, getting others to accept their ideas is often fairlystraightforward.Weaknesses: The adaptor style includes a tendency to jump to a conclusion

prematurely. Set the boundaries too narrowly. Reluctance to take risks.

Innovators, by contrast, prefer an unstructured and oftenchanging working environment, and may not place much value onestablished procedures and conventions. They prefer to reframeproblems and their approach is to re=assess and redefineproblems and the context within which they have arisen. As aresult, they may well offer a proliferation of ideas, may seemunexpected, and may, at first sight, be difficult to accept.Weaknesses: Innovator style includes not thinking through the consequences

of action. Lack of attention to detail.

Question 2:explain the differences between Adoptersand Innovators in the following:a) The flow of ideas:

Adaptors produce small numbers of well-focused ideas,while Innovators produce a large spread of ideas.

b) The value placed on efficiency:

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Adaptors tend to focus on one task, value efficiency and giveattention to detail. Innovators tend to work on multiple tasks,value a wide overview, and give less attention to detail.

c) The value placed on rule and group conformity:

Adaptors prefer working within existing practices and groupstructures. Innovators tend to bend the rules and challengethe status quo.

Question 3: Explain the difference between Adopter andInnovators in terms on control loop.High Adaptor High Innovator

Preferopen loop controlstrategy.

Adaptors tend to see themselvesas supportive, practical, stable,methodical, co-operative, safe,etc.

They prefer stable and well-structured workingenvironments.

Seeks solutions to problems intried and understood ways.

Resolves problems byintroducing improvements andincreased efficiency (doingthings better).

Rarely challenges rules,maintains group stability.

Produces a few relevant, safeideas for immediateimplementation.

Offers solutions which fallwithin the paradigm and areacceptable within the generalconsensus

Tents to focus on one task at atime, and tends to work by

making incremental changesthat improve present methods

Preferclosed loop controlstrategy.

Innovators tend to seethemselves as full of ideas,energetic, challenging, and opento change, intuitive, not hangingon to the past, and risky.

Prefer an unstructured and oftenchanging working environment,and may not place much valueon established procedures and

conventions. Questions basic assumption.

Resolves problems by redefiningthem.(doing things differently)

Often challenges rules, is acatalyst to settled groups.

Produces many ideas, including

those seen as irrelevant,unsound, risky.

Offers solutions which falloutside the paradigm and are notimmediately acceptable to theconsensus.

They may have many projectson the go at once, because theyoften start a project and then

leave it unfinished.

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and practices suggesting smallnumbers of options withoutupsetting existing situations.

Question 4: Explain howInnovators view Adopters?Innovators are generally seen by adaptors as being abrasive andinsensitive, despite the former's denial of these traits. Thismisunderstanding usually occurs because the innovator attacksthe adaptor's theories and assumptions, both explicitly whenfeeling that the adaptor needs a push in the right direction to getout of a rut, and implicitly by showing a disregard for the rules,conventions, and standards of behavior.

Question 5: Explain howAdopters view Innovators?Adaptors can be viewed pejoratively by innovators, suggesting thatthe more extreme types are far more likely to disagree thancollaborate. Innovators tend to see adaptors as stuffy andunenterprising, wedded to systems, rules and norms which are toorestricting to their (the innovators) liking. Innovators overlook howmuch of the smooth running of all around them, but they are awareof the less acceptable face of efficient bureaucracy.

Question 6: It is argued their ' Adoption' and 'Innovation' merelydescribes a preferred style. Why it is useful to understand thethinking style?

Reading 7What motivates us?

Question 1: It is argued that the theories an individual holds aboutother people influence the way that individual perceives and

behave towards them. Support this argument in light of the fourdominant motivation theories:a. Rational-economic:

In this theory suggests that people can be motivated byself-interest and their economic needs.According to therational-economic theory human nature, people know wheretheir self-interests lie, and act in such a way as to maximize thisself-interest.

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The rational-economic viewpoint tends to see employeesas primarily motivated by economic incentives, so they can beeffectively controlled and used by offering financial rewards.

The other side of the rational-economic theory is the

assumption that people are rational, that they can work what isbest for them. Organizations protect itself and its employeesform the irrational side of their nature by a system of authorityand controls (roles, positions, responsibilitiesetc) andemployees are expected to obey whoever occupies suchpositions of authority.

When management is based on these principles there is aprimary emphasize on the efficient performance.

b. Social beings:In this theory suggests that people are primary motivatedby their social needs.There is significant role of social factors play in work motivation,the various changes in work conditions such as rest periods,special group payment scheme and shorter hours andrefreshment lead to increase in productivity and outputs.Productivity rises because the workers feel that they have towork harder to achieve the group's "self-impose" targets as wellas to please their supervisors.

