Theories of Practice:Theories of Practice:The Structural FrameThe Structural Frame

MPA 8002

The Structure and Theory of Human Organization

Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Since the mid-19th century and throughout the Industrial Era, social scientists have made inquiry into the nature of human organizations. The overall endeavor has been to objectify and analyze those factors which constitute effective and efficient organizations.

The goal has been to characterize how effective and efficient organizations: function well achieve and surpass goals survive and thrive in the environment what competitors emulate

The rational and objective side of The rational and objective side of human organizations...human organizations...

The structural frame upholds the notion that organizations are judged primarily on and by the proper functioning of those elements which constitute good organization...

…giving appropriate emphasis to the process integrating people and technology...

…and enabling the organization to achieve its goals.

The fundamental responsibility of managers and leaders is to clarify organizational goals, to attend to the relationship between structure and environment, and to develop a structure that is clear and appropriate to the goals, the task, and the environment. Without such a structure, people become unsure about what they are supposed to be doing. The result is confusion, frustration, and conflict. In an effective organization, individuals are clear about their responsibilities and their contribution. Policies, linkages, and lines of authority are well-defined. When an organization has the right structure and people understand it, the organization can achieve its goals and individuals can be effective in their roles.

A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO

The job of managers and leaders is to focus on task, facts, and logic, not personality and emotions. Most “people” problems really stem from structural flaws rather than from flaws in individuals. Structural managers and leaders are not necessarily authoritarian and do not necessarily solve every problem by issuing orders (though that will sometimes be appropriate). Instead, they try to design and implement a process or structure appropriate to the problem and the circumstances.

Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 355)

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO

the structural frame

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

Managerialand

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Factory Machine

Rules Roles Goals Policies Technology Environment

Socialarchitect

ChiefExecutiveOfficer

President

Attunestructure totask,technology,environment

Align people,process, andtechnology

For the greater part of the 20th century, the assumptions and concepts of scientific management have informed most theories of practice.

One of the earliest precursors of One of the earliest precursors of scientific management...scientific management...

Max Weber19th century sociologisthired by Frederick the Great to

reorganize the Prussian armyconceived the “rationalized

bureaucracy”

But, if Max Weber “rationalized” the bureaucracy…

…Frederick Winslow Taylor “hyper-rationalized” the bureaucracy.

Frederick Winslow Taylor...Frederick Winslow Taylor...

originally trained as a statistician

conducted time and motion studies to ascertain the “one best way” in turn, this provided the basis for worker

training, assessment, and improvement

sought an objective, scientific mechanism to improve organizational functioning

the “father” of scientific management

In 1911, Taylor published his theory of practice, The Principles of Scientific Management...

...eventually, Taylor’s book became the standard textbook in management training in the North America and Europe.

The assumptions of scientific The assumptions of scientific management...management...

1. organizations exist to achieve established goals and objectives

3. structures must be designed to fit an organization’s circumstances (including its goals, technology, and environment)

2. organizations work best when rationality prevails over personal preferences and external pressures

4. organizations increase efficiency and enhance performance through specialization and division of labor

6. problems and performance gaps arise from structural deficiencies and are best remedied through organizational restructuring

5. appropriate forms of coordination and control are essential to ensure that individuals and units work together although both are subordinate to organizational goals

The Five Principles of Scientific The Five Principles of Scientific Management...Management...

1. shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager

2. use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing the work

3. select the best person to perform the job thus designed

4. train the worker to do the work efficiently

5. monitor worker performance

Although “common sense” by Although “common sense” by today’s standards...today’s standards...

