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^Eugene J. Hall English For Careers
The Language ofThe Petroleum Industryin English
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-==G+EREGENTS/PRENTICE IIAII, Englewood Cliffs, New losey 07632
Illustsarions by B€nde CaseCover photo cowtesy of fte Mobil CorporafionCover design by Suzarme Bennett
-E o 1976 bv Prentice-Hall Inc.
=C A sinon .i schusrer Company
# g"tt1"*oo6 gliffs, New Jersey 0?632
All rights rcserved. No part of this book maybe reproduced in any fcm or by any me<u,without permission in writing ftorn the publisher.
I,rinted in the United Ststes of Am€rice109876s4321
rsBN 0-l,l-5a11,01-5
Prentice-Hall lntemational (JK) Li,nited, LondonPrentice-Hall of Austalia Pry. Limite4 S)dEtPrentice-Hall Cqrada [t]a., TorontoPrentice-Hall Hisparoamerican4 S. A,, MexicoPrentice-Hall of Indi a. Plfuxe l'trnited. New DeJhiPrentice-Hall of fapar! Inc., TokyoSimon & Schuster Asia.Ptc. |'td., SingapoeEditora Prentice-Hall b Brasil,llda' Rio de laneiro
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD v
T'MT ONEThe Petroleum Industry
UNIT TWOExploring for Petroleum
UMT THREEDrilling for Oil 28
UNIT FOURRecovering the OiI
UNIT FIVETrarxporting Oil 53
IJNIT SIXReffning Oil 70
IJMT SEVENCarcers in the Petroleum Industry
t4
FOREWORD
This book is one of a series of texts called English for Careers
The series is intended to introduce students of English to the lan-
guage of different professional and vocational fields. The career areas
ihafare covered are those in which English is widely used throughout
the world, such as air travel, computer technology, international com-
merce, or, in the case of this particular book, the petroleum industry'
Each book in the series serves several purposes. The first is to give
the student an introduction to the particular vocational area in which
he or she is involved. The duties of different kinds of jobs are dis-
cussed, as well as the problems that might be encountered at work' Inthis book, The Language of the Petroleun Industrg in English' the
difierent phases of the oil indrxtry are presented, as well as a summary
of some of the specialized jobs that are available in the industry. This
book is not intended to be a detailed training mamral, but rather abroad introduction both to the opportunities and the problems
involved in difierent kinds of work in the petroleum industry.From the point of view of teaching English as a foreign language,
these books are intended for a student at the high intermediate or
advanced level. In other words, tle student who uses these books
should be acquainted with most of the structural patterns of English.
His or her principal goals as a leamer should be to master vocabulary,
to use the various structural pattems in a normal mixture, and toimprove his or her ability to communicate in English.
These books address themselves to all of these needs. Each unitbegins with a glossary of special terms in which words and expressiors
*"-d io th" vocation being discrssed are defined. This glossary is fol-lowed by a vocabulary study which tests the student's comprehension
of the special terms and gives practice in their use. In the reading,
these terms are used again within a contextual frame of reference'
Fach reading is followed by questions for comprehersion and dis-
tz'
cussion. They give the student the opportunity to use in a commu-nicaUve situation both the vocabulary items and structural patternsthat have occrrred in the reading.
Each unit ends with an exercise or exercises, some of which poseproblems that might occur if the student were working in a particularjob. In this book, for instance, he or she is asked to identify difierenttypes of geological formations in which oil might be found. In doingthese exercises, he or she will also practice both the specializedvocabulary and other new words as well as the structural patterns thatare used with them.
A great deal of successful language learning comes from experi-ences in which the learning is largely unconscious. In offering thesebooks, it is hoped that the student's interest in his or her chosen fieldwill increase his or her ability to communicate more efiectively inEnglish.
Eugene J. HallWashington, D.C.
UNIT ONE
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Special Terms
Fossil: The traces or remairu of plant or animal life that existed inprevious geological ages. Petroleum, coal, and natural gas arecalled fossil fuels becaue they were created from tiny plantsand animals that lived milliors of years ago.
''- ==-----
t/-:E'.t<O:=--./'.
2 parRoLEUM INDUSTRY
Peholeurnr A fuel found in mineral deposits under the ground. pafr-comes from the Greek word for rock , oleum trom |dtJ Greek wordfor oil-therefore, rock oil, or oil found in rock.
Crude Oil/Crude Petroleum: Oil or petroleum as it comes from thegound. It is not commercially usable in this form.
Barrel: Forty-two gallors, when speaking of petroleum. This is thersual unit of measure that is used for oil.
To Seep: To leak slowly. Sometimes oil seeps through the ground toleave traces on the surface. It is because of se$age that the firstlmown oil deposits were found.
Distillation: A process of heating a mixture to separate lighter sub_stances from heavier ones. The lighter o.reJ ure cha"nged intovapor or steam by the heating process. This is the basis for refin-ing oil into commercial products.
Intemal Combustion Engine: The kind of engine used in automobiles.Power comes from tle explosion of a mixture of fuel and air. Thefuel most often used is gasoline, a petroleum product.
An intemal combustion engine.
PE|ROLEUM INDUSTRY 3
Gasoline, Kerosene, Asphaltr Commercial products made from petro-leum. Gasoline is the ligbtest, asphalt the heaviest. Kerosene was
often used as a source of heat and light in the nineteenth eentury.Asphalt is used primarily to pave streets,
By-product: A secondary product obtained in the process of makingsomething else. In the early days of the oil industry, gasoline was
a by-product in the distillation of petroleum to make kerosene.
Petrochemicals: Chemicals derived from petroleum. They are used inthe creation of qfnthetic (man-made) rubber, plastics, and otlersubstances.
Vocabulary Practice
7.
Why can petrolzum be called rock oiP
What is a fossdl.? Why are petroleum, coal, and natural gas called
fossil fuels?
WIst is cruile oil? How usefi;l is it in this form?
What does t barrel of oil mean?
How were oil deposits first found?
What is ilistilhtbn? What does it have to do vrith the oilindrxtry?
What are gasoline, kerosene, rnd asplult? What is each one usedfor? Which is lightest? Which is heaviest?
Why do we tlrink of rc intpmal cunbustion en$nz when wethink of gasoline?
What is a bgprod,ttct? Give an ocample from the petroleumindustry. Can you also give an example from some otler industry?
What ate p*ochanicalr? What are ttrey used to make?10.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
The ffrst modem oil well at Titusville, pennsylvania, 1g59.
The Petroleum Industry
Petroleum, coal, and natural gas are the most widely used sourcesof enerry in the modem world. They are of primary importance in theindrstrialized countries, where vast atnoroi, of
"rrergi ,r" consumed
to operate all the difierent kinds of machines that w;k for mankindtoday. These three energ;r sources are referred to as fossil fuels.
Fossils are the traces or remains of plant or animal life thatexisted in previorx ages, not just thousands, but millions and evenhundreds- of milliorx of years ago. Enormous numbers of living crea_tures and plants died. They were covered by sand or mud, *hich i.,time was itself covered by the waters of the seas. pressure changed thesand and mud into rock that trapped the fossils, which by thin hadchanged into oil, coal, or gas. Petroleum is composed largely of theremairs of thesetiny marine animals and plants that lived so long ago.
Oil in one form or another has been used by mankind for manvcenturies to- provide light and heat. Until only a relatively rhort ti-'"ago, most of this oil came from animal or vegetable sources. Olive oil,
PETROLEU\'I I\DI S'I RY 5
for example, was used in lamps and for cooking in the ancient civ-
ilizatiors bordering the Mediterranean. Indeed, it was one of the
major articles of trade and commerce in antiquity; and even now,
olive oil is still used all over the world for cooking and other purposes'
Many other kinds of oils have also been commercially imPortant,
including oil from sesame seeds or cottonseed and oil from whales'
Petroleum difiers from other oils because it comes from a mineral
sotuce rather than an animal or vegetable souce. In fact, the prefix
petr- in lhe word pet:roleum is derived ftom the Greek word for rock'
When petroleum first went on the market, it was called rock oil lodistinguish it from all the other kinds of oil. Since then, modern tech-
nology has become such an enormous consumer of energy that petro-
leum'is probably the most valuable single product in the world lt is
indeed often called "black gold.".* Up until the industrial revolution that began in the eighteeqth
and nineteenth centuries, human beings did not use energy on any-
where near the same scale that we do nowadays. Enerry was uedalmost entirely for heat and light and for the preparation of food' The
principal fuels that were burned to provide enerSr' were wood, some
iypes of animal wastes, and vegetable and animal oils' Many areas
where civilization flourished, such as China and the Mediterranean,
were very nearly deforested despite the relatively low energy
Preindustrial power-on the left, a. millstone; on the right, a woman grindingmaize bY hand
7"I
6 pnTRoLEUM INDUSTnY
requirements tlat existed until only two or three hundred years ago.The machines of the ancient world-few and simple by present-ilaystandards-used the power of water or the muscles- of hurians or ani_mals. The millstone is the classic example of a machine turned bywater; its use was widespread throughout the preindustrial world.One can get some idea of the amount of diftculf work that the mill-stone
-saved by comparing it with the implements used for grinding or
pounding corn in pre-Columbian America, where the whil had-not*been invented when the firs Europeans arrived.
The industrial revolution began in England in the eighteenthcenhrry, when many machines were being invented ttrat woirld per_form various kinds of work more easily and eftciently. These e-arlymachines, the_ beginning of a flood of technologr that has since sweptover mankind were generally used in the manufacture of textilels.Power for them came from steam, and tle energz for changing waterinto steam came from buming wood or coal. Coal, o.r" of th" thr""fossil fuels, was the energr source that made it possible for the indus_trial revolution to take place. It has only beeri since World War IIthat oil has replaced coal as our primary enerry source. /. . The
_engrmous Eowth of the petroleum industry has taken placein just a little more than a hundred years. The origin of the indttrycan in fact be dated to I85g, when the frst underglound oil well wasdrilled in the United States in Titusville, penrsylvania. Before thattime, t}re petroleum that had been marketed-only in small quan_tities-came from seepage in places where pressure had forced oil toleak out onto the surface of the ground. Soine of these surface seep_ages of oil had been known for hundreds of years, such as those aroundMosul in what is now Iraq.
_ The pioneer oil well was brouglrt in at a timely moment in thehistory of eners/. For many years prior to 1859, whale oil had beenusrcd
_for lamps, But by f859, because overly eager fuhermen hadkilled too many whales, not as much whale oil was ivailable. The firstimportant commercial product from crude petroleum was kerosene,which quickly replaced whale oil in the kerosene stoves that were alsodeveloped for heating purposes. A by-product of the distillation ofpetrcleum in those early years of the industry was asphalt, which wasused for paving streets. Another by-product, ior whici no use could befound" was gasoline.
After the beginning of the twentieth cenhry, the demand forpeboleum increased enormously as automobiles came into wider and
PE-TROLEUM INDUSTRY 7
wider use. In 1900 the United States produced 64 million barrels ofoil; by 1925 production had increased to 764 million barrels; by 1950
it was approximately 2 billion barrels. A barrel is the most commonmeasure of oil; it contains forty-two gallons.
Some of the early experimental automobiles used steam- or bat-tery-generated electricity. Gasoline turned out to be a more efficient
enerry source for the internal combustion engine in automobiles. Gas-
oline, once an unwanted by-product, suddenly became the most popu-lar fuel in the world.
Oil by-products have also become more eficient and cheaper to
use than othtr fu"Is, especially coal. Heat for our homes, ofRces, and
schools, for example, is fumished to a considerable degree by oilinltead of .oal, bil is now also used to power most forms of
transportation; it has replaced coal in ships and trains- almost
"u"ry*h"t in the world. Oil is also used to lubricate many difierent
kinds of machines, including automobiles. Without lubrication, the
moving parts of our machines would quicHy wear out'
Another principal source of energr in the modern world is elec-
tricity. Electricity, however, does not exist in a r.rsable form in nature,
and therefore it must be generated. Some electricity is produced bywater power; most of it is produced by steam, but as we have alreadynoted, steam is the resr.rlt of changing water to vapor by buming some
-==-- ='-=-- - 1t-=_-F
An electric generating plant. The barge is delivering oil that provides power forthe plant.