Social motivators can over-ride economic ones, Mayoproposed an alternative to the rational-economic view of humannature, which emphasized the social needs have people. Thisview can be summarized by the following assumptions:

1. Social needs are the prime motivator of human behavior,and interpersonal relationships the prime shaper of asense of identity.

2. As a result of mechanization, work has lost much of itsintrinsic meaning, which now must be sought in social

relationships on the job.3. Employees are more responsive to the social forces than

to the incentives and control of management.4. Employees are responsive to a manager to the extent

that he or she can meet their needs for belonging,acceptance and a sense of identity.

c. Self-actualizing:This approach assumes that people need meaning and

challenge in their lives and that given the opportunity they will

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behave responsibly and integrate their own goals with those ofthe organization.

This theory is suggested by Maslow who suggested thathuman needs could be assembled into a hierarchy with five

broad categories. This hierarchy is generally represented in theform of a pyramid.Maslow argued that the most basic needs (shown at the

bottom of the pyramid) had to be met before looking the nest(above) category. Once the need at a particular level aresatisfied it becomes less important and you should look for thenext.Criticism of Maslow:

1. Some of the needs seem not to exist for some individuals.

2. Some rewards (such as money) appear to fit more thanone classification.3. There is some overlap between the concepts of self-

esteem and self-actualization and adequate satisfaction ofa particular need is difficult to define, varying from personto person.

4. Self-actualization may be an ultimate goal for Westernethos; it doesn't fit at all national cultures that have strongcollective values.

d. Complex, multi-faceted beings:The complex or contingency approach regards people as

inherently complex, with needs and motivations which changewith time, context and learning. The role of managers is to beable to respond appropriately to the variety of people in differentcontexts.

Schein summarized the main features of his theory of thecomplex person in the form of the following set of assumptions:

1. Human needs can be arranged in a hierarchy but the

content and ordering of this hierarchy depends on culture,situation, experience and a person's circumstances in life.

2. Needs, motives and contexts interact to produce acomplex patterns.

3. Employees' motives change as they develop and learnthrough organizational experiences.

4. A given person may display different needs andmotivations in different organizations and groups.

5. People can become productively involved in an

organization for a wide range of motives.

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6. There is no one correct managerial strategy for all peoplein all situations.

Reading 9How does motivation work?

Question 1:Psychological energy does not exist in all individuals.( True , False )

Question 2:Psychological energy amount varies with the state ofmind of the individual.

( True , False )

Question 3:It is very difficult to block all expressions ofpsychological energy by an individual. Why?

Question 4:What constitute the self?Each individual has a wide range of values, needs, abilities, beliefsand feelings. Some of these are peripheral to the individual, othersare central. The central values, needs, abilities, beliefs andfeelings are those which are integrated into a pattern which ismeaningful to that individual. It is this integrated pattern that

constitutes the self.

Question 5:What are the conditions that determine whether ornot individual will contribute their psychological energy to anenterprise?

The answer if the activity will enhance their self-esteem. And oneview is that self-esteem will be enhanced if the person achieves ameasure of psychological success in the activity. The individual's

judgment of psychological success will depend upon their self-concept and the conditions associated with the activity

Question 6:How do we acquire our self-concept?Self concept is our values, interpretation of what is going onaround us, and our perception of ourselves, through language andsocial exchanges, particularly in childhood, through developmentcontinues throughout life.

But this self-concept is only a part of the total picture- theconscious part of the self, as illustrated in figure 9.1 there is also

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an unconscious part, and information can move between theconscious and unconscious parts of the self:

Question 7:What is the self-ideal?The self-ideal shown alongside the self in figure 9.1 is our image ofthe self we would like to be, the image we use to judge ourselves.

In general it is possible to regard all human action in terms ofindividuals striving to enlarge and enrich their self-concept, inparticular to make it more like their self-ideal.

Question 8:An enlargement of self-concept by an activity

depends upon two criteria. What they are?

1. The activity should somehow "feel right" or "fit" for theindividual. That there must be something in the activity thatcorresponds to an unconscious part of the self.

2. The individual should be able to gain a sense of successfrom the task. The success need not be the same as thatdefined by someone else; it needs to be successful to theindividual in his or her own term.

Question 9:What do we mean by self-esteem?

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It means the valuing of the self. If an individual values his or herself-concept then they have high self-esteem.

There are two ways to develop self-esteem:

1. By a sense of "personal growth", the feeling that your self-concept is growing and developing.2. By a sense of "personal competence" from the satisfaction of

exercising your established skills to achieve challengingtasks.

Question 10: What are the conditions for psychological success?1. The individual can define his or her own goals.2. The goals are related to his or her central needs or values.

3. The individual is able to define for themselves the path tothese goals.4. The individuals set challenging and realistic goals for

themselves. Challenging enough to call for either untestedabilities or further efforts.

Reading 10How the self-concept develops

Question 1:How the 'self-concept' develops?SocializationThe process of socialization makes its first imprint on thepersonality during childhood, but it recurs in adolescence andagain in adulthood whenever one moves from one role to anotheror one organization to another.Dealing with disapprovalThe formation of the personality is a complex conflict-resolutionprocess that much of the conflict is unobservable, and that surfacemotives or values are not always consistent with underlying needs

and drives.Self-developmentNew challenges and feelings arise when we enter newrelationships, take on new occupational or social roles, movegeographically to new communities, and when we experiencebodily changes because of illness. At such time the human beingexperiences a new cycle in the socialization process, and as theyfind themselves coping with the new challenges, they begin to

develop new integrations of the self.

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Reading 11

Contracts and rolesQuestion 1:The role people are expected to perform will bedefined by at least three different forces. List these forces?

1. The actual tasks: that they and the organization have toundertake, which will shape the roles and relationshipsrequired.

2. The wider expectations of how roles are to be performed willbe strongly influenced by the demands made by others in theorganization.

3. The pull created by the role-player's own needs, dispositionsand aspirations; what they are capable of, what they wish todo, what they enjoy doing.

Reading 12Self-sealing behaviors

Question 1: What is the core idea of a mental trap?The core idea of a mental trap is that it is a closed way of

thinking that prevents the person involved from seeing a solutionthat is 'obvious' once a different way of thinking is adopted.Another way of expressing this is that system thinking requires theadoption of multiple perspectives whereas normally we are contentto make use of a single perspective, 'our point of view'.

Question 2: What is meant by a paradigm? Discuss its featuresand implications?

Paradigm is a like minded community of scientists all of

whom work within the paradigm and are conducting experiments todemonstrate or extend its validity or domain of application.

The paradigm tells the practitioner what type of explanationto expect or accept regarding events. It also determines what isand is not accepted as evidence in this domain.

Kuhn's paradigm theory "the world determines what isperceived"

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Self-sealing: where personal theories and perceptions tendto be closed.

Question 3: What do we mean by the term relationship dynamics?

How you can start to identify ways in which your owntheories and perspectives may be traps. One area where personaltheories and perceptions tend to be closed and self-sealing inrelation to other people.

One person's believes about another person is enough todetermine the nature of the relationship. This is not usually thecase, though there are some very dominant people who can oftenget their view of a relationship accepted by both parties. More

normally each person will bring to the relationship their collectionof ideas and beliefs about themselves and others and these willinteract with those of the other person to create a complexinterlocking set of ideas, beliefs, perceptions and behaviors thatdetermine the nature of the relationship (relationship dynamic).

. It is helpful in all relationships, to regard the responsibility forthe dynamic as resting equally on the two parties involved.

Question 4: It is argued that criticalness, blame and guilt createself-sealing and self-fulfilling patterns in our relationships. How?

And how we can approach each one in oneself?Question 5: there are certain aspects of relationships that arealways disabling, such as criticalness, blame and guilt. How?

Answers questions 4&5Criticalness, Blame and GuiltIt is clear that our beliefs about others are a powerful influence onthe nature of the relationship. So too are our beliefs aboutourselves. Some of these beliefs are conscious whilst many are

unconscious, which means that we are unaware of their existence,let alone their effects. So adopting a new perspective on anotherperson, especially one with whom you have had a long termrelationship is extremely difficult.

There are three common features of many relationships:1. Criticalness

It is important to differentiate between correction andcriticalness:

Correction: When some one makes an error, or if you areteaching someone how to complete a task, it is normal

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and necessary to point out the error and offer advice as tohow to avoid it in future.

Criticalness: it may use the same language of acorrection, but has an additional emotional overtone.

Someone who is being critical will be annoyed orjudgmental.

Criticalness always indicates a specific item of non-acceptanceabout oneself. Finally once a person has accepted and aspect ofhimself or herself then they cease to be critical of that aspect inothers.

2. Blame

Blame is akin to, but different from criticalness. Criticalness isan attitude of non-acceptance towards the other person. Blameis holding them responsible for something which you andprobably they regard negatively.

Blame is destructive of all sorts of relationships; Becausepeople will act in such a way as to avoid the blame rather thanaccomplish the task in a positive sense.