Taylor’s principles were a fundamental assault upon traditional theories of practice

Taylor’s intention was to effect a “mental revolution” aimed at transforming how people looked at work, their lives, and their world

The mental revolution...The mental revolution...

fixed division of labor

reform:

craft guilds and trades where one worker completes an entire job

replaced:

uniform rules govern job performance

reform:

work dictated by the caprice, whim, fancy, or feeling of a superordinate

replaced:

workers would possess technical qualifications

reform:

patrimony, patronage, graft

replaced:

the separation of person from office

reform:

individual assertions, claims, tenure

replaced:

a hierarchy of officers

reform:

dictators, autocrats, monarchs

replaced:

work as a “life-long” career in an organization

reform:

work as a “trade” where workers seek employment wherever available

replaced:

Taylor’s mental revolution also Taylor’s mental revolution also transformed managerial practicetransformed managerial practice......

his principles focused attention upon the manager as a “social architect”

In practice episodesIn practice episodes......

managers apply the principles and concepts of scientific management to resolve the fundamental dilemmas present in the workplace

Although Taylor is oftentimes credited (or discredited) for rationalizing the workplace, he was the first to introduce the concept of “creativity” into the managerial process.

Management and leadership as Management and leadership as creative “social architecture”...creative “social architecture”...

integration: the manager devises a structure to conjoin people, process, and technology in the most efficient and effective way possible

division of labor: the manager designs an appropriate means of control to facilitate vertical and lateral integration

span of control: the manager organizes a system of supervision and accountability

fundamental concepts:

The dilemmas confronting The dilemmas confronting managers and leaders...managers and leaders...

differentiation integrationvs.

gaps overlapsvs.

underuse overloadvs.

lack of clarity lack of creativityvs.

excessiveautonomy

excessiveinterdependence

vs.

too loose too tightvs.

diffuse authority over-centralizationvs.

goal-less goal-boundvs.

irresponsibility unresponsivenessvs.

Scientific management...Scientific management...

focuses on the social context of work specifies goals, roles, and relationships encourages organizational efficiency and

effectiveness

In its inception, scientific management represented a fundamental reform of the workplace. But, as scientific management became an orthodox ideology governing practice episodes, some of its assumptions proved to be problematic.

““Taylorism” as scientific Taylorism” as scientific management came to be known...management came to be known...

dominated the training of managers and leaders for most of the 20th century

eventually became an ideology shaping how people viewed virtually every form of human organization, including for-profit business, not-for-profit social services (e.g., hospitals, municipal governments, schools), and even homes

Some recent kindred cousins of Some recent kindred cousins of scientific management...scientific management...

PERT Analysis (1960s)

Organizational Re-Engineering (1990s)

Management By Objectives (1970s)Total Quality Management (1980s)

Strategic Planning (1980s)

But, the principles contain hidden But, the principles contain hidden assumptions...assumptions...

1. shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager

managers do all of the thinking related to the planning and design of work, leaving the workers with the task of implementation

2. use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing the work

managers design the worker’s task by specifying the precise way in which the work is to be done

3. select the best person to perform the job thus designed

job competencies and requirements can be explicitly detailed

4. train the worker to do the work efficiently

training is routinized, involving demonstration, practice, and drill

5. monitor worker performance

managers ensure that appropriate procedures are followed and that pre-determined results are achieved

integration

division of labor

span of control

hierarchies

policies

procedures

rules

assessment

implies

structural elements:

The power of scientific The power of scientific management...management...

the structure will support the work

……can improve organizational can improve organizational functioning...functioning...

As these structural elements align people, process, and technology:

the organizational structure and workforce will complement one another

efficiency and effectiveness will create the circumstances for achieving the organization’s goals

the structure will remain impervious to challenge

……or can become an ideology...or can become an ideology...

When the structural elements become more important than the people in the organization:

new management will re-establish control—or— the organization will flounder until it eventually dies in its environment

tensions between structure and people will mount

inefficiencies and ineffectiveness will contribute to organizational dysfunction

Managing and leading human Managing and leading human organizations requires...organizations requires...

developing a comprehensive conception of the organization

What is its mission and vision?

What are its current strategies and goals?

What does its history say about the organization’s strengths and weaknesses?