8 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
kind of fuel. Coal was used for this purpose by most electric powerplants rmtil only a few years ago; now oil is rxed in the majority ofgenerating plants.
Coal had the original advantage of existing in large quantitiesclose to the earth's surface. In addition, the techniques for mining coalwere not new; they were essentially the same as those that had beenrsed for hundreds of years in the mining of metals. But a ton of coalhas the energy equivalent of less than four barrels of oil; furthermore,it is much more difficult to transport. After 1859 the oil industryquickly developed an extremely complex technology, first to find oilbeneath the earth and then to drill deeper and deeper wells to bring itto the surface. At the same tirne, techniques were developed to takeadvantage of the fact that petroleum was a liquid and thus could flow.This involved the development o{ oil pipelines.
Another important factor in the growth of the oil indutry hasbeen the development of petrochemicals. Many products have beencreated by chemists from petroleum. These include most of our mod-em plastics and fertilizers. Indeed, the increase in agricultrual pro-ductivity*also known as the green revolution-could not have takenplace without petroleum-based chemicals, including not only thosethat enrich the soil like fertilizers but also those that kill weeds,insects, and other pests-herbicides, insecticides, and pesticides.
The greatest problem for the future of the oil industry is thatpetroleum is not a renewable natural resource. All the petroleum tlatexists, no matter whether it is hidden under the earth or the seas, wascreated rnillions of years ago. As the use of oil has increased, so havethe predictiors that oil will soon be exhausted. Nevertheless,improved techniques for exploration, drilling, and recovery of petro-leum have kept the supply ahead of the world's consumption. The oilindustry, however, looking forward to the day when the supply of oilmay become exhausted, is engaged in research to find not only sub-stitutes fff oil but also other sources of energr.
In the following units, we will discuss the major aspects of the oilindustry-exploration, ddlling, recovery, transportation, and refining.After we have acqrrired some knowledge about the difrerent phases ofthe industry and the kind of work that is involved, we will discuss thedistinctive careers tJrat the industrv offers.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 9
Drccussion
l What enerry sources are widely used in the modern world?
2. Why are petroleum, coal, and natural gas of primary importancein the industrialized countries?
3. What are these energr sources called?
4. What are fossils? What is their relatiorship to oil, coal, and gas?
5. What is petroleum largely composed of.)
6. Has oil only been used by mankind in the last two hundred years?
7. Where did most oil come from in the past? Give an example.
8. What are some kinds of oil that have been commercially impor-tant?
9. How does petroieum difier from other kinds of oil?
10. How did people distinguish petroleum from other kinds of oilwhen it ffrst went on the market?
11. What has made petroleum so valuable since then? What is itoften popularly called?
12. Have human beings always used energl on the same scale that we' do nowadays?
13. What was enerry almost entirely used for before the beginning of
the industrial revolution?
14. What were the principal frrels at that time?
]5_. What happened in many areas where civilization flourished?
16. What did the machines of the ancient world use for power? Whatis an example?
7
21.
22.
IO PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
17. How can you get an idea of the amount of work that was saved byusing the millstone?
18. Where and when did the industrial revolution begin? What werethe ffrst machines used for?
19. What was the source of power for most of the first machines?Where did t}te enerry to create this power come from?
20. How long did coal remain the principal energr source in theworld?
How long has it taken the oil industry to grow to its present size?
To what time, place, and event can the origin of the industry bedated?
23. How much oil had been marketed before that time? Where hadthe oil come from? Give an example.
24. Why was t}re ffrst oil well brought in at a timely moment in thehistory of energr?
25. What was the ffrst commercial product to be made from crudepetroleum?
26. What were two by-products from the distillation of petroleum?What were their uses?
-2J. Why did the demand for petroleum increase enormously after thebeginning of the twentieth century? Give figures to show thislncrease,
What is the common unit of measure for oil?
Did all early automobiles use gasoline for fuel? Why did gasolinewin out over other flels?
What are some places in which oil has replaced coal as fuel?\ryhy?
28.
29.
30.
32.
.lJ.
PEIIROI,EUM INDUSTRY
31. Why is oil used for lubrication?
What is another principal source of enerry in the modern world?
Why must electricity be generated?
How is electricity produced? Which is used more often in electricpower plants nowadaYs, coal or oil?
35. What original advantages did coal have as a source of enerry?
36. In terms of barrels of oil, what is the energr equivalent of a ton ofcoal?
What did the oil indusuy quicHy develop?
What further advantage did petroleum have?
What has been another factor in the growth of the oil industry?
What are some of tle products that have been created from
petrochemicals?
41. What is tlre greatest problem for the future of the oil industry?
42, IJow has the world's supply of oil been kept ahead of its con-
sumption?
4!. What kind of research is the oil industry engaged in?
Review
A. FilI in the spaces in the following sentences with the appropriate
word or phrase.
1. Petroleum is derived
Jt.
38.
39.
40.
andfrom two Greek words that mean
t2
2.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
oil is petroleum as it comes out of thegound, before it has been made into commercially usable prod-ucts.
separates lighter from heavier substances in amixture by heating the substances.
does not exist in a usable form in nature butirstead must be generated.
fuels are made up of tJre remains of marineplants and animals tJrat existed milliorx of years ago.
A barrel, the common unit of measure of oil, contains _gallors.
4.
5.
7. - is a petroleum product that is used for light-ing in lamps and for heating in a special kind of stove. It wasmuch used at the end of the nineteenth century.
Most internal combustion engines in automobiles rseas their fuel.
is a petroleum product which is used for pav-ing streets.
10. Gasoline and asphalt were originally in theprocess by which kerosene was obtained from petroleum.
9.
are called fossil fuels.
12. Most of the plastics that are used today are made from
13. The presence of oil had been krrown for many centuries becauseof to the surface from rurderground deposits.
14. It was necessarv to drill beneath the surfacebefore petroleum could be obtained in quantities that were com-mercially signiffcant.
t7.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 13
15. In an- engine, power comes from theexplosion of a mixture of fuel and air.
16. The ffnt real oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania in
is a common popular expression for petroleumbecause it is zuch a valuable product.
18. The began in England in the eighteenth cen-hrry with the invention of machines for the textile industry.
19. The is a term sometimes used for the increasein agricultuml productivity, much of which has been carxed bythe use of products made from petrochemicals.
20. Since World War II, oil has passed coal as the world's primarysource of
-.
B. List all of tle products you can think of tlat are made from crudeoil. Indicate what their uses are. Which of them play an importantpart in your daily life? In what way?
C, List all the products in your regular environment-your home,your offce or place of work, your school, even among the clotl'resyou wear-which you think might be made from petrochemicals.
UNIT TWO
EXPLORING FOR PETBOLEUM
Special Terms
Geolog;r; The study,of the physical features of the earth such as rocks,morntains, and so on. A geologist is a specialist ln tlr" neld ofgeologr.Sedimentary Rockr Rock which was formed from mud, sand, and silt(sediment) that was carried down to an"i;;;;l, ir,J'nu*, orthe past'.Pressure changed the sediment rrir r*r.] p",."r""- t.- round only in areas where tbere is sedimentarv rock.Igneous Rockr Rock that was formed
""d"; ;;i;;; r,""ri, ", i" uot_canic activity.
Porous: Full of _tiny holes tlrat permit tlre passage of air, water, orother liquids. Limestone, sindstone,
"i.ra Jif"_ia"
.ar. aypr""lporous rocks which allow oil to move through them.-
-Fault: A break or fracture in the layers
"f ,*k #i;; ;;;,s surface,often the result of an earthquaie. Th" ,hiCl;-lry;i.iil*t
"r"cause oil to be tranned.Anticline: A place in tlh'"
"art}', surface where layers of rock haveformed an arch or dome. This is another typff;;i 'fJrmationin which oil can be trappsfl.
Sor,tg1nry"" f,,p: A place in- the earth's surface where layers of onerond ot rock come together, trapping a &fierent kind of,ockDetween tiem. This is another type of }ormation in which oil canbe found.
core: A sample of rocks obtained by a drilr, The core can be studiedfor the types of rocks and for Lvidence olfo;ril;. *" "' '
PE'IROLEUM INDUSTRY
A fault structure, An anticline.
A stratiSraphic trap.
Paleontologist: A person who has specialized in paleontologg, thestudy of prehistoric life throug! tle evidence of fossils.
Geophpicist: A specialist in geophgsics, the science that deals withttre efiects of forces such as gravity or magnetism on tle earth.Geophysics combines some of the &sciplines of geolory withthose of physics.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Gravimeter: A device which can measure the pull of the earth's grav-ity. It can indicate what kinds of rocks may lie beneath the srr-face.
Magnetometer: A device which can measure the strength of theearth's magnetic field. It also indicates the kinds of rocks beneaththe surface.
Seismograph: A device to measure the vibrations in the earth. It iscommonly used to detect and measure earthquakes, but it canalso be used to explore for oil.
Vocabulary Practice
1, What does a geola$st specialize in?
2, What is sediment? What happens to sediment over a long periodof time?
3. What kind of rock is igrwou rock?
4. Is oil found in sedimentary or igneous rock?
5. What are porous rocks? What are some typical porous rocks?
6. What is a fault?
7. What is an anthlinp?
8. What is a stratigaphic trap?
9. What is a core? What can be leamed from it?
10. What does a paleontologist specialize in?
ll, What does a geophysicist specialize in?
12. What does a graoi,meter measure? What can it indicate?
13. What does a mngnetoneter measuoe? What can it indicate?
14. What does a seismograph measure? What is it usually used for?
PE-TROLEIIM IND(ISTRY
Total discovered oil by the end of 1975.
Exploring lor Petroleum
Petroleum comes from the remains of marine plants and animalsw\ose bodies sank to the boqtom of ancient seas millions of years ago.
This organic matter was covered by deposits ofsand and mud beneathwhich the marine fosils were changed into oil. Exactly what causedthe change to take place is not known. One theory is that the pressureof the mud, which was itself becoming rock, caused the change.Another tl-reory is that the mud carried bacteria which brought aboutthe change. '
The mud that settled above tlie newly formed oil and becamerock is called sadi mentary rockbecause of the layers of sedhnent thatcharacterize it. It is distinguished from igneous roclg which is pro-duced by the action of intense heat and pressure, as in volcaniceruptions.
Where oil had formed beneath the layers of sedimentary rock,both gas and salt water were usually found with it. The salt water,heavier than the oil, sank to the bottom, while the oil floated to the
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BILLION AARRELS
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r8 PETRoLEUM INDUSTRY
top and into the pmous rocks nearby. These rocks, usually sandstone,Iimestone, or dolomite, permitted the oil to continue to move, since aporous substance contains tiny holes that allow the movement of air orwater and other gases or liquids. The gas sometimes dissolved in theoil or, being the lightest of the three substances, floated to t}re extremetop.
During the passage of millions of years, many changes continuedto take place on earth. Mountains rose and fell; seas covered the landand then withdrew again; and cracks or /ozlts developed in the earth'scmst. As these changes occurred, layers of rock were pushed up ordown into various kinds of formatiors which trapped the oil beneaththe srrface. In general, these traps were formed at points where theoil could no longer continue to move because it had run into a layer ofnonporous rock.
Three types of traps frequently contain pools of oil. One is calledart anticlhw, a formation in which layers of rock rose up to form anarch or dome. When oil moves tbrough porous sandstone or limestoneinto the anticUne, it is forced up into the top of the arch by waterpressure from below. When tle roof of the arch or dome is a layer ofnonporous rock, the oil can no longer move and it is trapped there.
ln a fault, the crust of the earth has cracked and caused &fier-ent layers of rock to slip. A layer of porous rock may then exist next toa layer of derser, nonpororx rock. When the oil moving through theporous rock comes to the dense rock, it has to stop. Water pressurefrom behind will not allow it to move backward or to escape from thetlap'
The third kind of oil pool formation is called a stratigraphic trap.In this kind of formation, layers of derse rock are above and below alayer of pororx rock, like the pieces of bread in a sandwich. Forceswithin the earth sometimes press tlte layers of porous rock togetler atone end or the other, or occasionally at both ends, thereby trapping alayer of oil-bearing limestone or sandstone between them.
