THE CONCEPT OF FLUENCY.pdf / KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO

7/27/2019 THE CONCEPT OF FLUENCY.pdf / KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO

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FLUENCY

Kunnampallil

gejo john,

maslpKUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN


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THE CONCEPT OF FLUENCY:

In popular usage, the terms fluent andfluency normally refer to a general proficiency inthe act of speaking or writing. According a general

proficiency in the act of speaking or means a smoothand easy flow I readiness, no hesitations inbeginning to speak, smoothness especially withregard to speech and readiness of utterance, flow of

words.

KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN


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Odhams Dictionary of the English Language (smith andOLoughlin1946) offers a similar definition of fluent;

having a ready command, confidence and flow of words; voluble(fluent), glib; spoken easily no effort involved, rapidly and without

hesitation; flowing, smoothly and continuous; proceeding readilyand naturally, spontaneously without effort. In thee definitions thetemporal and sequential features are emphasized. These cover aconsiderably wide range including breaks in the smooth flow ofspeech such as pauses, interruption etc and repetitions of linguisticelements such as sounds, syllables, words and phrases. In addition,factors such as rhythmical patterning, stress and intonationcharacteristics and overall rate of utterance could be consideredrelevant features in an assessment of fluency



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The term fluency is used slightly differently in the

context of language learning. Here fluency is used to describe a

level of efficiency in a foreign language. A person popularly

described as a fluent speaker of French, for eg is one whopossesses the ability to express himself like a native speaker of

French, to think in the foreign language or to have a good

command of language. The latter quality that of having a good

command of the language perhaps implies somewhat more thanefficiency in speech and writing only. If may imply in addition an

ability in comprehending the language (Crystal 1971). However,

in the normal use of the term fluency in language teaching,

emphasis is placed on the production side of speechKUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN


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Fluency(also called volubilityandloquaciousness) is the property of a personor of

a systemthat delivers informationquickly and with

expertise. Fluency indicates a very good informationprocessingspeed, i.e. very low average time

between successively generated messages

http://d/wiki/Personhttp://d/wiki/Systemhttp://d/wiki/Informationhttp://d/wiki/Expertisehttp://d/wiki/Information_processinghttp://d/wiki/Information_processinghttp://d/wiki/Information_processinghttp://d/wiki/Information_processinghttp://d/wiki/Expertisehttp://d/wiki/Informationhttp://d/wiki/Systemhttp://d/wiki/Person


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FLUENCY

DEFINITION:

Fluency refers to the effortless production of longcontinuous utterance at a rapid rate, be it the first or secondlanguage.

- Stark Weather (1980) Stark Weather (1987) considered fluency as a multidimensional

behavior and the dimension of fluency are:

- Continuity or smoothness of speech

- Rate of speech-Effort a speaker makes in producing speech (StarkWeather 1981)

-Rhythmic structures (Stark Weather 1981)



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According to Perkins (1977),

FLUENCY is a barometer for the entire speech

system, with its limits apparently set by adequacy orperformance of the other dimensions of speech.



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Language fluencyis proficiency in a language, most typicallyforeign languageor another learned language. In this sense,"fluency" actually encompasses a number of related but separableskills:

Reading: the ability to easily read and understand texts written inthe language;

Writing: the ability to formulate written texts in the language;

Comprehension: the ability to follow and understand speech in the

language; Speaking: the ability to speak in the language and be understood by

its speakers

http://d/wiki/Languagehttp://d/wiki/Foreign_languagehttp://d/wiki/Reading_(activity)http://d/wiki/Writinghttp://d/wiki/Listening_Comprehensionhttp://d/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://d/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://d/wiki/Listening_Comprehensionhttp://d/wiki/Writinghttp://d/wiki/Reading_(activity)http://d/wiki/Foreign_languagehttp://d/wiki/Language


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Reading fluency is often confused with fluency with a language(see above). Reading fluency is the ability to read text accurately

and quickly. Fluency bridges word decodingand comprehension.

Comprehension is understandingwhat has been read. Fluency is a

set of skills that allows readers to rapidly decode text whilemaintaining high comprehension (National Reading Panel, 2001).