What opportunities and threats are present?

How do things really work?

How did things come to be this way?

Gather factual data that support these matters. Do not rely on anecdotal information.

Rather than attempting to “reinvent the wheel,” how might elements of the present structure be used to foster organizational change?

critically examining existing structures and processes

formulate an organizational purpose that responds to an environmental demand, a perceived need, or an opportunity to be seized

mix expertise and generate healthy organizational tension by cross-fertilizing divisions

forge a common commitment to making “working” decisions for which members bear responsibility but, at the same time, are subject to re-assessment and change

designing an organizational structure that takes into account its history, experience, and preferred future:

Using scientific management...Using scientific management...

VISION MISSION

a preferred future

what ought to be

based upon factual data

the motivation

the opportunities

the challenges

VISION MISSION

PURPOSE

PURPOSE STRATEGY

a shared motive

with explicit values

formulate preferred scenario

explicating why we do what we do

define the “game plan”

STRATEGY GOALS

action-oriented, “smart” outcomes

frames subsequent decisions that will be made at lower levels of the organizational hierarchy

which implement the strategy

translate the organizational purpose and strategy into performance goals

S

M

A

R

T

short

measurable

achievable

realistic

time bound

GOALS TACTICS

purposive actions by groups in practice episodes

frame subsequent decision making by the various groups closest to the action where frequent decisions must be made

how we will do what we will do

TACTICS PROJECTS

purposive actions by individuals in practice episodes

frame subsequent decision making by individuals who do the “work” what I will do

TACTICS

PROJECTS

GOALS

PURPOSE

VISION

MISSION

STRATEGIES

regularize a system for individual and collective accountability, one that translates the organizational purpose, goals, and commitments into tangible achievements

All the while, management and All the while, management and leadership endeavors to...leadership endeavors to...

intra-organizational cohesion

adopt the “experimental mentality” associated with practice episodes: to retain what works, to discard what doesn’t, and to refine the structure as needed

flexibility

report back what is being learned through practice

honest and accurate feedback

verticalcoordination

lateral control

To avoid organizational To avoid organizational dysfunction...dysfunction...

The manager’s challenge is to integrate vertical coordination with lateral control

verticalcoordinationone focus:

...to integrate the various levels of the organization’s formal hierarchy

power

Tactics for vertical Tactics for vertical coordination...coordination...

rules and policies

planningand

control systems

legitimatereferentexpert

specify the conditions of work

performance control

action planning

coercive

reward

lateralcontrola second focus:

…to balance the need for autonomy and responsibility at similar levels in the organization’s formal hierarchy

meetings

Tactics to exercise lateral Tactics to exercise lateral control...control...

opportunities for dialogue, feedback about operations, and the honest exchange of facts and insights

Meeting agendas should forge structural redesign that promises to improve organizational functioning not provide a forum to air personal grievances and interpersonal conflicts.

task forces

groupings of stakeholders representing diverse viewpoints

A task force is given a specific charge to integrate structures not to be mired in endless debate about current standard operating procedures.

coordinating roles engaging in

boundary spanning

Boundary spanning enables workers to develop the cross-functional skills needed to coordinate work in a complex organization. This liberates both the organization and its members from co-dependency.

matrix structures

identifying critical linkages between divisions

Matrix structures identify and link otherwise disassociated divisions in the endeavor to eliminate inter-divisional conflict, confusion, and turf protection.

networks

individuals and groups focusing on a particular area of interest

Self-organizing networks provide the much needed cross-functionality and geographical diversity to spur creative thinking about organizational issues. However, networks are unwieldy, difficult to control, and offer no guarantees of positive outcomes.

verticalcoordination

lateral control

Managers and leaders need to be realisticrealistic...

While using these tactics to integrate...While using these tactics to integrate...