The people who try to determine where oil may be found arecalled, geolngis*, who have either specialized in the study of earthsciences or in gnlagy, the study of rocks, mountains, and other phpi-cal features of the earth's surface. They look for the features that wehave described above-ffrst, the presence of sedimentary rocls; sec-ond, nearby porous rocks; and third, the outward signs of traps whereoil may be prevented from moving any fi:rther.
A geologist examining laYers ofI rock.
PEIROLEUM INDUSTRY
Examining cores of rock in alaboratory.
In addition to geologists, PaIa-ontologists and geoPhAsicists arcalso involved in the search for oil.Paleontologists make a special study
of fossils. The same cores that are
examined for difierent tyPes of rocks
can also be studied for fossilremains. In the cores there might be
traces of bones or shells of themarine animals which form the rawmaterial of petroleum. In fact, theyare one of the best indications of thepossible presence of oil under-ground.
The fact tlrat most Petroleum is
underground makes oil exploration a
l9
Geologists who work for oil companies often explore the terrain
where oil riay occur. Places such as canyors, where di$erent layers of
rock are exposed, often give clues to the possible presence of oil'Corag samples of rocks that have been brought up from below the
surface by ipecial &ills, are often available for examination. Geolo-
gists can abd work with aerial survey maps, which reveal many details
of rock structure.
ffff6ie.:o
Studying aerial surveY maPs.
7
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
risky-business. Except for places where water pressure has caused oil toseep totlesurface. the pools ofpetroleum are hidden underground, oftendeep within Lhe earth. The ffrst oil well was only 6914 feet dEep; by I950,the average well was 4,000 feet deep; arrd,ro* -".ry *"if. g. JJrv" zo,oOofeet oreven_m.ore. Geologists can oniy."y *t
"r" oit lrlrvl"" foirna,
" *"flmrct be drilled before the possibility
""r, b""oir" a certainty.
, , A,nother group of scientisis, the geophysicists, are called in tohelp. determine the possibility
. still more precisely. Geophysics is acombination
."j ryA.g1l and physics. Geophysicisis are iarficuta.lyconcerned with forces such as gravity ani magnetism.'They havedeveloped several devices that Jeteci the kind of io.matiorx thatexist beneath the surface of the earth. Three of tn"r" a"r.i"o or"
"orn_monly used to explore for oil.The first is the graDimeter, which measrues the pull of the earth,s
gravity. Gravity varies a little from one place to another depending onwhat lies ulder each particular spot. A-dense rock like gra;rit" wo,rldnave a.greater gavitational pull than a porous rock like sandstone.Thy,
,the re_adings from the gravimeter can indicate what kinds ofrocks lie underground.
The second device is the magnetometer, which measures thelTigth :l ,1" earth's magnetic ffeld the force that -uL", u
"o-p"r,ry r:t I As with gravity, tlre densities of rocks underlying the surtace reflect changes in magnetism that can be read with this meter.The third device is t\e sei.smograph, which measures vibrations
in the earth. It is the same irxtrument ihat is used to detect and mea_zure the inte-nsity_of earthquakes. In oil exploration, it i,
"."a io .""o.a
tne waves ol small. man_made earthquakes created by a blast of dyna_
,mi.te buri:d in the ground. The waies are reflectei bv bouna".i",
,*ly":r T" rock layers as shown in the figure on page 2i. The wavesmocate the type of structure, such as an anticline, 'ihat
might exist.Thus. additional clues about the location of oil can U" a"i"i_i""a._^^^ITl:-"., only clues. however. The geologists, paleontologisrs.geophyslcists, and tie people who work with them can suggest whereort may belound, but only the actual drilling of a well ca"n"prove theaccuracy of their predictions. As scientific m;hods of dete;m'ining thelocation of oil fields have become more sophisticated, however, thepossibility of ffnding new oil fields has increised. Th;;;;;;;or -or":li_TY:."p:. despite the fact that^it is an expensive form of gam_Dtrng. lt has become necessary to find new petroleum deDosits toreplace the oil that has been cbnsumed u,
"n "r,'"._i*."Jog'i"t" Iry "world that requires more and more enerry.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
The use of a seismograph in underground exploration for petrcleum'
Discussion
l. What does Petroleum come from?
2. What happened to this organic matter?
3. What are the two theories which attempt to explain the change of
the organic matter to Petroleum?
4. What happened to the mud that had buried the new deposits of
oil?
5. What characterizes sedimentary rock?
6. How is igneous rock Produced?
7. What was usuallY found with oil?
22 qETROLEUM INDUSTRY
8. What happened to the salt water and the oil?
9. What kind of rocks are sandstone, limestone, and dolomite? Whydid they permit the oil to move?
10. What happened to the gas that was found with the oil?
11. What changes continued to take place on earth? Did thesechanges occur quickly?
12. How did oil get trapped beneath the surface of the earth?
13. In general, where were the points at which oil was trapped?
14. How does oil get trapped in an anticline?
15. How does oil get trapped in a fault? Why can,t the oil move back_ward to escape from the trap?
16. How does oil get trapped in a stratigaphic trap?
17. Who - ar-e ,the -people
who try to determine where oil may befound? What have t}ley studied?
18. What three sigrx do they look for in particular?
19. What is one place on the eartJr's surface tJrat may give clues tothe presence of oil?
20. What are cores? What can tley reveal to an oil geologist?
21. Why can a geologist also work with aerial survey maps?
22. What other,people with scientiffc training are also engaged inexploration for oil?
23. What have paleontologists studied? What can they exarnine?
24. What is one of the best indications of the possible presence of oilunderground?
PETROLEUM INDUSTNY 23
25. What makes oil exploration such a risky business?
26. Where are pools of petroleum hidden? How is their presence
sometimes indicated on t}te surface?
27. How deep was the ffrst oil well? What was tle average depth in1950? How deep are some wells nowadays?
28. What is the only thing that a geologist can suggest? What must be
done to determine if he is riglrtP
29. What have geophysicists specialized in? Why are they called in tohelp explore for oil?
30. How is a gravimeter used to explore for oil?
31. How is a magnetometer used to explore for oil?
32. How is a seismogaph used to explore for oil?
33. What proves the accuracy of tlre clues provided by geologists and
ottrer people engaged in exploring for oil?
34. What has increased the possibility of ffnding new oil fields?
35. Why does the search for oil never stop?
Review
A. Fill in the spaces in the fcillowing sentences with the approPdateword or phrase.
l. People who specialize in studying the physical features of ttreearth such as rocks and mountains are called
--=-.2. The for oil involves many difierent kinds of
scientists, yet their best predictions can only be guesses.
7I
24
J.
4.
o.
Oil is always found in areas where there is
Earthquakes sometimes cause a crack or fracture in the surface of
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
rock, which was formed from mud, sand, and silt under pressure.
rock was formed by intense heat and fire.
the earth that is called a
7.
A formation in which layers of rock have been pushed upward toform an arch or dome is called an
-
When layers of rock come togetler, somewhat like the pieces ofbread in a sandwich, l^.ith a layer of oil-bearing rock betweenthem, the formation is known as a
9.
rock permits the movement of gases and liq-uids because it has tiny holes in it.
Water that is found with oil sinls to the bottom because the water
10.
ls
Aspecial drill can be studied for types of rocks or for fossils.
has made a special study of fossils.
A -.- has made a special study of the efiects offorces such as gravity or magnetism on the earth.
than the oil.
brought up from below the surface by
measnres the force of magnetism.
11.
t2.
13. A
14. A which measures vibrations within theearth, can be used to detect earthquakes as well as oil formations.
15. A measures the force of gavitational pull.
I6. rocks exert more gravitational pull thanporous rocks, which are lighter.
17. When layers of porous and nonporous rocks meet, it is possible for
PETROI.EUM INDUSTRY
oil to bemove though the nonporous rock'
because it can no longer continue to
limestone, and dolomite are typical porous
rocls.
B. Look at tlre following diagrams. Indicate whether oil might be
trapped in each of the formations that is shown. If so, indicatewhat the formation is called.
26 PETROLEUM INDUSTI
4.
6.
7.
PETROLET]M INDT]STRY
8.
9.
10.
--Iy---'
r
UNIT THBEE
DRILLING FOR OIL
Special Terms
To Spud In: To be$n &illing an oil well.Dry Hole: A well that does not ffnd oil. Often, many dry holes are
drilled before oil is discovered.Derrick: A portable tower, usually built of steel with an open
framework, that holds the equipment and machines used to drillan oil well.
Cable-tool Drilling: A system for drilling oil wells. A hole is punchedinto the ground by dropping a cutting tool into dirt or rock.
Bitr A cutting tool.Rotary Drilling: Another system for drilling oil wells. A cutting bit
drills the hole with a rotary or circular motion.Casing: Pipe that is put inside the well as it is being drilled in order to
prevent contamiration of fresh water fty salt water, oil, and gas),washout of the hole by drilling fluids, collapse of the hole, and soforth.
String: Any pipe tlat is in the hole, including tubing or casing. Thestring consists of many joints of pipe, each of which is aboutthirty feet long. Two, three, or four joints at a time are calleddublzs, thribblzs, or fourbles, respectively.
Drilling Mud: A special mixture of water, clay, and chemicals used tobring crushed rock to the surface during drilling. It also helps tolubricate and cool the bit.
Rigr The special equipment for drilling an oil well.Directional Drilling: A technique for drilling a well at an angle rather
than straiglrt down.Gusher: A well in which underground pressure forces the oil out vio-
Iently and usually wastefully.Drilling Pladorm: A large platform, like a man-made island, that is
used when drilling for oil in ofishore locations.
CAOWNBLOCK
nuDHOSE
'GILY
0ct<
DnAt'l
,latD
P01TAELE DEn1rcK
t'laDE 4N S EL F- P40 PE L L E DYlORKOVER RIG
K,#t/{a
Drilling lor Oil
AJter the geologists and their assistants have decided where thereis likely to be oil, the actual drilling can begin. An exact place ispicked to spud in the well; that is, to begin drilling.
This begins one of the biggest, most exciting, and most expensivegambling games in the world today. Have the geologists been right?Will the drilling produce oil? Will all the money invested in the well,often involving millions of dollars, return the investment, or will it bea total loss? A large proportion of all the wells drilled are dry holes,
wells tlrat have not struck oil. This is particularly true in new oil
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Vocabulary Practice
When do oil workers spud in a well?
What is a drg Lnb? Why is it a problem in the oil industry?
What is a dcnick and, what is it used for?
What is the cutting tool that is used in drilling for oil called?
What is the difierence between cabb-tool and rotary ilrilling?
Wtnt is crcing? Why is it often necessary to use casing?
What is a string? ln what lengths do strings come?
What is ibilling muil? 'V,lhat is it used for?
What does the word rig refer to?
How does directiorwl drilling difrer from the usual drillingtechniques?
What ts a gnhzr?
When is it necessary to we a ddlling pln{orm?
4.
5.
6.
9.
10.
.
PE-TROLEUM TNDTTSTRY 3I
FISHTAIL
ROLLER BITDIAMOND DRILL BIT
Tlpical bits used in ddlling for oil. Each type is suitable for use in penetratingdifierent subsurface layers.
fields. The first producing well in Alberta, Canada, came in only afterthirty years of exploration and 133 dry holes. Obviously, in that casethe indicatiors of oil were strong enough to make it worthwhile tocontinue the search.
When the spot to spud in the well has been selected, a portabledct rhk is erected to hold all the equipment and machines that will beused while the drilling is going on. The derrick is an open-work tower,ordinarily made of steel. It is a symbol for both the oil industry andtle search for petroleum. Today, most derricks can be erected in a fewhoun.
Difierent techniques are used to drill an oil well. One of them,cable-tool ilrilling is the same system that was used for digging thefirst real oil well back in 1859, a system originally used for diggingwells for water. Basically, it involves punching a hole deeper anddeeper into the gound. A cutting tool, called a bit, on the end of adrilling stem is raised and then allowed to fall; the bit cuts and crushesthe dirt or rock at the bottom of t}re well. When the stem and bit arepulled up, the debris at the bottom of the well is removed. Then thebit is dropped again to crush more rock, and the process is repeatedover and over again. Casing steel pipes that line the well for a varietyof reasors, is used.in all wells except those abandoned at very shallow&pth..