A first benchmark for fluency is being able to "sight read" somewords. The idea is that children will recognize at sight the most

common words in the written form of their native language and

that instant reading of these words will allow them to read and

understand text more quickly.KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN
http://d/wiki/Decodinghttp://d/wiki/Reading_comprehensionhttp://d/wiki/Understandinghttp://d/wiki/2001http://d/wiki/2001http://d/wiki/Understandinghttp://d/wiki/Reading_comprehensionhttp://d/wiki/Decoding


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Dimensions of Fluency

Starkweather (1987): considered fluency as a multidimensionalbehavior and the dimension of fluency suggested are:

The continuity or smoothness of speech

The rate of speech

Effort a speaker makes in producing speech (Starkweather 1981)

Rhythmic structures (Starkweather 1982)KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN


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According to Perkins (1977), fluency is a barometer for

the entire speech system, with its limits apparently set

by adequacy or performance of the other dimensions ofspeech



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Fillmore (1979) has described three types of fluency, whichcorrespond tothree of four major components of languagesyntax, semantics and pragmatics. According to him,syntactically fluent have the ability to encode highly complex

sentences, which represent a wide variety of complex contentform relations. Semantically fluent speakers have largevocabularies to which they have full and ready access.Pragmatically fluent speakers always know what to say under awide variety of social circumstances.

The fourth component, phonology was not described byFillmore, but by Starkweather (1987) Phonologically fluentspeakers, have the ability to pronounce correctly and accuratelylong strings of syllables in unfamiliar combinations.



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The term dys denotes pathology or abnormal .

Dysfluencyabnormal instances of fluency failure, i.e.

; those most closely associated with stuttering.

Dysfluencies have been broadly defined as including all

instances of broken words

( i.e.; part-word, syllable, or sound repetitions or

prolongations)

and/or fluency disruptions associated with excess tension or

struggle.

DYSFLUENCY:



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In contrast, Disfluency has been proposed as theappropriate term for normal non-disfluencies.

Disfluencies or normal non-fluencies are considered to

include

- silent

- non tense pauses

- interjections

- revisions

- word or phrase repetitions without

indications of stress or struggle.KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN


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Normal disfluencies have been cataloged by several authors,and there is general agreement among them as to whatconstitutes disfluency.

Eight commonly used categories of disfluency are:

- part-word repetition- single-syllable word repetition

- multisyllabic word repetition

- phrase repetition

- interjection

- revision- incomplete phrase

- prolongation

- tense pause KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN


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Some of the major distinguishing features thatdifferentiate normal disfluency from stuttering are

-The amount of disfluency

-The number of units of repetitions & interjections

-Type of disfluency, especially in relation to theage of the child.



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Johnson (1961) classified the following types ofspeech behavior as disfluencies:

1. Interjection

2. Part-word repetition

3. Word repetition

4. Phrase repetition

5. Revisions

6. Incomplete phrases

7. Broken words

8. Prolonged soundsKUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN


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1. Interjection of sounds, syllables, words or phrases:This implies extraneous sounds uh, er hmm;

- extraneous words such as well which are distinct,from sounds and words associated with the fluent text or

with phonemes included one or more units or repetitionof the interjected material;

For eg: uh-uh-uh are each counted as one instance ofinterjection .

The number of times the interjection is repeated withineach instance is also noted, uh-uh is an example of aninterjection; repeated once and uh-uh-uh is an exampleof an interjection repeated twice.KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN


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2. Part- word repetition: This category has repetitions of parts of words- that is

syllables and sounds.

Within each instance of repetition the number of times thesound or syllable is repeated is counted; box-buy involves

one unit of repetition and guh-guh involves two units.

This does not distinguish between sound and syllable

repetitions.eg: ruh-ruh-ruh cuhcome, ba-ba-baby & a-bou -bout



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3. Word repetition:This category includes repetitions of whole

words including words of one syllable.

Both the number of instances and number of repetitionunits within each instance are counted. I-I-I, was- was &

going are samples of instances of word repetition; the first

involves two units of repetition and each of other two

involves two unit. A word repeated for emphasis as in very, very clear is not

counted as a disfluency.



