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Emotional Violence

The Hidden Scars and Self Efficacy among School Going Adolescents

ISHITHA E.K

PhD Scholar, Dept. of Social Work, Pondicherry University

ABSTRACT

Studies proved that emotional violence have long lasting and devastating

effect on the physical, social, psychological, cognitive and emotional

development. Though the visible signs of emotional abuse is difficult to detect, the

hidden scars of this type of abuse manifest in numerous crisis. There is a greater

probability that emotional violence gets interfere with the positive states of mind

like self efficacy, having confidence to take on and put in the necessary effort to

succeed at challenging tasks. The study is conducted among 180 higher secondary

school students through successive levels of Multistage sampling. Descriptive

research design is adopted, where in quantitative measures were used with an

effort to provide description on the phenomenon and the variables considered in

the research. Child Emotional Abuse increases stress reactivity and decreases

levels of self-esteem and self–efficacy (Yates 2007).The research also affirms

negative significant relationship between academic, social and emotional self

efficacy and emotional violence. Strengthening or enhancing self efficacy among

adolescents through appropriate intervention may help the effected to act as an

antidote to the traumatic situation rather debilitating the threats.

Key Words: academic self-efficacy social self-efficacy, emotional self-efficacy,

emotional violence, adolescents

EMOTIONAL VIOLENCE: THE HIDDEN SCAR AND ADOLESCENT SELF EFFICACY

‘Lekshmi became too dejected, uneven in class, passive on homework’s,

she was the brightest and class top in 10th standard. The news of her suicide was

shocking for all. One of her neighbor reported child line coordinator that two days

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before, she told her friend that somehow she need to run off from home, father

being an alcoholic tear off the record and her books and the home environment is

not at all conducive for her studies and she really wish if someone could help her.’

This case is a sensitive outcome of heightened part of emotional violence, and the

imbursement- a life. On further side there are grumbles - parents at all times

compare with other children, teachers humiliates by criticizing in front of all,

friends avoid of no reason, parents did not acknowledge the achievements, etc.

these seems petite but are invisible wounds that hurts forever.

While in western countries where the responsibility of care and protection

is vested with the government and related organizations, the 21st century there, is

looking forward to shift those responsibilities to family and communities by

strengthening them through various approaches. In India, traditionally, the

responsibility of care and protection of children has been vested with families and

communities. We do have a sound family system and relationships as our ethnic

identity and here in 21st century there is a paradigm shift in its approaches of

child protection, being in a transformation to hand over those responsibility to

government or related organization. Even while the Constitution of India

guarantees many fundamental rights to the children, the approach of ensuring

fulfillment of these rights are needs based rather than rights based.

‘THE HIDDEN ABUSE’

` Emotional/Psychological abuse against children is an overt form of

maltreatment that has received less attention globally than physical and sexual

abuse. As per the study conducted by Ministry of Women and Child

Development, Government of India on Child Abuse: INDIA 2007, every second

child reported facing emotional abuse and equal percentage of both girls and boys

reported facing emotional abuse. Emotional and psychological maltreatment of

children is the most complex type of abuse - invisible and difficult to define.

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The World Health Organisation (WHO), 1999, has defined as "Emotional

abuse includes the failure to provide a developmentally appropriate, supportive

environment, including the availability of a primary attachment figure, so that the

child can develop a stable and full range of emotional and social competencies

commensurate with her or his personal potentials and in the context of the society

in which the child dwells. There may also be acts towards the child that cause or

have a high probability of causing harm to the child's health or physical, mental,

spiritual, moral or social development. These acts must be reasonably within the

control of the parent or person in a relationship of responsibility, trust or power.

Acts include restriction of movement, patterns of belittling, denigrating,

scapegoating, threatening, scaring, discriminating, ridiculing or other non-

physical forms of hostile or rejecting treatment".(As cited in Krug E. G et al.

(2002).