7
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Cable-tool drilling is only usedwhen the well is shallow and whenthere is hard rock to cut through.Most modern wells are drilled bytte rotarg drilling method. This.issimilar to the way in which a car-penter drills a hole in a piece ofwood. A cutting bit drills with a cir-cular or rotary motion, at the same
time pushing up the waste from thedrilling process.
Cable-tool drilling was derivedfrom the method for drilling wellsfor water. Thanks to the rotarymethod, both water and oil havebeen discovered at great depth,s
beneath tle surface of the ground.Great reservoirs of water have beenfound by oil drillers below the sur-faces of the deserts of Libya andSaudi Arabia, two arid countrieswhich are large producers of oil.
Drilling an oil well requires agreat deal of expersive equipment.The drilling bits, for example, arespecially designed for the differentkinds of urderground layers thatthey have to cut through. And nomatter how strong or sharp they are,they wear out sooner or later andmrst be replaced. The lengths ofsteel tube, that make up the drillpipe are also expensive. The drillpipes are lcrown as a Itrifl& consist-ing of many sections of pipe joinedtogether. Each pipe section is aboutthirty feet long. Two sectiors, threesectiors, or four sectiors at a timeare known x dubbq thribblps, or
fourblzs. respectively. The casingCable-tool drilling.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
tlat lines the well is also called a
string.Everything but the casi-ng is
considered part of the rig, a termthat refen to all of the specialequipment that is involved in drill-ing the well. Each of the strings ofcasing must fit within the one thathas previously been lowered intothe ground. They are like a tele-scope that opens out; vrith thecasing for an oil well, the large endis at the srrface. However, eachrew string almost always runs fromthe bottom of the hole (at the timethe string was placed in the hole) allthe way to the surface. The use ofsuch casihg indicates that the ge-olo$sts have had to make a fairlyexact estimate of the depth at whichoil should be found. Nonetleless,there is always plenty of exha pipearound in case they underestimatedthe depttrs.
Mud also plays an importantpart in rotary drilling. The mud,however, is a special mixture ofwater, clay, and chemicals that is
kaown as drilling nr.ad. It is pumpeddown througlr the hollow center ofthe drill pipe, and it helps to pushthe debris from the drilling back tothe surface. It also helps to keep thedrill bit cool and lubricated.
The drilling mud brings frag-ments of tle rock (called drill*triog.) or other material to thezurface from the bottom of the well.Geologists can study these samplesto detect the presence of oil-bearing
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Directional drilling.
rocks or sands. Special bits can also bring up cores that the geologistscan study for further evidence of oil.
Most holes for oil wells are drilled straight down. However, atechnique known as directional drillinghas been developed to tap oilpools which are under water, particularly in coastal areas. Directionaldrilling has been used particularly in Califomia where many of theofishore oil deposits are near land. This drilling method is also used tobring fires or gushers under control. Gushers are wells that shoot upoil violently because of underground pressure. By means of directionaldrilling, mud can be pumped into a gushing well or into one that is onfire.
Directional drilling can be used to tap underwater oil depositsnear land. Nowadays, however, more and more exploration and drill-ing are being carried on in deeper water farther from shore. Forinstance, there are active oil fields in the Gulf of Mexico ofi Texas andLouisiana in the United States, and in the North Sea off the northerncoast of Scotland. To drill for this oil, special drilling platfonrus mt:stbe built. They are really man-made islands which are able to resist thebattering from the seas that surround them, at the same time provid-ing a base for all the equipment and workers employed in bringing inthe well.
The drilling platforms rest on long steel piers that are driven intothe sea bottom, often a hundred or more feet below the surface of thewater. They rise high out of the sea, high enough so that they stand
bl
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Iminoco Ofishore Drilling And Production Unit-Persian Gulf
above the waves even in the most violent storms. The platforms canhold all the equipment for drilling several wells; they also provideIiving quarters for the people who are working on the wells. This isanother kind of operation, incidentally, in which directional drilling isfiequently used. The cost of building the platform makes it necessarythat each one of tJrem is used to drill as many wells as possible.
Oil wells are also drilled in blazing deserts, in steaming jungles,and in the fiozen ground of the Arctic-in other words, whereverthere is evidence of substantial deposits of oil. Even under the best o{cftcumstances, drilling for oil is a difficult job that calls for ruggedmen to carry it out. Under the di{ficult conditions of many new oilfields, it can become even more demanding. If we believe the movies,drilling is the romantic part of the oil business, with a pot of goldwaiting at the bottom of the well. The movies ordinarily forgetanother aspect of the business-the frequent disappointment tlat canawait the drillers at the bottom of a dry hole.
Discussion
What is the first step in drilling for oil? When is this decided?
Why is drilling an oil well a big gamble?
35
36 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
3. Where is there a large proportion of dry holes? Give an example,
4. After the spot to spud in the well has been selected, what is donenext?
5. What is tlle derrick made of.) What does it hold?
6. When was cable-tool drilling first used to bring in an oil well?Wtrat else had this system been used for?
7. How is a well drilled by the cable-tool drilling system?
8. What is casing? Where is it used?
L When is cable-tool drilling used nowadays?
10. How are most modern wells drilled?
11. How does the drilling work in the rotary method?
12. How and where has rotary drilling been usefr.rl in the discovery ofadditional water supplies?
13. Why are the drilling bits expensive pieces of equipment?
14. What are steel tubes used for? In what form do they come?
15. What is the special equipment used to drill a well called?
16. In what way are the strings of casing like a telescope? Why mustthey be in this form?
17. What do the geologists have to estimate quite accurately? Is extrapipe kept available anyway?
18. How does mud also play a special part in rotary drilling? Is thisordinary mud?
19. What does the &illing mud push to the surface? What cangeologists learn from these drill cuttings and other materials?
25.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY g7
S. How are cores obtained? What are they used for?
91. How are most wells drilled?
?2. Why has directional drilling been developed?
23. Where has directional drilling recently been used? Why?
24 What are grshers? How is directional drilling used to bring themunder control?
What other accidents can directional drilling control?
Where is more and more drilling being carried on nowadays?Give examples. If you know of other examples besides those men-tioned in the reading, tell where they are located.
What must be built in order to drill for ofthore oil?
What are drilling platforms? What do they provide?
What do the drilling platforms rest on? How deep are they?
Why do the platforms rise high out of the sea?
What can the platforms hold?
Where are oil wells drilled?
Why does it often take rugged people to carry out the drillingP
Why does drilling often seem to be tJre most romantic part of theoil business?
35, Why are the drillers frequently disappointed?
27.
28.
29.
fl).
31.
32.
33.
u.
T
38
Review
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
: with
A. Fill in the spaces in the following sentences with the appropriateword or phrase.
l. In -=-.-
drilling, a hole is punched or pounded intothe ground with special cutting tools.
2. The cutting tools that are used in drilling are called
3. In -_---
drilling, a circular motion like the one acarpenter uses to make a hole in a piece of wood is used to pene_hate the gound.
4.
-
drilling is usually used nowadays only forwells near the surface of the ground.
drilling is rxed for most wells nowadaysbecarse they go to great depths or through layers of hard roci.
When a well does not produce oil, it is called a_-
7. When a well is being drilled, a is used to holdall the equipment and machines.
8. When the sides of a well might cave in, it is necessary to use steel
9. All the equipment tsed for drilling a well is called the
drilling is often used to drill for oil which isunderwater but near the shore.
ll. A string with two sections of pipe is a
I0.
three sections, a and with foru sections, a
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
12. When drilling takes
39
place offshore, it is necessary to build awhich can withstand violent storms at sea.
13. In a ------.'----''-. _ the oil is forced out violently by under-ground pressure, and a great deal of oil may be lost.
14. Drilling is a special mixture of water, clay,and chemicals that is used in rotary drilling.
15. When wells are being drilled from a platform in the sea,
drilling is often used because it is necessary
to rxe the platform for as many wells as possible.
B. Summarize in your own words the two principal kinds of moderndrilling techniques that are used in finding oil wells. Explain theconditiom under which each kind of system would most probablybe used.
C. Explain the advantages in using directional drilling. What are theconditiors in which directional drilling would most probably beused?
D. Describe the principal pieces of equipment that would beincluded in an oil drilling rig. Why would machines be a necessarypart of the rig? How would a rotary drilling rig differ flom a
cable-tool drilling rig?
rI
UNIT FOUR
RECOVERING THE OIL
Special Terms
OiI Reservoir: Sand or porous rock saturated with oil. This is
always a more accurate description of most petroleum depositsthan oil pool.
Driver Natural pressure which forces oil to the zurface.Dissolved-gas Drive: Pressure from gas dissolved in oil. The dissolved
gas expands and forces the oil to move.Gas-cap Driver Pressure {rom a large amount of gas abooa the oil. The
gas expands and forces the oil to move.Water Drive: Pressure from water belou: the oil that forces the oil to
move.Christmas Tree: A system of valves to cortrol the rate of flow at the
surface of a particular well.Secondary Recoveryr Reworking an oil field to recover oil that pre-
viously could not be brought to the surface.Proved Reserves: The amount of oil already discovered that will be
recovered by known technology.IJltimate Resources: The amount of oil believed to be in the ground
based on estimates by oil geologists. Both proved reserves andultimate resources are measrued in barrels of oi1.
Vocabulary Practice
1. What is a more appropriate name for most petroleum deposits thanoil pool?
PEIROLEUM INDUSTRY
2. How is the term d,rioe used in the petroleum industry?
3. What ts a dissoloed-gas d,rioe?
4. What is a gas-cap drioe?
5. What is a uater drioe?
6. In tlre petroleum industry, what does a Cfuistnus tree rcfet to?
7. What s snond,ary recooery?
8. What are prooed, reseroes?
9. What are ultimate resources?
A Christmas tree-the pipes and valves that mark the locatioD of most wells afterthey have been brought in.
'..-:-=:,===:--
7l*r'a4t
7I
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Recovering the Oil
We have nsed the ter:rr oil pools to refer to deposits of petroleumas though there were underground lakes of oil. A more accurate term,however, is one that is often used in the petroleum industry: oilresensoirs. The deposits are, in other words, more often like piles ofsand or porous rock that have been saturated with oil. Oil does notreally flow rapidly through sand or rock, of course; it must be forcedto move. There are three kinds of natural driaes, as the forces thatcarse the oil to move are called. Each drive involves the gas and waterthat are almost always found with oil, as we have previouslyobserved.
Dissolved-gas drive.
First is the dissoloed-gas drdoz. Dissolved gas is mixed with theoil. As it expands, it exerts a pressure which pushes the oil throughrock or sand. Recovery is low when this type of drive is encoun-tered.
Second is the gas-cap ilrioe. Cas has not only dissolved in the oil;a large amount of it has formed above the oil. As the gas expands, it
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 43
4
Gas-caP drive'
forces the oil to move through the rock or sand' Recovery is generally
somewhat higher with this kind of drive.Third is the oatar driog in which there is a large amount of water
below the oil. Pressure forces the water upward into the oil-bearing
rock or sand and moves the oil ahead of it. It generally recovers more
oil than the other two drives.If reservoir pressure is not high enough for the oil and water that
flow into the well to be pushed all the way to the surface, then
pumping is necessary. This is more expensive than when natural drives
are fresent, since power for the pumping must b-e su-pplied.r-In the early days of the oil industry, new wells often came in as
gushers. In these wells great undergound pressure forced the oilipward without any coniro! and it was necessary to wait until the
piessure dropped enough for the oil to flow at a normal rate before
a"y of it "oid
b" recovered. Of course, a great deal of oil was wasted
when a wtlll gushed in this waY.
Today, gieat care is taken to prevent gushers' They are indeed
quite rare, tianks to the use of modern technologlr' The petroleum
i"a*t y toa"y i. very concerned about acquiring the greatest possible
anount of oil from each deposit without unnecessary waste' \
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
-Weter drive.
The steps for the recovery of the oil begin as soon as a new well isspudded in. Geologists study the indications for the presence of the oilitself. [,ater, petroleum engineers try to predict the kind of drive thatwill be present. With the aid of computers, they can determine how adeposit will behave under the efiects of the difierent techniques thatcan b€ used to make the oil flow to tlre surface.
At the head of most wells is a device that is called a Christmastree. TLlrk is really a system of valves that controls the amount of oilwhich is allowed to flow to the surface. The Christmas tree directs theoil into the storage tanlcs, where it is kept until it is shipped to its nextdestination.
After a well has been brought in, the derrick is usually pulleddown, only to be put up at the spot where another well is to bedrilled. The valves of the Christmas tree and the pipes leading from itwill probably be the only sign left that there is a producing oil well inthe neighborhood. This is quite difierent from many of the olderpictures of oil fields, with derricks crowded together, often only a fewfeet apart. In fact, in a modern ffeld the wells are usually spaced quite
-__ l--_ --- I -- -- t- -
--- __ : :L=t.-
PE-TROLEUM INDUSTRY 45
far apart, since it is more profitable to recover the same amount of oilwith fewer wells.
As more oil is removed from the field, the pressure of the originaldrive gradually decreases. Sometimes the natural pressure drops to apoint where no more oil can be recovered from the deposit. Nowa-
days, variors methods in addition to pumping are used to keep these
deposits producing if there is an indication that more oil can be
recovered.One technique is to pump water into the oil-bearing formation,
pushing or displacing the oil ahead of it toward the production wells.
This system restores water drive. Another technique that will restore
natural pressure to the formation is to pump gas back into the oil-bearing layer.
Wells occasionally become blocked by pieces of asphalt, wax, or
other solid material. In this case, the obstruction can be &ssolved by
pumping an acid into the well. Another technique involves pumpingwater and sand into the well under high pressure.
All of these techniques have enormously increased the amount ofoil tiat can be recovered. In the early days of the industry, as much as
75 percent of the oil had to be left in the ground. With more modernmethods, the figure has been reduced to 50 percent or even less. Manyfields that had been abandoned have been brought back into produc-tion. When a field is reworked in this way, it is called secondaryrecoDery.
In addition to secondary recovery, the increased technical abilityof modern oilmen has led to the discovery of deposits at levels trnder-neath existing fields. It is now possible to bring in producing wellsmore than 20,000 feet below the stuface of the earth!
The corstantly rising demand for oil and the world's increasingdependence on oil as an enerry source have made efficient recoverymore and more important. The economic forces are the same as those
that have led to deeper drilling and geater exploration for under-water oil deposits. Oil is indeed black gold; every drop of it is preciousin today's world.
More efficient recovery techniques have led to an increase in theproaed resenses of petroleum, although they continue to dwindle whenexpressed in terms of annual consumption. Prot'dd reserves refers tothe amount of oil in the ground that wil be recovered by knowntechnology. Illtimate resources refers to the amount of oil that has
been discovered. The estimates of proved reserves and ultimate
r46 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
resour_ ces are usually given in barrels of oil. Together, they representan
-educated guess as to the amount of oil stili present beneath the
zurface of the earth.
Estimated proved reserves of major oil-producing groups in billions of barrelsfanuary 1975).
Discussion
l. What does the rse of the term odl pooh suggest?
2. What are deposits of petroleum more often like? What term ismed to refer to them?
3. Why must oil be forced to move if it is to be recovered from theground?
What are the forces called that cause oil to move? How manykinds of them are there?
What do the drives involve?
Describe dissolved-gas drive. Is recovery high with this drive?
4.
5.
6.
i,IDDLE EAST
coMtltuNtsTCOUNTRIES
WESTERNHEMISPHERE
AFRICA
wd,,,,o
HNffi U"
EUR.PE & ,u.o
AsrA-PAcrFrc M ,,.o
PE'TROLEUM INDUSTRY 47
7. Describe gas-cap drive. Which leads to higher recovery,dissolved-gas drive or gas-cap &ive?
8. Describe water drive.
9. What must be done if reservoir pressure is not higb enough?
f0. Why is pumping more expersive than a natural drive?
11. What often happened to new wells in the early days of the
industry?
12. What forced the oil upward in a gusher?
13. When could oil be recovered from a gusher?
14. Was any waste involved with gushers?
15. Why are gushers uncommon nowadays?
16. What is the petroleum industry very concemed about today?
17. When do the steps for recovery of oil from a new well begin?
18. What do geologists and petroleum engineers study and try topredict?
.19. What is the system of valves at the heads of most wells called?
What does it do?
20. Where does the Christmas tree direct the oil?
21. What usually happers to the derrick after a well has been brought
mi
22. What sign is left that there is an oil well in the neighborhood?
23. In a modem oil field, why are the wells usually spaced quite far
apart?
24. What happens as more oil is taken out of a field? How low can the
pressure drop?
,I8 PETROI,EUM INDUSTRY
25, Is it pocsible to recover any more oil when the pressure is low?
26. What is one technique to get more oil from a ffeld?
27. What natural drive is restored when water is pumped into an oil-bearing formation?
28. What is another technique that can be rxed to recover more oil?
29. When an oil well becomes blocked, what is one technique forreopening the well?
30. What is a second technique for opening up a blocked well?
31, How does the amount of oil that can be recovered today difierfiom tle amormt that could be recovered in the early days of theindusty?
32. What expression is used for an oil field for additionalrecovery?
33. What else has the increased technical ability of modem oilmenl€d to? How deep can wells be drilled today?
34 Why has the technologr of eficient recovery become moreimportant?
35. What else have these economic forces led to?
36. Why is oil indeed black gold?
37. What are the estimates called that refer to the oil remaining inthe ground that win be recovered by lmown technology?
38. How do proved reserves difier from ultimate resources?
39. How are both of them measured?
<lO. What do both proved reserves and ultimate resources togetherrepresent?
PETROI,EUM INDUSTRY
Review
A. Fill in the spaces in the following sentences with the aPPropriate
word or phrase.
l. A natural is a force that can cause oil to move
ahead of it by exerting pressure.
2. Oil is a better description of a petroleumdeposit tlan oil pool.
In a gas-cap drive, the gas is
dl.
In a water drive, the water is
oil.
5.A drive does not lead to the recovery of as
much oil as a gas-cap drive.
6. When resewoir pressure is not very high,
be used to bring the oil to the surface.
7. The system of valves to control the fow of oil at the head of awell is linown as a ---.
8.A which forces oil to the surface without any
control, is very wastefirl.
The reworking of oil ffelds that were at one time considered to be
used up is lnown as
The amount of oil remaining in the ground that will be recovered
by known technologyr is called
refers to the amount of oil that has been
discovered.
Producing wells can nowadays be brought in at depths of
the deposit of
the deposit of
must
11.
12.or even more.
PETROIII]M INDUSTRY
13. Both proved reserves and ultimate resources are usually $ven interms of of oil.
14. Ttre value of oil has made techniques of eficientmore and more important in the oil industry today.
B. Look at tle diagrams below. Then tell what kind'of drive isprment, if any, or whether tlere is an obstruction present. If thereis no natural drive, tell what might be done to bring the oil to theground.
2.
51
6.
7.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
-lr I'4"%,
---- =------,A.-t-=-a-=--:{}=i-_---LJ :
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
8.
Y'
UNIT FIVE
TRA'VSPOBTING OIL
Special Terms
Tank: Any large container for holding or transporting a liquid or agas. Tanks of one kind or anotler are used both for storing andtransporting petroleum and its products.
Tank Car: A railroad freight car specially designed with a tank fortransporting petroleum.
Pipeline: A system designed to transport a liquid or a gas throughpipes.
Flow Line: A pipeline running from a well to a larger line in thefield.
Gathering Line: A pipeline running from the storage tanl<s in the fieldto a major pipeline.
Trunk Liner A major pipeline connecting the oil field with a refineryor shipping point.
Pig: A device to clean a pipeline. It is forced along by the pressure orflow of the oil.
Pipeline Walker: A person who patrols the pipeline to look for signs ofleaks. Nowadays, much of the "walking" is done from low-flflngairplanes.
Product Pipeline: A pipeline that carries ffnished petroleum prod-ucts-such as gasoline-from the refinery to the points where itcan be distributed to customers.
Tankerr A ship specially designed to transport petroleum and petro-leum products. Some tankers are enormous, weighing as much as
500,000 tons.
PETROLEUM INDT]STEY
Barge: A flat-bottomed boat desigred primarily for use on inlandwaterways such as rivers or canals. Many barges have beenadapted to carry oil or petroleum products.
Tank Truck: An automobile truck designed to carry petroleum prod-ucts. It is ordinarily used to deliver products to customers.
Vocabulary Practice
l. What is a /ank? In what forms of oil transportation does the wordtank appear?
What are some of the difierent kinds oI pipellnzs?
What is a pig used for?
What does a pi.pelirle ualker look for? Does he always .,walk"?'
How does a product pipeline &fier from a crude oil pipeline?
What is a barge? What do many of them carry?
Transporting Oil
One of the most remarkable aspects of the oil industry has beentlie speed with which it has developed the technology to increase theworld's supply of oil. We have already noted the great advances thathave been made in drilling both deeper wells and wells in difficultterrain. We have also observed that technical advances have made itpossible to recover even larger amounts of oil from existing deposits.
One of the areas in which the technical advances have'been mostspectacular is in the trarsportation of petroleum and petroleum prod-ucts. Many oil fields have been discovered in places that are far fromthe point at which the oil will be refined and used. One has only to
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Main oil movements by sea (1975)
think of oil deposits on the shores of the Arctic Ocean or in the jungleson the interior slope of the Amazon basin to realize the difficultiesthat are involved in getting the oil from the well to the consumer.
In fact, the dificulty was present at the world's ffrst producingwell, the one near Titusville, Perursylvania, which we mentioned inUnit One. There were no railroads in that area in 1859, and no roads
were good enough to get the oil out. In addition, the cost of haulingbanels with teams of horses or mules turned out to be much too high.The first solution was to ship the oil, already placed in barrels, onbarges down a small stream to the Ohio River. This, however, was
very hazardous. There were many accidents and a great deal of oilwas lost. When the railroad eventually reached Titusville, specialfreiglrt cars-those that we now call tank cars-were soon designed totransport the oil to market.
Meanwhile, steel pipes that would carry the oil were beingdeveloped. These were the first oil pipelines, which took advantage ofthe fact that oi} is a liquid. The idea of a pipeline was not new; waterhad been transported through pipes for hundreds of years. The oil
56 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
A railroad tank car.
pipelines were not accepted without a struggle, however. Some menwhohad beer hauling the oil up to that time used explosives to blowup the newly laid lines! In the long run, howevei, the pipelinesoffered so many advantages that they won out. The 6rst .""1 lorrg_distance pipeline was built in l87g in pennsylvania. It was laterextended to New York harbor at Bayonne, New Jersey, which is stillan important storage, refining, and shipping center.
- It is t}le liquid state of oil that ofiers the great advantage over
coal as the primary energy source in today's industrialized woild. Nomatter how abundant coal is, it is bulky and heavy and therefore diffi_cult to ship. Oil can flow through pipelines to tire market at a rela_tively low cost. Of course, the oil must be pumped because thepipelines go up and down hills.
There are several kinds of pipelines. Fbu lines run from the wellto a large line in the ffeld which is called a gathering line. The oil isthen carried into a trunk line. The trunl lines traniport the oil torefineries or to storage areas, usually at ports so that the oil can betransshipped by water. The diameters of pipelines vary from about an
PETROLEUM INDUSTNY
Pipelines crossing a desert,
A ditching m4chine, used to dig a trench for a pipeline.
58 pETRoLEUM INDUSTRY
inch for a flow Iine to as much ds forty-eight inches for one of themajor tnurl lines.
The first step in building a pipeline is to plan and survey theroute. The survefng can be done not only on the ground but from ttreair. Then the construction crews come in with bulldozers that clearand level tle route and ditching machines that dig a trench for theline if it is going to run underground
Some pipelines run above the surface, especially in rugged oruninhabited areas, but many others run beneath the ground. Ilrr-f"r--ing country with open ffelds, there may be no surface indication at allof the black stream of oil under the gowing crops. However, thepipelines are marked by pumping stations at an uu"tage distance ofabout seventy-ffve miles-closer together in mountainous areas, far-ther apart in flat countryside. Special equipment may also be neces-sary for some pipelines; in Alaska, for instance, special heatingdevices are required to keep ttre oil from freezing in the interse cold.
A pig, used to clean a pipeline.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 59
Pipelines are cleaned by a device called' a pig' This mechanismhas metal blades that scrape the inside of the pipe to keep it clear ofthe tar-Iike substance that forms in it. The pressure of the oil itselfforces the pig to move through the pipe. The pig can only go from one
pumping station to the next, where it is taken out and cleaned.
The pipelines must be constantly checked. Each section is
patrolled by t pipeline ualker who looks for evidence of a leak orother damage in the line. It is possible to smell escaping gas or todetect spots where seepage has occurred. Nowadays, many "walkers"do their irspecting from low-flying airplanes, since traces o{ seepage
can be seen from the air.So far, we have been describing crude oil pipelines, the lines that
are used to carry unrefined petroleum from the wells to refineries orshipping points. In recent years, another type of pipeline has beendeveloped that carries finished products flom the refineries to distribu-tion centers. It is called re product pipeline. Strange as it may seem,
products as difierent as gasoline, benzene, or kerosene can be carried
in the same pipeline with only a very small amount of mixing. In part,this is possible because the density of each of these products is
&fierent, and as a result there is relatively little contamination at theinterfuce b€tween the two products. The rate of flow and the locationof each product can be calculated by computers according to each
product's dersity.
Typical distribution of petroleum products io a product pipeline.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
The trarsportation of oil has also led to the spectacular devel-opment of giant ships, the largest ships that have ever sailed theocears of the world. In the last few years, since it has been necessaryto ship oil from the Middle East-one of the world's largest oil produc-ing regions-around the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, ttresetankers have grown to almost unbelievable proportions. They weiglras much as 500,000 tons. Monsters weiglring 200,000 or 250,000 tons,which would have seemed impossible not many years ago, havebecome common.
A tarker.
The ffrst ship specifcally designed to carry oil was built in 1886.Its dislinctive feature, and that of every tanker built since then, is thatthe metal plates of the ship serve also as the walls for the tanks to holdthe oil. The outer design of tankers has changed and 6e machineryand controls have become enormously more sophisticated but thebasic principle of their corstruction has remained the same.
The zupertankers that sail the seas today have so many &f,erentcompartments that they can carry crude oil and ffnished products atthe same time, or even crude oil from several sources, which may bedifferent chemical mixturqs. The crew's quarters and the bridge, iromwhich the captain controls the navigation of the ship, form an island-often as high as a skyscraper-at the back of the ship. Extending for-ward is a vait expanse of deck, where there are pipes and valveJ thatare rsed to load and unload the tanls and to maintain steady pressure.
OUAAEBS AXDEl'lGll{E asEA
CARGO TANK COMPARTMENTS
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Looking forward toward the bow of a modern supertanker.
On many of these huge ships, computers keep track of and perhaps
supervise both the loading operation and tie navigation.Some of the tankers are so large, they cannot bring tieir cargo of
oil into a conventional port. There are, for example, no ports on theEast Coast of the United States that can handle tle supertankers. Totake care of these giant ships, special offshore facilities have beenbuilt where the ships can load and unload. These ofishore sites use
- - - ---:,--=--..'...
- - - -'---:/l --< =*---
-2----\--<
=<5
t1t
FLOATINGUNDERWATER HOSE
An offshore anchorage for a supertanker.
1Tili
i;i
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
underwater pipelines to transport the oil to or from tle storage areason shore.
Other special types of carriershave been developed for the trans-portation of oil or oil products. Onwater, special barges are used fortransporting oil on sheltered or in-land waterways like lakes, rivers, orcanals. They are built on the sameprinciple as the supertankers-thewall of the ship is also the wall ofthe oil tanks. The oil barges are amuch more common sigbt on tbe in-land waterways of Europe than inthe United States, where much ofthe petroleum is transported bypipeline.
On land, we have already men-tioned the tank cars that were de;veloped early in the history of theoil industry to transport petroleumby rail. Today, one of the familiarsights on our highways is the tanktnrcl<, v\icb is a special kind of au-tomobile used to carry petroleum orpetroleum products,
The tank truck is ordinarilyused for short-haul transportation-distances of a few hundred miles atthe most. It usually carries oil prod-ucts from the reffnery to the distrib-utor or from the distributor to thecustomer. It is, in otler words, thelast link in the chain of trans-portation tlat transports oil from affeld in Alaska" let us say, to the manwho needs gasoline for his car inOmaha" Nebraska.
Al oil barge used for transportingpetroleum products on inland
waterways.
:_:]]Er.lA>---5.re=={Z
:F
A tank tmck.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Discussion
L What is one ofindustry?
the most remarkable aspects of the petroleum
2. What particular technical advances have we already noted?
3. In what area have there been spectacular technical advances?
4. Where have many oil fields been discovered? Give exarnples. Ifyou know of other examples besides those given in tl-re readingtell what they are.
5. What difficulties were encountered at the first producing oil well?Where was that well?
What method of trarsportation turned out to be too expemive?
What method was then tried to get the oil out? Why wasn't thisvery successful?
What was done when the railroad finally reached Titusville?
What experiments in bansporting oil were being made at thesame time?
10. What did the pipelines take advantage ofl)
II. Was the idea of pipelines new?
12. What struggle accompanied the first attempts to build pipelines?
13. Why did pipelines win out in the long run?
14. When and where was the fust real long-distance pipeline built?
15. Why does oil have an advantage over coal as an enerry source?
16. Why must oil be pumped through pipelines?
6.
8.
9.
u
17.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
What are the pipelines that run from the well into larger lines inthe ffeld called?
18. What are the lines that connect these larger lines with the majorpipelines called?
19. What are tle major lines that transport oil to refineries orSippiog points called?
20. Why is oil shipped to ports?
21. How large may the difierent kinds of pipelines be?
22. What is the ffrst step in building a pipeline? How can this bedone?
23. What do construction crews do with bulldozers and ditchingmachines?
Where do some pipelines run above the ground?
Where are many other pipelines? What indication may there beof these lines?
What is the average distance between pumping statiors? Whereare they closer? Where are they farther apart?
What is an example of special equipment that may be necessaryfor a pipeline?
How are pipelines cleaned?
What forces the pipeline cleaning device to move through thepipe?
How far can the cleaning device travel?
By whom are the pipelines constantly checked? What do thesepeople look for?
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
25.
30.
31.
PSTROLEUM INDUSTRY
32. What are some
42.
43.
44.
ways in which they can detect damage to the
pipeline?
33. Why is it possible to do some of this work from the air?
34. What kinds of pipelines have been described up to this point in
the reading?
35. What other type of pipeline has been developed in recent years?
36. What can be done witl difierent kinds of products in the same
pipeline?
37. What makes it possible for computers to compute the rate of flow
and the location of difierent products?
38. What spectacular development has the transportation of oil ledto?
39. To what size have tankers grown in recent years?
40. What has caused the growth of tankers in recent years?
41. When was the first ship designed speciffcally to carry oil? Whatwas distinctive about its design?
How has the design of tankers changed since then?
Why do supertankers today have many difierent compartments?
Where are the crew's quarters and the bridge? What is the bridge
of a ship?
What extends forward from the bridge and the crew's quarters?
How are the navigation and the loading operation performed on
many of the big tankers?
47. What is an example of an area where the tankers cannot be
handled?
45.
46.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
What has been done in some places to ta"ke care of these giantships?
49. How are pipelines used in cormection with these offshore anchor-ages?
50. Where do barges usually operate?
51. On what principle have the barges been adapted to carry oil?
52. Why are barges a more common siglrt in Europe than in tleUnited States?
53. What is a familiar sight on our highways?
54. What is the tank truck ordinarily used for?
55. From whom to whom does the tank truck usually carry oil prod-ucts?
Review
A. Fill in the spaces in the following sentences witl the appropriateword or phrase.
l.
-
can be used to transport liquids or gases suchas water, petroleum, or natural gas.
lines are those that connect oil fields withreffneries, shipping points, or storage areas.
lines connect wells with larger lines in theffeld.
4. Because pipelines travel up and down hills, the oil must be
5. A trunk pipeline has a larger diameter thanlines or lines.
PETROIEUM 1NDUSTRY
6.A line connects the flow lines with maior lines
7.
8.
9.
10.
that transport oil to reffneries or storage areas.
is used to transport oil on railroads.
is used to transport oil on the highways.
checks for sigs of escaping gas or seepage
from undergrormd lines.
The
-
tlat cleans the pipeline is carried along
by the flow of the oil.
11. A is a seagoing ship that is used to transportpetroleum and petroleum products.
12. Many that operate on inland waterways have
been specially desigred to carry oil.
13. Kerosene, gasoline, and heating oil can all be trarsported togetherlna from the refinery to the distributor.
stations are found at an average distance ofseventy-five miles apart along a pipeline.
15. The of a pipeline may be anywhere from one
t4.
to forty-eight inches.
B. Look at the pictures or diagrams below, and then explain whatpart each of them plays in the transportation of oil or oil products'If the device shown has a pa-rticular name, mention what it is.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
--=-:- -'
PE"TROLEUM INDUSTRY
UNIT SIX
REFINING OIL
Special Terms
Reffnery:-The industrial plant in which oil is ref,neil-processed andpuriffed-into commercially usable products. The process itseH isc led refning
Atomsr Ttre small particles of matter that make up the chemical ele-ments such as hy&ogen and carbon.
Moleculesr The smallest units in combinations of atoms. A moleculeof table salt, for example, contains one atom of sodium and oneatom of chlorine.
Compound/Mixture: A compound is a combination of atoms whichare chemically joined together into molecules, like water (twoatoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen) or salt. A mixture com_bines several difierent molecr:Ies which are zot chemically joinedtogether. Salt water is a mixture of molecules of salt and water.
Hydrocarbons: Substances made up of molecules formed from hydro-gen and carbon. Crude peboleum is a mixture of several difier_ent hydrocarbons,
Fraction: The amount of each of the difierent hydrocarbon com_pounds in a mixture of crude oil. For example , a fraaion oI thehydrocarbons makes up gasoline, and anotlier fritian makes upkerosene. This is also known as a cat
Fractionating Tower: A cylin&ical tower at a reffnery which is usedto separate t}le difrerent fractiorx of crude petroleum.
Distillation: The process of separating lighter moiecules from heaviermolecules in a mixture by heating the mixture.
Sulfrr; A chemical which is often present as an impurity in crude oil,
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Sweet OiL Oil vrith a low sulfir content.Sour Oil: Oil with a higb rulfur content.Cracking: The proces of breaking down the heavy molecules of some
hydrocarbons into lighter molecules.Thermal Cracking: Cracking by the use of heat and pressure.
Catalytic Cracking: Cracking with tle aid of a catalgst, a substancewhich speeds up a chemical change without udergoing anychange itself.
Petuochemicals: Chemicals derived from petroleum which are used toform new zubstances such as tle synthetic, or man-made, plas-tics.
Herbicide, Pesticide, Insecticide: The suffx -ci.d'e meats somethingthat kills. A hefuicide kills weeds; a pesticide kills pests; aninsecticitle kills irlrsects. All of tlese substances are widely used inmodem agriculture.
Vocabulary Practice
L What does refning mean? Where is it done?
2. What are some of the chemical elements? What are the small
particles of matter that make them up?
3. What is a mol,ecubT Give an example.
4. What is the difference between a cunpound and a mixture? Giveexamples of each.
5. What elements is crude petroleum made up of.) Is crude petro-leum a mixhrre or a compound?
6. What is a fractiort? What else is it sometimes called?
7. What k r fractiotnting tutser lused fot?
8. What ts d.istilhtion?
9. What is the difierence between sueet and. smtr oil? Is it good tol:eve sulfur in the oil or not?
10.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
What is cracki,ng?
What is the difrerence between thermal cratking and catalgticcrackinS
Where do petrochernicals come from? What are they used for?
What does the suftx -ciile indicate? Give examples of words thatinclude this suIfix,
Retining Oil
One of the most distinctive and at the same time most character-istic sights of the industrial age is the oil refinery. It is a bewilderingscene of differently colored pipes, flames shooting into the sky, and allkinds of forms such as cylinders, spheres, and towers. An unpleas-
An oil reffnery.
PETROLEUM {NDUSTRT 73
ant smell usually hangs over the entire area' The entire complex is
*"a" "p
of the "ppata't,s
in which petroleum is heated' cooled' pres-
surized,- and mlxed to make products that the consumer can use'
Crude oil is a raw material, like iron ore, which must be pro-
cessed before it can be rsed. In fact, there are several .difierent pro-
;; ,ht""gh which oil can be passed, but together they are called
refining.
Crude oil is a mixtue of a number of difierent chemicals that are
c lei hgdrocarbons because they are composed of atoms of hydrogen
and "a.ion.
The atoms are joined together into molecules' the com-
p",-j. "t
*ftl"ft are the smallest physical units of. a particular sub-
i*". Uyatog"" and carbon canloin together into many difierent
""*p""",i. *tift difierent moleculai struciures' They can form small'
lis# molecules which are gases, heavier molecules which are liquids'
n.?"" fr"""i". molecules"which are solids or semisolids like asphalt
*a *"*. The least complex hy&ocarbons, those with the fewest
"to.r u"a therefore the liglrtesi weights, make up products such as
;;;;1t"" **1" .or" "o-pi"t and heavier molecules make up prod-
ucts like lubricating oil.
The mixtue of crude oil contains frattiorc of the difierent
hydrocarbon molecules, that is, a certain amount of each of.them' A
fiaction of the molecules is contained in gasoline, for example' and a
fraction of the molecules is contained in Leating oil' In ad&tion' the
crude oil mixture usually contains impurities of one kind or .another'd;;iA" most common ancl least deilrable of these is the chemical'
r"ff',t. Ol with a low sulfur content is c led sueet oil" and oil with a
high sulfur content is called sozr oil'
The refining process separates the difierent fractions of molecules
in the crude oil mixture into usable products' It also removes the
impurities from the oil.
The first step is called d'istillntion' The oil is heated to a high
temperature in cl s of pipe that pass over a furnace' Then the oil is
plpfu into a tall cylintler -that
is called a fractionating touar' All but
ih! heat iest molecules change into a vapor or a gas The gas rises
through a series of levels in the tower' Those nearest the bottom'
*h"."-th" oil enters, are t}te hottest, and those nearest the top are the
"oolot. A. the vapors rise, they condense-that is, they turn into liq-
Jds again-at a farticular temperature at a particular level in the
tower.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Gasoline, the lightest of themajor petroleum products, collectsat the top levels, with kerosenebelow it and heating and lubricatingoils flrther down. At the bottom are
solids and semisolids such as
asphalt and tar. The impurities thathave been removed by the dis-tillation process also collect at thebottom, where they can beremoved. Each level in the tower is
known as a fraction or czt PipesIead off from each level of thefractionating tower so that each cutcan be further refined or processed,if necessary.
When the oil industry got itsstart, the product in greatestdemand was kerosene. Then theautomobile came along and thepublic wanted gasoline. Since onlyabout 20 percent of crude oil can berefined into gasoline by distillation,the oil indrstry chemists had to ffnda process by which more gasolinecould be created from the otherpetroleum products that were not insuch geat demand.
The process tlat they devisedis called cracking. Cracking meansbreaking down the heavy moleculesof such petroleum products as kero-sene or lubricating oil into thelighter molecules of gasoline.
There are two basic kinds ofcracking, thermal cracking and,
catalytic cracking. The first uses
heat and pressure to bring about the
A fractionating tower at an oil reffnery.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 75
desired changes in molecular structure. The second takes advantage of
a catalust. a"chemical which causes or qreeds up a chemical change
withoui being changed itself. Througlr a process c led hydrocracHng
the amount Jf g"tot-io" that can be obtained from crude oil has been
increased to more thar 80 Percent.
Cracking also permits the industry to adjust to seasonal.changes
in demand. in the ittm-"r, for example, when the weather is warm'
less heating oil and more gasoline are tumed out by the refinery' In
the winterihe ratio can bJ changed to meet the demand for heating
oil.After the basic fractionating or cracking process, further reffning
takes olace. oarticularly of gasoline products' Again, tlere are several
gasoliires *"h ".
t"gt-tl"t, high-test, special, etc' Whatever the names
iray be, they indicate that one kind of gasoline will vaporize more
u'"Uy'""a'"m"iently than another kind; in other words' it has a
lightei molecule thai hus beett obtained by an additional cracking
piocess. Airplane gasoline is an almost entirely artiffcial creation'
ii*" th" tt^ition oimolecules in a crude oil mixture that can be rsed
for this purpose is very small.
Refirr"rie. ure u bewildering complex of shapes, pipes' valves' col-
ors, and odors' They are usually connected with large storage areas
ani with port and shipplng facliitles ln spite of this complexity' how-
ever, not 'many p"opli wotk in a refinery because it is one of the most
hishiv automated oi all industrial operations' A few workers at a cen-
fif L.""f panel can make sure that oll flows steadily into t]re reffn-
ery, goes through the various processes' and comes out as the com-
mlrcial products that will be sent to market'
Chemistry has played an essential part in the develo-pment of the
."finiog pro"e*. It ^has
also created an entire, new indts'slry ' petto-
"l*"lioi. These are chemicals which are derived from petroleum'
itr" -ot""ut"t of hydrocarbon that make up petroleum can be
"hang"a i.t various ways so that entirely new substances are formed'
Ato*-, ""tt
b" tdd"d o. t"ke.t a*"y from the molecule' The molecules
"1" "f"" be rearranged into diiferent shapes-from a cluster' for
example, to a chain. 6ther chemicals, frequently cblorine or fluorine'
can b'e introduced into the molecule to change its properties still fur-
ther.
Many products which we are all familiar with are made from
p.t och"irii.ls. They include several difierent kinds of synthetic plas-
iics which seem to be everywhere today-in our homes, our cars' and
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
our clothes. Synthetic fabrics such as nylon and dacron are made frompetrochemicals. Many of tle products made from petrochemicals are
substitutes for such natural substances as cotton, silk, wood, rubber,
and so on.One area in which petrochemicals have played an important part
is agriculture. The so-called green revolution, which has producedhiglrer yielils of many crops, depends on three factors, and two ofthem involve petroleum. One factor involves t}re mechanization offarming with the rxe of machines such as tractors and harvesters,
which of course use petroleum products for fuel. A second factorinvolves enriching the soil with fertilizers while at the same time con-
trolling weeds and various types of pests that can eat the crops before
they are harvested. Most of the fertilizers, weed-killers (herbicides)'
pest-killers (pesticides), and irsect-killers (irsecticides) used in mod-
em agriculture are made from petrochemicals. Only in the third fac-
tor in the green revolution, the development of new types of seeds
that bring a higher yield, do oil products not play a significant part.In just a little over a hundred years, oil and oil products have
assumed a central place in industrialized socief. One reason, as we
have observed, is that oil is a liquid, which has made it a relativelycheap source of enerry. The second reason is tle chemistry of oil,which has made it possible to create a rich diversity of products fromcrude petroleum.
Discussion
I. In what way is the sigbt of a refinery bewildering?
2. What is an entire refinery complex made up oP
3. How is crude petroleum like iron ore?
4. k there only one process through which oil passes?
5. What is crude oil?
6. How can the molecules of hydrocarbors difier from each other?
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 77
7. What do the lightest molecules {orm? What do heavier molecules
form?
8. What does the mixture of crude oil contain? Give an example'
9. What else does the mixture usually contain?
10. What is a common impurity in crude oil? What terms are used
that describe oil with this impurity?
Il. What two things does the refining process do?
12. What is the first step in the reffning process?
13. How is the oil heated?
14. Where is the oil piped after it has been heated?
15. What happens to the heaviest molecules in the mixture?
16. Througlr what does the gas rise? Which are the hottest and which
are the coolest?
17. What happens to the vapon as they rise?
18. Why does gasoline collect at the top levels? What is below it?
19. What collects at the bottom of the fractionating tower?
20, What is each level in the tower called?
21. Why do pipes lead ofi from each level of the fractionating tower?
22. What product was in greatest demand in the early davs of the
industry?
23. What changed Public demand?
24. Why did oil industry chemists have to find new processes?
78
25.
26.
27.
TETROLEUM INDUSTRY
What process did tiey devise? What does this process do?
How does thermal cracking bring about a change in molecularstructue?
How does catalytic cracking bring about such a change?
What has been accomplished by hydrocracking?
What else does cracking permit the industry to do?
What different kinds of gasoline are there? How do they difierfrom each other?
Why is airplane gasoline almost entirely an artifcial creation?
What are reffneries rsually connected to?
Why don't many people work in a refinery?
What are a few workers at a control panel able to do?
What new indushy has chemistry created?
Why can entirely new substances be made from the petrochemi-cals? How?
What are some of the products that are made from petrochemi-cals?
For what are they often substitutes?
What is an area in which petrochemicals have played an impor-tant part?
What are the tlree major factors on which the geen revolutiondepends? Which of them involve petroleum products?
What has happened wittr oil in only a little over a hundred yearsP
What two reasons are there for the importance of oil?
30.
31.
32.
34.
,t).
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
4t.
42.
79
2.
PE"TROLEUM INDUSTRY
Review
A. Fill in the spaces in the following sentences with the appropriate
word or phrase.
l. Ina crude oil is processed into commercially
usable products.
are formed from atoms of hydrogen and car-
bon.
3. Crude oil is a
4. When atoms are combined together they formlike those that make up salt or water.
5. In a mixture of crude oil, there is a of each of
the difierent chemical substances that make up the mixture'
is a process of heating a substance so as to
separate liglter molecules from heavier ones'
7. The difierent substances in petroleum are separated from each
other in a tower.
8. The molecules rise to the top of the towerru urv rvr
ones remain closer to the bottom.top
and the
9. Sulfu is often Present as an in oil.
of many difierent substances.
6.
10.
11.
12.
oil has a lower percentage of sulfur thanoil.
is a process which changes ttre molecular
structure of a substance by breaking it down'
uses heat and pressure to break down
molecular structure.
13. A is a substance which causes or speeds up
chemicalcracking
changes withoutttrat uses one
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
being changed itself. The kind ofof these substances is called
15.
16.
14. The sufix -cida indicates something thatherbicide weeds.
materials are created by man.
are derived from petroleum and are used tocreate new substances.
17. When the automobile came into wide use,became the peholeum product for which there was ttre greatestdemand.
18. Each level of a fractionating tower is known as aora
19. The qasoline used inartiffcial product.
is an almost entirelv
20.
-
made from petrochemicals is used to makethe.soil richer so that there will.be a higler leld of crops.
B. Give a summary in your own words of the refining process bywhich the difierent fractions in a mixture of crude oil are sepa-rated from each other.
C. Explain what cracking is and how it is done. What advantages hascracking given to the oil industry?
D. Explain what petrochemicals are. How can they be changed into {new substances? Give examples of substances which you tlink aremade from petrochemicals. What importance do ttre petrochem-icals have in the modern world?
UNIT SEVEN
CAREERS IN THE PETNOLEUMINDUSTRY
Special Terms
Petroleum Engineer: A person who deals with engineering problems
special to"the oil industry, an)'where from &illing a well through
all production and field treating'
Seismic 'shooter: An expert in explosives who works with the crew
that takes readings from a seismograph'
Roustabout/Roughn.ik Ro tob^,tt are unskilled or semiskilled
*.r.k"J. *h"o assist with general operatiorx in the oil field'
Ru"tghnzcks work on clrilling rigs Most members of the rig crew
are roughnecks.Tool Pushen The head of a drilling crew'
Drillerr The man in charge of the drilling operation'
Derrickman: The man who controls the top of the drill pipe as it is
removed from the hole and stacked upright in the derrick'
Welderr The man who joins togetler two pieces of metal after
applylng heat to them.
S*"itctt"r, fn"e man overseeing the fflling of ffeld storage tanks' When- a tank is full, he switchJs valves, tuming production' into other
tanks. If the facility has only pumping wells, he is called a
pumper.Cag:.:r L' gage is a meter. The gager's primary duty is to keep track of
the oil inventory.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Well Pullerr The man who operates a pulling rig in order to removetubular goods from wells.
Deck Crew: Merchant seamen who are responsible for the navigationand general operation of a ship.
Engine Crew: Merchant seamen who are responsible for the engines
that supply a ship with power.Stillman: A refinery employee who is in charge of the distillation pro-
cess.
Puriffcation Operator: The person who controls the equipment thatseparates the difierent vapors during refining.
Absorption Operator: The person in charge of the next step in refin-ing, the condensation of the vapors.
Treaterr The person responsible for removing impurities from petro-leum products.