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4. Phrase repetitions: This category includes repetitions of two or more words.

e.g.: I was I was going

5.Revisions :

Instances of revision include those in which the context of a

phrase is modified, or in which there is a grammatical

modification. Change in pronunciation of a word is alsocounted as a revision.

e.g.: I was- I am going



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6. Incomplete phrases : One which in the thought or context is not completed and

Which is not an instance of phrase repetition.

e.g.: she was- and after she got there he come.

7. Broken words :

Words which are not completely pronounced and which are notassociated with any other category, or

In which the normal rhythm of the word is broken in a way thatdefinitely interferes with the smooth flow of speech arecharacterized by this category.

e.g.: I was g-(pause)- going home.KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN


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8. Prolonged sounds :

This category includes sounds judged to be

unduly prolonged.

If a sound is prolonged twice, it is counted both as a

prolonged sound and a part- word repetition.



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Yairi (1981) put forth two types of word repetitionssingle syllable word repetition and polysyllabic

word repetition. The other six categories of

disfluencies included partword repetition, phrase

repetition; interjection, revisionincompletephrase, disrhythmic phonation (primarily sound

prolongation or broken words) and tense pause

(audible tense vocalization between words).



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Janssen and Kraaimaat (1980) categorizeddysfluencies into ten types which include fast

repetition of a sound, syllable or monosyllabic

words ; slow repetition of sound, syllable, word orphrase. The other disfluencies are prolongation of a

sound, tense block and interjection of a sound.



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Manning and Monte (1979)suggested twotypes of disfluency : motoric and formulative,

Rudium (1984) reports of a speech phenomenon

labeled articulation oscillation that is, when thefinal word of an expression ended in an unvoiced

plosive (t.k.p), then one or two repetitions of the

same phoneme was produced.



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Carrell and Tiffany (1960)refer to the pauses,during encoding, as oral punctuations.

Carrell and Tiffany (1960) ; Liberman

(1967) and sholes (1968)consider pauses whichdo not perceptually disrupt the smooth flow ofspeech, that is, fluent pauses. However, pauses candisrupt communication. Martin and Strange (1968)

proposed hesitation pauses that is pauses that disruptthe smooth flow of speech.



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Clarke(1971) differentiates between conventionalpauses and idiosyncratic pauses. Conventional pause

is the one that a complete speaker makes for

emphasis or to signal something linguisticallyimportant while an idiosyncratic pause is an aspect

of performance reflecting hesitation or uncertainity

over word choice, style or syntax



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Kowaletal(1975) considered unfilled pause as acategory of disfluency. They define unfilled pause as

any silence beyond 270 msec.



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De Joy and Gregory (1985) have analyzed ninetypes of disfluencies. They are 1) part word

repetitions. 2) Word repetitions 3) phrase

repetitions 4) revisions5) interjection 6) incomplete phrase and 7)

disrhythmic phonations (William 1968) 8)

grammatical pauses 9) Ungrammatical pauses.



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Minifie and Cooker (1964) have suggested that

disfluencies can broadly classified into two basic

categoriesdisfluencies of syllable insertion

including repetitions, revisions and interjections,and disfluencies of deliberationsincluding pauses

and prolongation.



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Disfluencies may not occur singly. Two or more types of

disfluencies can occur successively, they two referred to as

compound disfluencies. There are two types of compound

disfluencies.

Clustering: A term used by Silverman (1969) to describe the

occurrence of more than one disfluency on the same word or

consecutive words or both.

2) Oscillation: term used by Mysak (1976) to describe the

number of repetitions per instance of disfluency silverman (1969)

refers to the oscillation phenomenon as a duration of fluency.



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FACTORS AFFECTING FLUENCY

Several factors

continuity

rate

effort

rhythm

physiological framework of fluency



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language complexity

grammatical categories

sex

situation and environmental factors

motor and linguistic factors



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1. CONTINUITYPauses whether filled or unfilled are a common feature ofspeech.

We pause on the average every 4.8 words and our perception

of speech seems to be more continuous than the reality of it.Presumably, this happens because we focus on the content ofcommunication we listen to the ideas and not contribute tothese ideas is filtered out by our perceptual mechanism.