Probing in to the child maltreatment literature, Emotional abuse has been

the most recent abuse subtype to emerge. “Emotional abuse, also known as

psychological maltreatment, was not formally ‘discovered’ until the 1970s”

(Adam. M. Thomison 2001). Emotional violence is not a new concept, still an

emerging concept in India. The concept was not known in a single name but

branded by emotional abuse, psychological abuse, psychological maltreatment,

emotional maltreatment. The use of these terms synonymously has been subjected

to various debates and discussions and in this study those terminology are used

interchangeably since the emotional effect remains the same. There are

similarities as well as disparities in the forms of emotional abuse across region.

Cultural factors influence how a child is being disciplined which may be regarded

as psychologically harmful by the people from other cultural backgrounds. The

consequences of emotional abuse are likely to differ greatly depending on the

context and the age of the child.

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According to National Clearinghouse on Family Violence 1996, in

comparison to other forms of abuse the effects of emotional abuse is recently been

recognized, which is hard to define on the consistent definition, difficult to detect,

assess and substantiate and thus many cases of emotional abuse go unreported.

Since it is unrecognized when compared to other forms, it is tougher to

professionally intervene into the situation. The victims may admit that emotional

abuse occurs in their intimate relationship but the inner wound, its depth and

worn-out self, remains hidden and in many cases it may be expressed as cases

somatic problems, like headaches and stomach ulcers, breathing problem.

“Emotional abuse accompanies other forms of abuse, but also may occur on its

own. No abuse – neglect, physical, sexual or financial – can occur without

psychological consequences. Therefore all abuse contains elements of emotional

abuse (Hart, Germain & Brassard, 1987). If left unchecked, abuse does not get

better over time. It only gets worse. Like other forms of violence in relationships,

those who hold the least power and resources in society, for example, women and

children, are most often emotionally abused.”

This hidden form of violence occurs both in verbal and non verbal form,

when someone who is most related or intimate ones says or does something to

make feel stupid, worthless or humiliating. Emotional violence includes, but is not

limited to, exposing a child to family violence, giving constant criticism, blaming

for all family problems on a child, humiliating or denigrating a child in front of

others, using silent treatment, confinement to the home, not allowing to have

social contacts, destroying belongings, giving verbal or non verbal threats,

jealousy, threatening to commit suicide.

Researchers have emphasized emotional violence as a pattern of

behaviour, occurring over a period of time, which is repetitive in nature,

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sustained/persistent and rarely episodic. And therefore, the core components of

emotionally abusive behaviour are that it is a process and not a single event. And

since it is a pattern of behaviour, very often the abuser and the abused are rarely

aware that it is problematic. Since child rearing practices differ from culture to

culture and from time to time within cultures, a good understanding of these

practices within the given cultural context is vital for an appropriate diagnosis on

emotional violence against children.

TYPES OF EMOTIONAL ABUSE

In one of the practice guidelines, the American Professional Society on the

Abuse of Children (APSAC, 2001) describe six forms of psychological

maltreatment: “Spurning (verbal and nonverbal hostile

rejecting/degrading);Terrorizing (behavior that threatens or is likely to harm

physically the child or place the child or the child’s loved objects in danger);

Exploiting/corrupting (encouraging the child to develop inappropriate behaviors);

Denying emotional responsiveness (ignoring child’s needs to interact, failing to

express positive affect to the child, showing no emotion in interactions with the

child); Isolating (denying child opportunities for interacting/communicating with

peers or adults); and Mental, health, medical, and educational neglect (ignoring or

failing to ensure provision for the child’s needs).”

According to Laurie MacKinnon (2008) emotional violence includes acts

of Omission and Commission. These behaviors include acts of emotional and

physical unavailability, unresponsiveness, withdrawal of attention, comfort,

reassurance, encouragement and acceptance; and hostility, denigration, and

rejection of a child. The author categorized and summarized those acts on the

light of the literature as given below:

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“Acts of commission include- ongoing verbal abuse including explosive

outbursts of anger, discrediting the other person's reputation – spreading negative

rumors, threats of abandonment (or actual periods of abandonment), threats to

harm the target person or their family members or pets, inducing terror or fear by

threatening to place the target person in a dangerous environment or forcing them

to watch violence towards another person or animal (Loring 1994), inducing

terror or fear in a child by harming or threatening to harm the child's parent

(domestic violence), corrupting or exploiting the target person by inducing them

(often as a result of threatening to harm their children or pets) to commit a crime

or, in the case of a children, permitting them to use alcohol, drugs or see

pornography (Loring & Beaudoin 2000; Loring & Bolden-Hines 2004) and,

restricting the target person from normal contact with other people (Sable 1999).