Safety Inspector: A reffnery employee whose many duties includechecking for dangerous levels of gas that might cause anexplosion.
Organic Chemistry: The branch of chemistry that deals with carbon
compounds found in living organisms.
Vocabulary Practice
l. What does a petuoleurn engineer specialize in?
2. What is the explosives expert on a seismograph crew called?
3. What is a rutstabout? Where do roustabouts work?
4. What is a rurg!rcck? Where do roughnecks work?
5. Who is the head of a drilling crew?
6. Who is in charge of the drilling operaUon?
7. What is a il.enickma.n?
8. What dcns a uelder do?
83PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
9. What does a suitcher do? A. PumPer?
10. What ls a gage?
11, Who keeps track of the oil inventory?
12. What does a uell Pullzr do?
13. What is the difierence between the dnck creu and the engine
creu on a sbiP?
14. Who is in charge of the distillation process?
15. Who controls the equipment that separates the difierent vapors
during reffning?
16. Who is in charge of the condensation of the vapors?
17. Who is responsible for removing impurities from petroleum
products?
18. Who checks for levels of gas that miglrt cause explosions in a
reffnery?
Careers in the Petroleum IndustrY
The petroleum industry is one of the giants of today's world' Like
all large industrial enterprises, it employs milliors of people who do
-uny 'difi"r"nt kinds of iork' There are management people at the
top who control the policies of the company and see that-they are
ca'rried out. There is- also a large nurnber of ffnancial and clerical
employees in corporate or regiJnal offices. At the marketing level'
t-ik 'drit e.s deliver gasoline to fflling stations where attendants
p"-p i into the "orio."r.' cars. In other words' hundreds of
li?;i""; kinds of jobs are directly or indirectly connected- with oil'
Many of them utilize the same skilis that would be required for similar
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Men working witl a rotary drill.
work in other industries, including managers, office workers, account-ants, and salesmen. Some positions, on the other hand, require specialskills or training that are distinctive to the oil industry.
Many of these jobs vary according to the difrerent phases of theindustry. The jobs in exploration, for irstance, are quite difierent fromthose in drilling or recovery. Throughout the industry there is a greatdeal of emphasis on scientiffc and technical skills. As an example,people called petrobm, engineers specialize in some of the engi-neering problems tlat arise in the oil industry. In a ffeld wheredrilling is taking place, they may supervise the drilling of a number ofdifferent wells. In recolery, they may devise new systems for gettingmore oil out of the ground. In refining, chemical or refining engineerswork to improve the layout and systems that are used.
We have already mentioned that three scientific specialties, geol-ogy, geophysics, and paleontologr, play an important part in thesearch for oil. To qualify for work in these specialties, it is necessaryto have a university degree in the subject; in fact, an advanced degree(master's or doctorate) is preferred. Specialized courses in the geoloryof petroleum are offered by many rmiversities.
Anyone who wants to work as a petroleum geologist should notexpect to get a comfortable desk job. While some of the geologist's jobinvolves paperwork, such as examining survey maps, a great deal oftime must be spent in the field. Conditions in areas where the searchfor oil is being carried on can be extremely rugged-we have already
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY R5
mentioned that oil exploration has led to the shores of the Arctic
6;; i;.It" Sahara, 6 the jungles of the Amazon' even beneath the
*"i"r, "f
aft" sea. The oil compinies do the best they can under these
;;;;;;;;t i;'provlde comfortable living accommodations' but the
;iliiJ ;;" ofi",t .,""tly impossible to overcome' A crew taking
;;;;H; a seismograph, for example' may be away from their
fro-" f,"r" for several diysln a row in dlfficult terrain with only what
thev can carry in their trucks to rely on-?h"?* *it"'*o.i.l,t tt't" e*plo'aiion and drilling phases of the oil
induslrvcanalsoexpecltobemovedaroundfrequently-fromoneil;;i;;;ilr. ivtt".,
" potential deposit has been analvzed geo-
il;i;;;;a well has'been bro"ght lo' then it is time for the
crews to move on to some other area'- - fu;; onlv is the work itsel{ often performed under diffcult condi-
ai"*,'i", ii'it "iso
physically tiring and dangerous' For all of t}ese
reasons, the oil companies prefer to"hire young' single men for jobs in
the oil ffelds.*.' ,t.no"f ,ft" specialized jobs in oil exploration are those among
the crews ih"t obt"in seismic readings' A crew includes a saisrdc
;;;; il";;" ;o sets ofi the blastlhat wiII create the waves that"il";;il;;;h
records' The seismic shooter must be an expert in
l"f.ri-t"t-,t"'",ft"r member of the crew dritls the hole in which the
..iloriu" is to be placed. Actually, not all of tle seismic crews use
;;i;";. to creaie vibrations in the earth' However' altemative
mithods will not be discussed
here.When the exPloration has been
completed and a location has been
decif,ed on to sPud in a new well, itis time for the drilling crew to move
n. Roughwcks and roustabouts'
unskilled and semiskilled laborers'
then move in. TheY Perform a great
deal of the hard PhYsical labor in
the fields and on the drilling rigs'
Thev earn Dromotion through exPe-
,i"rr'ce o, sinioritY, or bY attending
apprentice programs that teach the
skiils required by welders' electri-
cians, ca:rpenters, or other special-
ized workers. A drilling crew at work.
A derricknan.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
The boss of the drilling crew is
called, a tool pushuf. In addition, thecrew will include the drill.er, who isin charge of the drilling operation.Another important member of thecrew is the dertichutn, who is
stationed in tl-re derrick to controlthe top of the drill pipe. Otherskilled workers may work with thecrew, such as weld.ers, who joinpipes or other pieces of metal toge-ther after applying heat to themwith a blowtorch.
It is easy to pictue drilling as
an adventurous occupation, but it isrugged work often carried on invery ruggd country. It does ofierthe opportunity to move about fromone place to another after a rela-tively short period of time, whichmay be an incentive to many youngmen. It should be remembered,however, that drilling is a verydangerous business, with one of ttrehiglest accident rates in industry.
Some of the specialized work-ers in the recovery phase of the oilindnstry are known as punper4suitchprs, gagers, arlLd aell pullers. Lswitcher is in charge of directing oilinto field storage tanks, switchingvalves when a tank is full. If afacility only produces oil by pump-
ing wells, tlre person who does this is called a pumper. A gager readsgages, or meters, that both measure the oil flowing from the well andcontrol the pressure of the drive. The well pullers operate pulling rigsin order to remove tubular goods from wells.
Tte transportation of oil also requires many difierent kinds ofworkers. The construction crews that build pipelines work under
A welder,
j-MPETROLEUM INDUSTRY
many of the same difEculties and with many of the same dangers in
theii iobs as the drilling crews; tiat is, they perform Physicallyd"-aoding work in terrain that often presents many natural hazards
and problJms-mountains, deserts, frozen wastelands, and rivers tiatmay^food. Once the pipeline has been put in operation, it must be
maintained by the -"t *ho work in the pumping stations and by the
litle u:alkars, who patrol the line on foot or by airplane to find any
indications of breaks or other damage to the line. Any escape of gas
from the line can be very dangerous, since it can result in a violent
explosion. --The men who work on tie tankers at sea have signed on as crew-
men according to the regulations of the merchant marine in the coun-
try whose flag ls flown by the particular ship. There ar€ two groups,
*. a"a, crerI, in charge of the navigation and general operation of
the ship, ard the engine creu, in cltarge of the engi:res which zupp1y
po*", io, tle ship. On a tanker, the deck crew is also resporsible for
the loading and uiloading operations and for cleaning the tanks where
the oil is stored.The new supertankers ofier special problems in navigation
because of their enormous size' Therefore, some of the oil companies
and shipping lines have set up special schools to familiarize deck
offi""rr'*itli tl"se ships' These schools are open only to qualiffed
oftcers in the merchant marine.
Training a crew to navigate a srpertanker'
r1I
I
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
The next phase of the oil indrxtry is reffning, which also employsmany specialized workers. In a refinery there are stillmen, who are incharge of the distilling processl puri.fi,cation operafors, who control theequipment that separates the different vapors that result from dis-tillation; absorption operators, who control the condersation of thevapors into liqxidst treaters, who are in charge of removing impudties;and, safety inspectors, whose many duties include making tests toassure that dangerous levels of gas are not present at any point in therefining process. In most cases, these workers control a group ofmeters or valves which they must watch constantly to make sure thatall the various processes in the reffnery continue in an orderlymannel.
Throughout this book we have frequently called attention to thechemistry of petroleum and its importance in deriving usable prod-ucts from crude oil. We have also pointed out that entirely new prod-ucts can be derived from petroleum by chemical processes. The oilindustry is engaged in continuing research both to improve refiningtechniques and to create new petrochemical compounds. This meansof course that the oil companies employ many chemists and chemicalengineers. The particular branch of chemistry they specialize in isorganic chemistry, which deals wit}l compourds that include the ele-ment carbon, found in living organisms. The employment of peoplewith training in chemistry is another example of the healy reliance ofthe oil industry on science and tecbnologr.
These are some of the specialized jobs that are available in theoil industry. They are often dangerous, but they also offer adventureand high pay to the young men who go into them.
The major employers in the oil industry are the big internationalcompanies which carry on operations of all types all over the world.In addition, there are a number of oil companies organized on a
national basis in the oil-producing countries and operated by theirgovernments. Smaller companies also specialize in one phase oranother of the many complex operations in which the industry is
involved. Some companies perform drilling, others build pipelines,and others handle difficult recovery operations. Any one of them willofier many opportunities to a young man who is looking for tough,hard work and adventure.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Drccussion1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Does the oil industry employ only a few people for a few jobs?
Who are the people at the toP?
Where do many financial and clerical workers work in the oilindustry?Who are some of the employees at the marketing level?
What skills are utilized by many oil industry employees? What do
others require?Are jobs in all phases of the oil industry the same?
What is there an emphasis on throughout the industry?
What are some of tlte concenu of petroleum engineers in regard
to drilling and recovery?
9. What three scientific specialties play an important Part in the
search for oil?
10. What is necessary to qualify for work in these specialties? Where
are these courses ofiered?
ff. Why shouldn't a person who wants a career in oil exploration
"*p""t " comfortable desk job? WiIl any of the work be paper-
work?12. What are the conditions under which a seismographic crew may
have to work?
13. Why can people in exploration and drilling expect to be moved
around?
14. Is work in exploration and drilling safe and easy?
15. What kind of people do the oil companies prefer to hire for jobs
in the oil fields?
16. What does a seismic shooter do? What must he be?
17. Do seismic crews always use explosives?
18. When is it time for the drilling crew to move in?
19. What is the difierence between a roughneck and a roustabout?
20. How do roustabouts and roughnecks eam prornotion?
21. What does the tool Prxher do?
22. Who is another persoir who will be included in the drilling crew?
23. What does t}e derrickman do?
24, What does a welder do?
25. Why is it easy to pictue drilling as an adventurous occupation?
26. What else should be remembered about drilling?
27. Who are some of the specialized workers in the recovery phase of
the oil industry?
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
ReviewA. Fill in the spaces in the following sentences with the appropriate
word or phrase.l.A is an explosives expert who works on an
exploration crew.
2. People called engmeerswork to improve the layout and systems usecl in refining.
industrv.has one of the highest accident rates in
is a young worker without any special skillswho is getting started as part of the rig crew.
5. The boss of a drilling crew is known as a
6. Drillers, derrickmen, and tool pushers are all part of thecrew.
oversees the filling of field storage tanks.
is resporuible for checking the meters that
4,4
7.48.A
show the pressure of a natural drive for an oil well.9.A
wells.10. The rnan in charge
is called on to remove tubular goods from
of tl-re distillation process in a refinery is
The14.15.
known as a
and operators controlof the vapors in aseparation into vapors and the condensation
refinery.12. A is the person who is in charge of removing
impurities from petroleum products.
13. A safety inspector checks for dangerous levels ofthat could cause an explosion.
A safety inspector works in acrew on a tanker is resporsible for load-
ing and rmloading the tanks and also for cleaning them.
What are some of the specialized jobs in the oil industry whichrequire a scientiffc background? What would t}re educational qual-iffcations for these jobs be?
What are some of the specialized jobs in the oil industry whichrequire a technical background? What training would be neces-
sary for these jobs?
C.
ISB
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