(Stark Weather 1987).



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There has been a presumption from the earliest days ofresearch in this area, that the pauses were occasions on

which language was being formulated and although it seems

likely that this is true for some pauses it may not be true for

all pauses.

In support of the idea that the two types of pauses are

different in kind, Clark notes that idiosyncratic pauses

convey no information, and tend to be overlooked and

concludes that conventional pauses are information bearing

elements of sentences.



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2. RATE OF SPEECH This is the rate in which continuous syllables can be

produced as a function of speed of articulatory movementand the degree of co-articulatory overlap.

( Gay,1978; Stark Weather, 1981).

Females produce utterance that are more variable in rateand longer utterances and they are more fluent than males (

Malecot, Johnson and Kizzias, 1972).

Rate depends on the type of syllables produced, CCV andCVC syllables are produced at a faster rate than VCCsyllables. KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN


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Dauson (1929) studied 200 children of differentgrade levels who were required to perform a variety

of speech tasks-counting repetition of a word,

saying a nursery rhyme, a tongue twister, and anordinary sentence as fast as they could.



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The results indicated a clear developmental trend inrate. The rate is reported to development for more

quickly in the early grade (1-3) than later on. In

terms of sex, the girls are reported to talk faster inearlier years consistently up to age 12, where the

first reversal occurs. Between age 12 and 17 there

is a minor saving back and forth between the sexesuntil age 20



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where boys seem to talk faster. However the boysand girls reacting differently to the competitive

challenge to perform as fast as possible may cause

the large sex difference at age 20 at least partly.



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Utterance rate and linguistic properties asdeterminants of lexical dysfluencies in

children who stutter

Peter Howell, James Au-Yeung, and Lesley Pilgrim



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Summary of the study:

Two important determinants of variation instuttering frequency are utterance rate and thelinguistic properties of the words being spoken.

Little is known how these determinants interrelate.It is hypothesized that those linguistic factors thatlead to change in word duration, alter utterance ratelocally within an utterance that then gives rise to anincrease in stuttering frequency.



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According to the hypothesis, utterance rate

variation should occur locally within the linguistic

segments in an utterance that is known to increase

the likelihood of stuttering.

The hypothesis is tested using length of tone unit as

the linguistic factor.



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Three predictions are confirmed: Utterance ratevaries locally within the tone units and this local

variation affects stuttering frequency;

Stuttering frequency is positively related to the

length of tone units; variations in utterance rate arecorrelated with tone unit length.



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3. EFFORT

Speech being produced effortlessly, is a characteristic of

fluent speech ( Stark Weather,1987).

The two types of efforts are :

- mental effortor concentration where the thoughts are

focused on the content rather than on the processes of utterances

and

- muscular effort, where the effort provides a flow ofair, opens and closes the glottis and moves the tongue, lips, jaw,

velum and pharynx (Stark Weather,1987).



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Among the speech sounds, stops & fricatives require

more effort than nasals and glides.

(Malecot,1955; Worth & Sakuda,1966).

Effort is consequently related to rate, stress &

duration of speech sounds.

Effort of mind & effort of muscle are both aspects of

fluency. It is difficult to measure the former.KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN


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4. RHYTHM Rather than being a dimension of fluency, rhythm

seems to promote or enhance fluency.

Speech rhythm serves fluency by making it easier forus to talk faster.

It does this in several ways- unstressed syllables areshorter and thus require less time.

Martin(1972) says that rhythmic patterning carriesa heavy information load in ordinary connectedspeech



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5. PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS Dejoy & Gregory (1985) indicated that during the later preschoolyears, children become more accomplished in the symbolic/ motoricselection.

They added that the forward flow of speech becomes relatively moreautomatic

The reduction in frequency may well reflect increased temporalprecision and control and simplification of the control process(Sharkey & Polkins, 1985).



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Van riper (1971) indicated that disruption of proper programming ofthe physiological movements necessary for fluent speech causesstuttering.

Spatial & timing co-ordination are essential physiological aspects offluency (Stark Weather,1987).