A realistic theory of managerial A realistic theory of managerial and leadership...and leadership...

the central issue confronting managers and leaders is that change notnot stability characterizes human organizations

However, scientific management and the structural theories of practice associated with it are constructed on the false premise that change does not characterize organizations.

Some of the significant changes impacting organizational functioning include:

information technology

organizational vision

environmentsize of organization

age of organization

core process

However, the single, most significant change impacting an organization is:

people

Because organizations are Because organizations are primarily human enterprises...primarily human enterprises...

managers and leaders use scientific management by focusing upon developing a “team” a small number of people possessing complementary skills

committed to a common purpose, set of performance goals, and approach toward achieving them

for which they hold themselves mutually accountable

change alters the clarity and stability of roles and relationships, creating confusion and chaos

This requires managers and leaders to be attentive to periodically realigning and renegotiating formal patterns and policies.

Structural tasks for managers and Structural tasks for managers and leaders...leaders...

1. set goals and policies under conditions of uncertainty

2. achieve “delicate balance” in allocating scarce resources across different businesses or functions

3. motivate, coordinate, and control large, diverse group of subordinates

effective managers and leaders are …social architects

Using scientific management...Using scientific management...

whose primary concerns are…honest analysis

…creative design

ineffective managers and leaders are …petty tyrants

Abusing scientific management...Abusing scientific management...

whose primary concerns are

…micro-managing

…ruling by fiat

…issuing memos

…objectivity

Strengths of the scientific Strengths of the scientific management theory of practice...management theory of practice...

…action oriented

…logical

…modes of accountability

…impersonal

Limitations of the scientific Limitations of the scientific management theory of practice...management theory of practice...

…pessimistic

…overly simplistic

…inflexible

Integrating reflective practice, conceptual Integrating reflective practice, conceptual pluralism, and organizational analysis...pluralism, and organizational analysis...

Analyzing organizations through four frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism that managers and leaders need to diagnose the issues underlying the problems manifesting

themselves in human organizations.

the structural frame

the human resources frame

the political frame

the symbolic frame

This module has focused on...This module has focused on...

the scientific management theoriesscientific management theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes

the structural frame

as these theories of practice provide managers a frame of reference to inform decision making, the

offers managers and leaders guidance about the strengths and limits of scientific management theory

The fundamental responsibility of managers and leaders is to clarify organizational goals, to attend to the relationship between structure and environment, and to develop a structure that is clear and appropriate to the goals, the task, and the environment. Without such a structure, people become unsure about what they are supposed to be doing. The result is confusion, frustration, and conflict. In an effective organization, individuals are clear about their responsibilities and their contribution. Policies, linkages, and lines of authority are well-defined. When an organization has the right structure and people understand it, the organization can achieve its goals and individuals can be effective in their roles.

A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO

The job of managers and leaders is to focus on task, facts, and logic, not personality and emotions. Most “people” problems really stem from structural flaws rather than from flaws in individuals. Structural managers and leaders are not necessarily authoritarian and do not necessarily solve every problem by issuing orders (though that will sometimes be appropriate). Instead, they try to design and implement a process or structure appropriate to the problem and the circumstances.

Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 355)

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO

the structural frame

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

Managerialand

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Factory Machine

Rules Roles Goals Policies Technology Environment

Socialarchitect

ChiefExecutiveOfficer

President

Attunestructure totask,technology,environment

Align people,process, andtechnology

The next module will focus on...The next module will focus on...

and the psychological theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes

the human resources frame

People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.

A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.

Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

ManagerialAnd

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Family Tribe Clan

Relationships Self-Interest Needs Feelings Skills

Empowerment Liberation Fulfillment Self-

Actualization

Attuneorganizationaland humanneeds

the human resources frame

ReferencesReferences

Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in educational administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 27(2), p. 186.

Taylor, F. W. (1911/1967). The principles of scientific management. New York: W. W. Norton.

Weber, M. (1930/1992). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism (A. Giddens, Trans.). New York: Routledge.