The consequences of blame:

It defines you as powerless in the situation, if it really isthe other person responsibility then clearly you have noresponsibility or power over what happened, and if youwant to return some power to the events then you alsohave to accept the responsibility.

There is no learning how to avoid a repetition of the event.All the responsibility has been loaded onto some personwho has been dismissed, so the only learning that takesplace is to ensure that next time anything goes wrong youcan either avoid the blame or pass it on to someone else.There is no learning to avoid the event itself happingagain.

3. guiltFor most people "feeling guilty" about something means thatthey are blaming themselves for whatever occurred. The mostcommon for of guilt arises from blaming oneself. It has theeffect of reinforcing a negative self-image and also inhibits

learning.

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Reading 13Personality Dynamics and Transactional

AnalysisQuestion 1: Translational and structured analysis (TA) wasdesigned to help people. How?1. describe and understand their own and other people's normal

interactions in a simple, clear and explicit way;2. And to exert more control over, and to take more responsibility

for their own interactions with others.

Question 2: The central future of (TA) is the observation that thereseem to be three major ego-states, or sub-personalities, that canbe involved when you interact with someone else. What they are?

And explain how each one is developed?

Adult, parent and ChildThe central feature of TA is the observation that there seem to bethree major ego-states, or sub-personalities, that can be involvedwhen you interact with someone else.1. Adult:

Adult is considered to be the computer-like part of yourbehavior that is concerned with external reality, collectinginformation about your environment, solving problems, makingestimates and guesses, changing appropriate strategies and soon.

Adult is usually still lurking in the corner, able to retakecontrol if necessary.

Every one has an adult, even a small child, but the adult

skills vary with age. The adult of five-years old is struggling withproblems such as how to get the crayons out of a box, while theadult of forty years old is working out how to pay to mortgage or totake family to a special place for a holiday.

2. Parent:Parent consists mainly of patterns laid down in the first three

of four years of life, as a result of the young child copying thepeople in its environment.

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The Parent is an important mechanism for passing from onegeneration to the next. Therefore being a good parent to your ownchildren is often very different from behaving as directed by yourParent subsystem.

3. Child:Child is seen as the basic biologically given subsystem, the

only subsystem operating at birth. TA theory would regard it themost important sub-system, arguing that it provides all the basicdrives, emotions, feelings and energy, the cause of pleasure,sadness, excitement, destructiveness, and fun.

Child is the biological core of what you are, and the other two

sub-personalities are merely its agents or tools. Parent dependson cultural aspects, and the Adult trying to solve its problems andsatisfy its needs.

Reading 14Active Listening

Question 1: What is meant by 'active listening'?Active Listening: It is called active because the listener has avery definite responsibility. The listener does not passively absorbthe words which are spoken but:

Actively tries to grasp the facts and the feelings in what is said,

and tries by paying attention to help the speaker work out his orher problems.

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Feeds back to the speaker, in the listener's own words, thecontent that has been understood by the listener.

Active listening: it is simply to be interested in the person speaking,

as a human being, as well as interested in the issues andproblems which may be the content of the communication.

Question 2:What do we achieve by listening? Listening is the most effective agent for individual personality

change and group development. Listening changes people's attitudes toward themselves and

others, also changes their basic values and personalphilosophy.

Listening provides more information than any other activity, itbuilds deep, positive relationships and tends to alterconstructively the attitudes of the listener. Listening is a growthexperience.

Question 3:Active listening relies upon definite techniques (thingsto do and things to avoid doing). Discuss these things?

What to Avoid

What we seldom realize, however, is that, under thesecircumstances, we are usually responding to our own needs to seethe world in certain ways. It is always difficult for us to tolerate andunderstand actions which are different from the ways in which webelieve we should act. If, however, we can free ourselves from theneed to influence and direct others in our own paths, we enableourselves to listen with understanding and thereby employ themost potent available agent of change.

One problem the listener faces is that of responding to the

speakers demands for decisions, judgments, and evaluations. Thespeaker is constantly calling upon the listener to agree or disagreewith someone or something. Yet, as is well known, the speakersquestion or challenge is frequently a masked expression offeelings or needs. The speaker is often far more anxious tocommunicate these underlying feelings than to have the surfacequestions answered. But because the speaker cannot presentthese deeper feelings openly, they must be disguised (to hidethem from both the speaker and others) in an acceptable form.

Passing judgment, whether critical or favorable, makes freeexpression difficult. Similarly, advice and information are almost

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always seen as efforts to change a person and thus serve asbarriers to his self-expression and the development of a creativerelationship. Moreover, advice is seldom taken and informationhardly ever utilized. The eager young trainee probably will not

become patient just because he is advised that, The road tosuccess in business is a long, difficult one, and you must bepatient.

Interestingly, positive evaluations are sometimes as blockingas negative ones. It is almost as destructive to the freedom of arelationship to tell a person that he is good or capable or right, asto tell him otherwise. To evaluate a person positively may make itmore difficult for them to talk of faults or weaknesses that distressthem.

Similarly, encouragement also may be seen as an attempt tomotivate the speaker in certain directions or hold him off ratherthan as support. Im sure everything will work out O.K. is not ahelpful response to the person who is deeply discouraged.

What to DoJust what does active listening entail, then? Basically, it

requires that we get inside the speaker that we grasp, from thespeakers point of view, just what it is he or she is communicatingto us. More than that, we must convey to the speaker that we areseeing things from his or her point of view. To listen actively, then,means that we must:

1. Listen for total meaning.2. Respond to feelings.3. Note all cues.4. Feed back in your own words.

Listening for total meaningAny message a person tries to get across usually has two

components:1. The content of the message.2. The feeling or attitude underlying this content.

Both are important, both give the message meaning. It is the totalmeaning of the message that we try to understand.

Responding to feeling:In some instances the content is far less important than the feelingwhich underlies it.

To catch the full flavor or meaning of the message you mustrespond to the feeling component.

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Noting all cuesNot all communication is verbal. The speaker's words alone dont

tell us everything that is being communicated. Good listeningrequires that we become aware of several kinds of communicationbeside verbal such as:

Influence of the voice. Hand movements. Eye movements. Breathing. Body posture. Facial expressions.

All of these help to convey the total message.Feeding-back in your own wordsYou should use your own words to repeat back to the speakerwhat you have understood. This crucial part of active listening andrequires you to adopt the other person's perspective. You shouldseek confirmation from the speaker that you have correctlyunderstood.

Reading 15Developing ideas and resolving

disagreementsQuestion 1: What is meant by idea development?Idea development: is the process by which an embryonic newidea, which is attractive but not yet feasible, is converted into apractical solution without losing its originality or appeal.

Question 2:A new idea needs protection from instant rejection.How?

The newer idea is unlikely to be a feasible solution when it is firstexpressed, so it needs protection from instant rejection. Theprotection has three components:

1. Checking understanding:We should understand the idea before make any evaluation.

Paraphrasing the ides ensures that both parties are talkingabout the same thing. Endless time can be wasted in sorting out

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an evaluation based on misunderstanding. Paraphrasing creates apositive emotional link between the two parties.

Paraphrasing provides a useful "cooling off" period,particularly when the initial reaction to the idea is negative; the

relatively unemotional discipline of checking understanding acts asa safety valve, and quite often demonstrates that the emotionalreaction was based on a misunderstanding of the idea.

2. Finding value in ideasEvery idea has some merit, and it is worth taking the trouble

to search out all its possible benefits.This principle is the opposite of the way we all conventionally

behave in our society, if you put forward a new idea, someone will

immediately tell you what is wrong with it and why it will not work.Why? Because they want to avoid wasting time with new ideaoutside existing experience.

If ideas are going to be judged in terms of what is wrong withthem, so we will only voice ideas that we believe to be perfect.

Consequences: If everyone is operating on this basis, there will not be many

ideas around. There will be just the old ideas which based on experience in

which the shortage in the new ideas will be created. Damaging the interpersonal relationships and teamwork.

Solution:1. Set the problem or the situation.2. Think of many ideas can serve the situation.3. Finding value in every idea.4. Builds better relationships as well as keeping the ideas flowing.5. Start to specify good features of the idea.6. Keep searching for additional positive features.7. Start listing disadvantages.8. Then see how you might pursue these directions for

improvement.

3. Converting negatives to directions for improvementWhat is wrong with an idea, its shortcomings, weaknesses,

risks and dangers? It tells us that we need to continue inventing inorder to improve the idea or to replace it with a better one. For

example, the negative might be "That would be too expensive" to

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find the direction for improvement, we have to ask the question,"So what is it we need?" The answer could be: An idea to reduce the cost less. A way to reduce the cost of this idea.

A way to share the cost with others. A way to increase our prices to cover the extra cost. A way to pay for it without increasing prices.

Notice how the single negative can give rise to differentdirections for improvement.A direction for improvement is more informative and forward-looking than the negative. It is a signpost on the road to a solution.

Given that it is a signpost, we only want one of them at any

one time. So the problem owner needs to use the most importantnegative to give the direction for improvement: "What I most neednow is a way to ..". Then the original idea may be changed orreplaced; in its latest it may no longer have any of the negatives ofits previous existence.

A direction for improvement immediately stimulates moreideas; if we need to find a way to reduce the cost, perhaps wecould use cheaper materials, or simplify the design and so on.

Reading 17The nature of conflict

Question 1: What are the six conflict-generating mechanisms?Six sources of conflict

1. Misunderstandings: understand the issue in wrong waymay cause conflict.

2. Differences of value: These can be the familiar ethicaldifferences apparent in society. Also there are value

disagreements about the underlying purposes of theorganization itself.

3. Differences in viewpoint: disagreements about the meansto achieve particular ends, how to increase profitability,improve efficiency, or whatever.

4. Differences of interest: Control, status, autonomy,resources. Personal and departmental interests arecontinually brought into conflict.

5. Differences in style: one person may tend to oversimplify

situations while a colleague tends t perceive things as verycomplicated. Some people like to have a well-defined plan in

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mind while others feel constrained by plans and prefer theoption of last minute changes.

6. Unconscious factors: By definition, this is the conflict-generating mechanism of which we are least aware.

Question 2:What is meant by integrative and destructive conflict? Integrative conflict: conflicts which tend to bring together the

various parties involved. Integrative conflicts are more likely tobe achieved when the style of the conflict tends towardsopenness, and non-coercive methods are used to reach asettlement.

Destructive conflicts: conflicts between those who are on thesame side can create solidarity. Destructive conflicts are more

likely to be achieved if those concerned are not open,withholding information regarding their real intentions. When thishappens, less information is made available, and people arelikely to be much less receptive to what information there is.

Reading 18Powers Visible and Invisible

Question 1:To understand and anticipate the course of aparticular conflict and its outcome requires an appreciation of the

different sorts of resources that those involved may use. Brieflydescribe these different these different resources (power) and theareas in which they may be used (visible andinvisible powers)?

Visible powersThe visible power resources provide a fairly straightforward wayinto difficult agreements, but the power of individuals and groups inorganizations will vary over different issues.

1. Position Power: The most obvious source of power inorganizations is that which stems from a person's formalposition (formal authority, status and control of rewards)

2. Expert Power: Organizations use specialist knowledge to copewith task and environmental uncertainty. This means that oncertain issues they must rely on and accept the judgment ofthose who possess that knowledge. Using of appeals toexpertise to influence others.

3. Dependence Power: When people join organizations it is

because they want something from the organization and theyare willing to contribute in the roles. Inducements are offered in

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return for contributions. However, since each side wants whatthe other is offering, this exchange involves a measure ofdependence. Clearly if someone depends on you for something,then for you this is a source of power.

Dependence power may be used at other organizational levels;there have been occasions when a number of senior managershave blocked particular proposals by threatening to resign enbloc.

4. Personal Power: It refers to those abilities and qualities whichenable some people to be more influential than others withotherwise comparable power resources.For example, the ability to take the role of the other, andanticipate the reactions of potential opponents is characteristic

of successful negotiators. Some people have these capacitieswith training and some of them without training.

Invisible PowersInvisible power is the indirect or informal exercise of power thatoccurs outside of the accepted decision-making process, andwhich may not be recognized by some of those concerned.Invisible power can be exercised in three domains:1. How an issue is presented can affect the way it is treated.2. Many organizational practices develop informally and so bypass

explicit decision-making processes.3. Power can be exercised by preventing particular issues or

conflicts of interest from being considered. Potential conflictscould be avoided by various ways: for instant:

a. Latent intimidationb. Promoting values and beliefs that minimize disagreement.c. Controlling work relationships to minimize opposition

d. Institutional bias

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Concept File 3Groups and teams at work

Reading 1Groups and teams

What is a group?a) Formal groups: They are working groups allow the pooling of

individual's skills and knowledge, formal groups used toorganize and distribute work, pool information devise plans,coordinate activities and resolve conflicts.

b) Informal groups: These are usually structured more around

the social needs of people than around the performance oftasks. Some of them will be family or friendship groups that areformed to meet a wide range of needs such as affection,security, support, esteem, belonging or identity.

What is a team?It is more than just a group; it is a particularly cohesive andpurposeful type of work group. "Work group" is often usedinterchangeably with the word "team"(Although a team may bethought of as a particularly cohesive and purposeful type of workgroup).

We can distinguish work groups or teams from more casualgroupings of people by using the following set of criteria:

1. Membership: A collection of three or more peopleidentifiable by name or type.

2. Identity: the members think of themselves as a group.3. Shared purpose: the members share some common task or

goals or interests.

4. Interdependence: the members need the help of oneanother to accomplish the purpose.

5. Interaction: the members communicate with one another,influence one another, and react to one another.

6. Sustainability: the team members periodically review theteam's effectiveness.

7. An ability to act together as one: usually tasks and goalsset by teams cannot be achieved by individuals.

There are risks and dangers under some conditions:

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1. Team may produce more conventional rather than moreinnovative. The reason for this is that team decisions mayregress towards the average, with group pressures toconform canceling out more innovative decision options. This

depends on team's membership and its norms and itsvalues.2. Team work may also be inappropriate when you want a fast

decision. Team decision making is usually slower thanindividual decision making because of the need forcommunication and consensus about the decision taken.

Types of teamsThere are four commonly accepted types of project team:

1. Functional TeamPeople working together carry out the same or similarfunctions. Work can be handed from one functional team toanother in order to complete the work. For example, work ona new product can pass from marketing which has the ideato research and development which sees whether it istechnically feasible, then to manufacturing. "Baton Passing"

2. Project (single) TeamThis team consists of a group of people who come togetheras a distinct organizational unit in order to work on a projectand subsequent projects. Care should be taken to ensurethat communications with other stakeholders (seniormanagement, line managers) are not neglected.

3. Matrix TeamIn a matrix team, staff report to different managers fordifferent aspects of their work. Matrix structures are often,but not exclusively, found in projects. Staff will beresponsible to the project manager for their work on theproject while their functional line manager will be responsible

for other aspects of their work such as appraisal, training andcareer development and routine tasks. Many of the projectstaff will still have other duties to perform in their normalfunctional departments.It is important to overcome the problems staff might havewith the dual reporting lines (two-boss) problem. Thisrequires building good interpersonal relationships with theteam members and effective communication.

4. Contract Team

Contract team is brought in from outside in order to do theproject work the responsibility to deliver the project rests with

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the project manager. And the client will judge the success ofthe project. This kind of teams called (outsourced supplyteam).

New types of teamsIn addition to the traditional types of teams or groups outlinedabove, recent years have seen the growth of interest in two otherimportant types of team: "self-managed teams" and "self-organizing teams".

Self-managed team Self-organizing team

It may be permanent or onlytemporary; it operates in an informaland non-hierarchical manner. Better

customer service, more motivatedstaff, and better quality of output arethe three features of self-managedteams.

It is often found in organizations thatare developing total qualitymanagement and quality assuranceapproaches.

Usually part of the formal reporting

structure.

Members usually selected bymanagement.

Informal style of working. Indirectly controlled by senior

management. Usually a permanent leader, but may

change.

Empowered by senior management. It may be formed for improvement.

The team will work together,operating outside the formalstructures, until its task is done

and then it will disband It can be found in highly flexibleinnovative organizations thatbased on creativity andinformality.

Usually outside the formalreporting structure.

Members usually self-selected. Informal style of working.

Senior management influencesonly team's boundary. Variable leadership, perhaps one,

perhaps changing, perhapsshared.

Empowered by the teammembers, supportive culture, andenvironment.

It may be formed in response to

and issue, idea or challenge.

Reading 2Working in groups

Group development:Tuckman identified four stages for group establishment ordevelopment:

1. Forming:

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The group is not yet a group but a number of individuals, atthis stage the purpose of the group is to discuss the group'stitle, leadership and life span, individuals will establishpersonal identities in the group.

2. Storming:Most groups go through a stage of conflict following theinitial, at this stage, purpose, leadership, roles and normsmay be challenged. If successfully handled, this stage leadsto the formulation of more realistic objectives andprocedures.

3. Norming:

During this stage the group members establish the patternsof work and norms for the group (the degree of openness,trust, confidence).

4. Performing:Only when the previous three stages have been successfullycompleted will the group be able to be productive.

To these for stages were later added a fifth stage:

5. Adjourning or mourningMembers may face significant uncertainties as they moveaway to new challenges. The team leader may need tominimize the stress that is associated with changes andtransitions. The team leader may encourage the teammembers to maintain links with each other and develop theirrelations through new activities and projects.

The creative cycle:

The creative cycle refers to the cycle of development that takesplace within a single meeting of a group, as opposed to the longer-term cycle which may occur over many meetings.

Creative cycle occurs in four phases:1. Nurturing: arranging coffee or some refreshment prior to the

business and to encourage members to use the time to mixinformally with each other. Also to deal with the less importantor routine matters during this "warm up" period.

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2. Energizing: (group energy state) when members feel that theyare energized and the main business should be discussed afterthis phase not before.

3. Peak activity: The apogee of discussion, in this stage the mostimportant issues are discussed.4. Relaxing: Slow down the discussion and it is very important

stage, meetings ended too quickly before the relaxing phase iscompleted, will leave members with a sense of dissatisfaction.

Groupthink:Groupthink is a process whereby a group collaboratessystematically to ignore evidence suggesting what is has done, or

is planning to do, is ill advised. It is like a giant blind spot operatingon the whole group.

Groups affected by or infected by groupthink make baddecision in four main ways:

1. They make decisions that subvert their own officialgoals.

2. They don't test the difficulties that they may face inimplementing the decision.

3. They take more risky decisions than any individual memberwould like, this is called "risky shift".

4. They take decisions that treat others as "the enemy" whichlead to reduce respect for the group.

When the group not functioned effectively, then its first response islikely to be to defend it self, just like an individual. Under theseconditions it adopts a "fight-or-flight"attitude and this dominatesthe operation of the group, ignoring evidence or blamingindividuals are simply devices for resisting facing up to the need

for change.

Groups cannot be understood simply because:1. Individuals have contracts with the group as a whole and this

is distinct from their relationships with other members as aone to one basis.

2. People behave differently in the group.3. There are too many possible interactions between group

members.

People are most likely to function effectively in the group if:

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1. The group has a well-defined tasks and objectives.2. The group is not too large, and not too small.3. The expertise and characteristics of members of the group

are complementary.

4. Implementing the stages of group development (forming,storming, norming, performing).5. Implementing a full creative cycle in each meeting.6. Developing trust and sharing hidden agendas.

Reading 3Projects and project team

Types of projects1. Process word: describes the normal day-to-day activities of

an organization.2. Project word: describes the outside normal day-to-day work.

Project: is an organized work towards a pre-defined goal orobjective that requires resources and effort, a unique venturehaving a budget and schedule. A project success can bemeasured in terms of how closely it comes to meeting the goalswithin the parameters of its budget and schedule.Project's elements:

1. Uniqueness: each one will differ from every other in somerespect.

2. Specific goals.3. Resources.4. Budget.5. Schedules.6. Effort of people.7. Measures of quality apply.

Some times one project will not be enough to meet organization'sgoals, this may mean that the organization will undertake aprogramme that consist s of a number of interrelated projects.

Programme: is a specific undertaking to achieve a number ofobjectives. The most common examples of programmes aredevelopment programmes.

Project life cycles

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There is no single life cycle that applies exactly to all projects. Thebasic project life cycle is: a series of arrows proceeding fromdefinition to closure.See figure 3.1 P (39) the overlapping areas between the major

phases of work in figure 3.1 show that the change from one phaseto the next is not abrupt.A. Definition phase (feasibility phase):Proposals are formulated, estimated and tested for feasibility, andsufficient plans are made to enable a go/on-go decision to bemade, often in the form of contract. The decision forms the end ofthe stage.

B. Planning phase

Once a decision to go ahead has been made, a project enters aplanning phase. Some plans and general costs will have emergedfrom the definition phase and will have been developed. The majortasks that must be carried out in the planning phase include:1. Task identification and sequencing;2. Identification of activities;3. Estimating and budgeting;4. Staffing.

C. Organization phase

By the end of planning phase, work can begin on the organizationphase, some or all of this phase may overlap with the planningstage. The aim during this phase is to put in place the teams,,controls, tools and communications that will be required for thenext phase.

D. Executive phase or "Implementation".The important activities in this phase are:

1. communicating with management, client, and users;

2. reviewing progress;3. monitoring costs;4. controlling quality;5. issuing orders for change;6. managing changes.7.

E. Close phaseThe results of the project can be put into operation.

Managing projects and project teamsPlayers in the game (project):

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Large number of people, project manager, and project teammembers. All of these people are important to some degree eitherbecause they are affected by the outcome of the project, orbecause they can affect its outcome.

Project sponsor: the person who provides the resources for theproject, and be responsible for ensuring that the project issuccessful.Project champion: may or may not be the same person as thesponsor. A champion is someone who acts as an advocate for aproposal project and providing support in times of difficulty.Client: A person or organization contracting to obtain professionalservices. A client may be a sponsor or champion.Customer: is a term similar to client, its most common meaning is

one who buys, it can be also a person with whom one has to deal.It is very important to keep the customer satisfied.Owner: who own the property (Ownership)Stakeholder: they are the people who matter in the situation andthe success of the project is important for him/her, team members,owner, manager, sponsor, champion, clients and so on, forreasons of anticipated increased

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