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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Image:StutteringReducesStress.gif


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6. MOTOR FACTORS Muscles that contract during a speech will receive a high

frequency neural impulses at the proper movement.

Muscles which are relaxed will receive a low frequencyneural impulse.

The capacity to relax antagonist muscles has more to dowith frequency than the capacity to contract agonistmuscles, which is proved in stutterers (Freeman &Ushijima,1978).



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To produce speech, the brain must generate sets ofneural commands to produce the right amount andtiming of muscle activity in a large number ofmuscles, including those that control breathing,voice, and oral movements.

During disfluent speech of children and adults whostutter, it is clear that the brain does not accomplishthis task.



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research, in combination with that from otherlaboratories, suggests that, although stuttering isexpressed as a failure of the motor areas of the brainto generate the right muscle commands for speechto proceed, the explanation of why this happensinvolves the interaction of the brain=s motor areaswith other brain systems, including those involved

in emotional, cognitive, and linguistic processing



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7. LANGUAGE MATURITY It is one of the important factor which is related to

fluency.

Increased ability in phonology, semantics, syntax &

pragmatic knowledge influence fluency.

As these abilities grow, sentences become longer

and more complex.



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8. LANGUAGE COMPLEXITY

Analysis of language samples of Haynes & Hood

(1978) who studied 20 males & 20 female children

between 5 to 6yrs supported that language

influences dysfluency especially in the complex

modeling condition.

Significant increase in word repetition, revision,

incomplete phrase and dysrhythmic phonations

occurred in the complex modeling situation.



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Watkins and Johnson (2004), however, pointed out that in manypast studies reporting lower language skills in children who stutter,the comparison groups of normally speaking subjects were selectedin biased ways, often coming from appreciably higher social groupsknown to have richer language.

In contrast, the Illinois studies addressed this problem by comparingthe performance of the stuttering children to a much broader base ofwell-established normative data. It is possible, however, that further

research with preschool children using more sensitive tools willreveal discrete language differences between groups



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9. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY

It is found that the frequency of occurrence of both unfilled& filled pauses is more before content words than functionwords (Fagen,1982).

The words following filled pauses are difficult to predictand filled pauses occur mainly before words which arehighly uncertain.

Filled pauses are much more common at the beginning ofclauses than within clause (Hawkings,1971) and they tendto occur before longer and more complex sentences (Smith& Lallijee, 1974).



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Linguistic factors, such as grammatical complexityand utterance length have been found to make

demands on childrens fluency

More complex the utterence more is the momentsof stuttering



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MEAN LENGTH OF UTTERANCE (MLU) The MLU is measured in morphemes it is an

index of language development. When the MLU

is measured in syllables per unfilled pause, it is anindex of fluency, since speakers who are more

fluent produce longer lengths of syllables without

pausing.



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Kowal et al (1975) measured this variable acrossvarious age group. Though Kowal et al did not

report of any difference between males and females.

Brownwell and smith (1973) reported that girlsproduce longer utterances than boys of same age.



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10. SEX

Some studies have indicated that males show greater

disfluencies than females in the age groups 2-6yrs(Haynes & Hood,1977; Yairi,1981; Wexler &

Mysak,1982).



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11. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

The person to whom the child is speaking is also an

important factor which influences fluency.

It has been found that the child speaks more fluently

with a puppet than with an experimenter.


ragmatic Speech


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Pragmatic speech is intended to cause another person to doa specific action. This might be telling a co-worker how to

send a fax. Don't say, "Let me do it for you."

More stressful is asking someone to do something you

want, when you're afraid that the person will say no. E.g.,

asking your boss for a raise, or asking an attractive person

out on a date, or telling your housemate to wash the dishes.

The listener is relatively powerful, and you're in a positionof relative weakness.


DURATION OF SOUNDS


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DURATION OF SOUNDS:

Duration of speech sounds is directly related tofluency in many ways. Like other aspects of

fluency, the duration of speech sounds change in the

growing child. As children grow the averageduration of both vowels and consonants deceases

along with the variability of duration (De simonies

1974



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This suggests that as age increases, he tends toproduce sounds that are briefer. Subsequently more

development occurs in the 3-6 years than in the 6

and 7 range ( Simons 1974) VOT is also longer inchildren than in adults.