Acts of omission include- refusing to acknowledge the other person's presence,

withholding of necessary information, ‘the silent treatment’ – refusing to

communicate for extended periods, ignoring the other person's attempts to

interact, failure to confirm the other person's needs or feelings, failure to show

appropriate affection or love.”

COMMON INDICATORS

The signs symptoms or indicators of emotional violence are diverse and the

effect may vary in its extent with the victim’s age, gender, positive psychological state,

emotional regulation and coping. The common indicators of emotional violence are

summed up in Table No.1:

Table No.1: Common indicators Of Emotional Violence

The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to

Children (NSPCC),(2007),(2010)

O’Hagan, as cited by National

Clearinghouse on Family Violence

(1996)

Oyaziwo Aluede, (2004)

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• exhibits extremes in behavior;

• delayed in physical or emotional development;

• often complains of headaches, nausea, or stomach aches for no obvious reason;

• exhibits frustration when performing tasks and often criticizes their performance;

• attempted suicide;

• discloses emotional violence.

• neurotic behavior • being unable to play

• fear of making mistakes • sudden speech disorders

• self-harm

• fear of parent being approached regarding their behavior

• developmental delay in terms of emotional progress

• learning difficulties

• problems with relationships and socialising

• rebellious behavior • aggressive and violent

behavior • anti-social behavior and

• depression

• withdrawal

• low self-esteem

• severe anxiety • fearfulness • failure to

thrive in infancy

• aggression

• emotional instability

• sleep disturbances

• physical complaints with no medical basis

• inappropriate behavior for age or development

• overly passive/compliant

• suicide attempts or discussion

• extreme dependence

• underachievement

• inability to trust

• excessive worry about school performance;

• change from positive to negative self-perception;

• verbalized fear that teacher would hurt them; excessive crying about school;

• headaches;

• stomach aches;

• decreased

• functioning in social situation outside class;

• nightmares or sleep disturbances;

• school avoidance;

• withdrawal behavior or depression

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CONSEQUENCES

According to Allyson Turnbull (2010), Emotional abuse is the one of the

most harmful forms of child abuse. The child who experiences emotionally

abusive behavior is more likely to have maladaptive representations about

themselves and the world and experience difficulties in developmental transitions

throughout their lifespan. When children who have been emotionally abused grow

up, they continue to experience problems in terms of their physical health, mental

health and adult relationships (Prevent Child Abuse America, 2010). The

consequences of child emotional abuse can be devastating and long-lasting, and

include: increased risk for a lifelong pattern of depression, estrangement, anxiety,

low self-esteem, inappropriate or troubled relationships, or a lack of empathy

(Kairys et al 2002). During their childhood, victims may experience a delay in

their developmental progress. Research also indicates that emotional abuse may

be a stronger predictor of psychological, emotional, and behavioral impairments

and trauma than accompanying physical abuse (Glaser, D, 2002).

As cited by National Clearinghouse on Family Violence (1996),

Emotional abuse can severely damage a person’s sense of self-worth and

perception (Hart, Germain & Brassard, 1987). According to O’Hagan (1995) in

children, emotional abuse can impair psychological development, including:

intelligence, memory, recognition, perception, attention, imagination and moral

development. Emotional abuse can also effect a child’s social development and

criminality • self-isolating behavior

• negative impulsive behavior

• stealing

• other forms of abuse present or suspected

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may result in an impaired ability to perceive, feel, understand and express

emotions.

According to Oyaziwo Aluede (2004), Psychological maltreatment can

also affect a child’s social development, which may result in an impaired ability

to perceive, feel, understand and express emotions. Exposure to experiences of

emotional abuse in childhood is likely to threaten the security of attachment

relationships, and may result in maladaptive models of self or other and they may

interfere with the child’s ability to form secure and satisfying relationships with

others later in life.

The destruction of self that is the hallmark of emotional abuse has led

some victims and researchers to describe emotional abuse as more painful and

damaging to the victim than physical abuse (Loring, 1994). When finally able to

break out of an emotionally abusive relationship, victims find they have no sense

of what is important to them or how they feel about anything. Victims of

emotional abuse often are forced to discard personal morals, ethics, and opinions

in order to avoid fights within the relationship, and the victims’ sense of self may

be consumed by their controlling partner (Carey & Mongeau, 1996; Chung, 2007;

Loring, 1994; Rosen, 1996).

Emotional violence can put a child at greater risk of developing any of the

behavioral problems, such as, learning difficulties, problems with relationships

and socializing, rebellious behavior, aggressive and violent behavior, anti-social

behavior and criminality, self-isolating behavior (making people dislike you),

negative impulsive behavior (not caring what happens to yourself)(NSPCC).

“Social support plays an important role in ameliorating the effects of emotional

abuse. Emotionally abused children may fail to develop the capacity to empathise

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with others - a precursor to difficulties with peers, intimate relationships, and

inadequate parenting skills (Briggs & Hawkins 1996). Severe emotional abuse

may lead the child to engage in antisocial, sometimes violent, behaviour, where

the child offender exhibits a sociopathic response to the violence that has been

perpetrated” ( as cited by Tomison, 1997).

SELF-EFFICACY

Studies proved that emotional violence have long lasting and devastating

effect on the physical, social, psychological, cognitive and emotional

development. The visible signs of emotional abuse in children are difficult to

detect, still the hidden scars of this type of abuse manifest in numerous behavioral

crisis. The invisible bruise caused by emotional violence degrades self efficacy

and in succession, hammer on the personality and development, de-motivate and

dispirit their educational achievements, impede attachment or emotional bond to a

parent or guardian, lower down the cognitive ability and put in poor social skills.

Thus there is a greater probability that emotional violence gets interfere

with the positive states of mind or a person’s positive psychology. Such a

positive psychological state of an individual which might distracted with the

effect of emotional violence is having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and

put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks . Self-efficacy is

concerned with an individual’s belief (i.e., confidence) of accomplishing a task

(Bandura, 1998). Self-efficacy is the most popular positive psychology variable

used in the educational setting, and has strong research and theory supporting its

effect on academic achievement (Bandura, 1998). The loss of identity and sense

of self is one of the most traumatic aspects of emotionally abusive relationships.

Adolescence being the age of identity construction and confusions, it is more

likely to effect the positive psychological aspects mainly self efficacy. Child

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emotional abuse increases stress reactivity and decreases levels of self-esteem and

self–efficacy (Yates, 2007).

Psychological abuse may erode self-efficacy by acting as a source of

negative verbal persuasion, communicating inefficacy rather than efficacy to an

abuse survivor (Hosey, 2012). The Reason for low self efficacy in abused as

discussed by Rainbow Gryphon (2011), are 1) abusers don’t want to believe in the

victim efficacy because it might be threatening for their self image, 2) abusers self

confidence may be based on the amount of control they exert 3) They can’t

believe on victims in relation to lack of belief in themselves, 4) common belief

that world is being a dangerous place and us being helpless in it 5) feeling of

dissociation being distanced from ourselves, our thought, our feelings, and our

environment and these factors can have an effect on how we assess our self-

efficacy.

Confining the role of self efficacy in the particular study revitalize its

significance in assembling the skills to vie the threats which counter the trail. This

research intends to find out the prevalence of emotional violence among

adolescents undergoing higher secondary education. The researcher predicted 1)

significant difference in the prevalence of emotional violence with respect to

gender; 2) significant relationship between academic, social and emotional self

efficacy and emotional abuse; and 3) significant difference in the self efficacy

with abused and the non-abused and also suggests the need for future

intervention.

METHOD

The study is conducted among 180 higher secondary school students.

Higher secondary schools under Thrissur Education District are the universe of

the study. The plus one (+1) students in the Higher secondary schools in Thrissur

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Education district, Kerala are the study population. As per the available list of

directorate of Higher secondary Education, Kerala, there are 189 higher secondary

schools in Thrissur out of which 71 are aided schools, 49 unaided and 69 are

functioning under Government sector. Multistage sampling is used in this study.

Thrissur district is divided into 17 blocks and Wadakkancherry block is selected

randomly. In the next stage higher secondary schools in the block are divided into

strata like unaided, aided and government schools. From each stratum 2 schools

are selected randomly. Finally, 30 students from each schools are selected

disproportionately using simple random sampling (lottery) method. Mentally

challenged, physically challenged and orphaned adolescents are excluded from

the study. Children below 12 and above 18 year are not considered as samples.

Descriptive research design, wherein quantitative measures were used with an

effort to provide description on the variables which are considered in this

research, and to describe the relationships that exist between these considered

variables.

Informed consent was taken from the students orally and in written, where

they were well informed about the purpose of the research and the value of their

response and also their freedom to withdraw from the research at any point of

time. A checklist was introduced to the adolescents for screening adolescents

affected by emotional violence from the total samples. Self-efficacy is measured

by Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children (SEQ-C) (Bandura, 1997). The SEQ-

C contains 24 items that has three domains of self-efficacy: (1) social self-efficacy

that has to do with the perceived capability for peer relationships and

assertiveness; (2) academic self-efficacy that is concerned with the perceived

capability to manage one’s own learning behavior, to master academic subjects,

and to fulfill academic expectations; and (3) emotional self-efficacy that pertains

to the perceived capability of coping with negative emotions. Each item ranges

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from scoring on 5-point scale with 1 =not at all and 5 = very well. The sources of

secondary data are books, journals, science and research news, official websites,

research studies and Ph.D. thesis. Appropriate descriptive, relational and

inferential statistical analysis will be used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Prevalence of Emotional Violence

The respondents of the study are higher secondary school students, in the

age group 13-18 years. The data were collected from six schools, 30 respondents

from each with a sum total of 180 respondents. A checklist was introduced to the

respondents to find out the the adolescents effected by emotional violence. Out of

180 respondents 50.56 percent of them are effected by emotional violence and the

non effected comprises of 49.44 per cent.

Difference in the Prevalence of Emotional Violence with Respect to Gender:

Hypothesis 1- There is significant difference in the prevalence of

emotional violence with respect to gender.

There were 91 respondents affected by emotional violence out of which

51.65 percent of them were females and 48.35 per cent were males.

Table No. 2: Emotional violence Vs Gender

Sex N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks

Male

Female

Total

44 47.55 2092.00

47 44.55 2094.00

91

Table No.3: Test Statistics- Emotional violence

Mann-Whitney U 966.000

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Wilcoxon W 2094.000

Z -.546

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .585

Grouping Variable: sex of respondents

The Z value obtained is -0.546. The table no.3 shows the p value 0.585 is

greater than the alpha value 0.05. Even the mean score shows slight difference in

the prevalence of emotional violence as shown in the table no.2, statistically it is

proved that there is no significant difference in emotional violence with respect

to gender. The study conducted by Ministry of Women and Child Development,

Government of India on Child Abuse: INDIA 2007 found that, every second

child reported facing emotional abuse and equal percentage of both girls and

boys reported facing emotional abuse which is also been a repeated result of this

particular study.

Self-efficacy with Emotional Violence

Hypothesis 2:- Self efficacy has significant relationship with emotional

violence

Table No.4: Correlations Emotional Violence and Self Efficacy

Emotional violence

Self-efficacy

Academic-self-efficacy

Social self-efficacy

Emotional self-efficacy

Emotional violence

Pearson Correlation

1 -.301** -.273** -.246** -.234**

Sig.(2-tailed)

.000 .000 .001 .002

N 180 180 180 180 Self-efficacy

Pearson Correlation

1 .798** .860** .841**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000 .000 .000

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N 180 180 180 Academic self efficacy

Pearson Correlation

1 .547** .445**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000 .000

N 180 180 Social self efficacy

Pearson Correlation

1 .682**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

N 180 Emotional self efficacy

Pearson Correlation

1

Sig. (2-tailed)

N **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The relationship between emotional violence and the components of self-

efficacy are significant. There exist significant negative relationship between

emotional violence and each components of self-efficacy namely, academic self-

efficacy, social self-efficacy and emotional self-efficacy. It could be concluded

that as emotional violence in adolescents increases the self efficacy decreases. Or

emotional violence is lower in adolescents having higher self efficacy.

Educational research suggests that the traditional forms of capital (self efficacy

which is a component of psychological capital) play a role in academic

performance of students, teachers, and schools (Lassen, Steele, & Sailor, 2006;

Parcel & Dufur, 2001; Marks, Cressewell, & Ainley, 2006; Stewart, 2008). These

lines of research also suggest that these forms of capital have both micro and

macro effects on academic performance. As found by Sachs-Ericsson, Natalie &

N. Medley, Amanda (2011), in the study Childhood Abuse and Current Health

Problems among Older Adults: The Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy, Child abuse

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was related to lower self-efficacy, and self-efficacy explained the relationship

between abuse and the number of health problems.

Difference in the Self-Efficacy with respect to the Abused and the Non Abused

Hypothesis 3: There is significant difference in the self-efficacy of the

abused and the non-abused

Table No.5: t-test Self Efficacy and Hope with respect to Abused and Non

Abused

T Df Sig. (2-

tailed) Mean

Std.

deviation

Self efficacy

Equal variances

assumed 4.568 178 .000 90.42 10.888

Equal variances not

assumed 4.580 170.194 .000 81.92 13.847

Academic self

efficacy

Equal variances

assumed 3.828 178 .000 29.72 3.917

Equal variances not

assumed 3.844 157.872 .000 26.88 5.829

Social self

efficacy

Equal variances

assumed 3.940 178 .000 31.62 4.190

Equal variances not

assumed 3.950 170.735 .000 28.81 5.285

Emotional self

efficacy

Equal variances

assumed 3.324 178 .001 28.70 5.177

Equal variances not

assumed 3.324 177.999 .001 26.10 5.306

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In the case of Self efficacy and its components, p value obtained is lesser

than the alpha value, which reveals there is significant difference with respect to

the abused and the non-abused. In a study conducted by Kim J & Cicchetti D,

(2003), it is found that younger maltreated children exhibited inflated levels of

perceived self-efficacy in their peer interactions compared to younger non-

maltreated children. Younger maltreated children with higher levels of social self-

efficacy showed significantly less internalizing behaviors compared to younger

maltreated children with lower levels of social self-efficacy.

CONCLUSION

The result shows each component of self efficacy namely academic self

efficacy, emotional self-efficacy and social self-efficacy has negative relationship

with emotional violence. The scars of emotional violence unhealed fabricate long

lasting effects. Strengthening or enhancing self efficacy may help the effected to

act as an antidote to the traumatic situation rather debilitating the threats.

Appropriate intervention in time may help those effected by emotional violence

like 1) application of social case work approaches-behavior and environment

modification, family and school based intervention, provide life skills based

intervention, providing counseling and guidance, and referral services in schools,

reinforcing the modified behavior of students in the form of tokens, both material

and non material, 2) social group work intervention-identifying and forming

homogeneous groups, providing a platform to share and discuss to manage the

situation (eg: psychodrama), conducting workshops and camps on stress

management, life skills etc. 3)social work research- promoting researches on the

area, experimenting new intervention techniques, 4)social work institutions can

plan intervention strategies and work in coordination the schools, fieldwork

placements- concurrent and block could be taken up under the direct supervision

of faculty members. Appropriate social work intervention may help the effected to

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strengthen the self efficacy, support the adolescents affected by emotional

violence to lead more fruitful life and achieve their goals.

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