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Early research has shown that people who stutter tend to beof lower thanaverage intelligenceand are more likely tobe bullied than their peers who do not

stutter. Their self-esteem, however, is close to average.Studies have not looked at all

of these factors in the same group of individuals.Consequently, this study investigated intelligence, self-esteem and experiences of being bullied in a sample of

29 young people who stutter. Participants were divided

into a persistent and a recovered group as it washypothesised that earlier findings might be more apparentwith speakers who persist with their stutter



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The Ravens Standard Progressive Matrices (Raven, Raven & Court,2004), Harters (1985, 1988) self-perception profiles and a newly-designed bullying questionnaire were used to assess intelligence,

self-esteem and experiences of being bullied, respectively. It wasfound that the intelligenceand self-esteem (when measured by

competency alone in particular skill domains) for both groups werenot significantly below the average for fluent people.

However, it was found that the incidence of bullying reported to beexperienced by people who stutter was much higher than estimatesfor bullying in school children ingeneral (not necessarily with fluencyproblems).



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No difference was found in intelligenceorexperiences of being bullied between the persistent

and recovered

groups. However, the self-esteem of the recoveredgroup was significantly lower than

that of the persistent group, when measured by the

mean discrepancy between the groups.


Brain Correlates of Stuttering


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g

and Syllable Production

Gender Comparison This article reports a gender replication study ofthe P. T. Fox et al. (2000) performance correlation analysis of neuralsystems that distinguish between normal and stuttered speech in adultmales. Positron-emission tomographic (PET) images of cerebral

blood flow (CBF) were correlated with speech behavior scores

obtained during PET imaging for 10 dextral female stutteringspeakers and 10 dextral, age- and sex-matched normally fluentcontrols. Gender comparisons were made between the total numberof voxels per region significantly correlated with speech performance(as in P. T. Fox et al., 2000) plus total voxels per region that were

significantly correlated with stutter rate and not with syllable rate



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Stutter-rate regional correlates were generally right-sided in males, but bilateral inthe females. For both sexes the positive regional correlates for stuttering were inright (R) anterior insula and the negative correlates were in R Brodmann area21/22 and an area within left (L) inferior frontal gyrus. The female stutteringspeakers displayed additional positive correlates in L anterior insula and in basalganglia (L globus pallidus, R caudate), plus extensive right hemisphere negativecorrelates in the prefrontal area and the limbic and parietal lobes. The male

stuttering speakers were distinguished by positive correlates in L medial occipitallobe and R medial cerebellum. Regions that positively correlated with syllable rate(essentially stutter-free speech) in stuttering speakers and controls were verysimilar for both sexes.

The findings strengthen claims that chronic developmental stuttering is functionallyrelated to abnormal speech-motor and auditory region interactions. The gender

differences may be related to differences between the genders with respect tosusceptibility (males predominate) and recovery from chronic stuttering (femalesshow higher recovery rates during childhood).



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The male stuttering speakers were distinguished by positive correlatesin L medial occipital lobe and R medial cerebellum. Regions thatpositively correlated with syllable rate (essentially stutter-free speech)in stuttering speakers and controls were very similar for both sexes.

The findings strengthen claims that chronic developmental stuttering

is functionally related to abnormal speech-motor and auditory regioninteractions. The gender differences may be related to differences

between the genders with respect to susceptibility (malespredominate) and recovery from chronic stuttering (females showhigher recovery rates during childhood).


Number of siblings


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Number of siblings

Catallata (1973) reported that severity of stutteringincreased as siblings were born and more if the age

difference is less than 3 years


Semantic factors


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Semantic factors

Stressed syllables

Novelity


Syntactic factors


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Syntactic factors

Phrase structure-final syllable lenghtened

Pre pausal lengthening-syllable before pause will be

lengthened


Phonetic factors


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Phonetic factors

Intrensic Extrensic

Vowels and consonants



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THE CONCEPT OF FLUENCY.pdf / KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO