Training and Development MBA HR

8/3/2019 Training and Development MBA HR

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Training and Development Unit 1

Meaning of training (what is training?):

Training plays an important role in human resource development. It is necessary anduseful in the case of all categories of operative employees, supervisory staff andmanagers. Training raises their skills and creates confidence and ability to perform thejob efficiently. It also facilitates self development and career development ofemployees. The main purpose of training is to develop the human resources presentwithin the employees. In brief, training is the watchword of present dynamic businessworld.Training is necessary due to technological changes rapidly taking place in theindustrial field. Industrial training is for a short period but has wide coverage. Itrelates toKnowledge, information, technical skills, social skills, administrative skills and finally

attitude building. Training is for developing overall personality of an employee.Training is the responsibility of the management as it is basically for raising theefficiency and productivity of employees. Expenditure on training is an investment formanpower development and gives rich dividend to employees and organisation in thelong run.

Definition of training:

According to Edwin Flippo, training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skill ofan employee for doing a particular job.

Training may be defined as a planned programme designed to improve performanceand to being about measurable changes in technical knowledge and skills of employeesfor doing a particular job.

A formal definition of training is, it is an attempt to improve current or futureemployee performance by increasing an employees ability to perform throughlearning, usually by changing the employees attitude or increasing his or her skills andknowledge. The need for training is determined by the employees performancedeficiency, computed as follows:

Training need = standard performance actual performance.


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Importance of training:

Growth of organization : Training contributes to employee stability in at leasttwo ways. Employees become efficient after undergoing training. Efficientemployees contribute to growth of organization. Trained employees would bevaluable assets to an organization. Organizational efficiency, productivity, andprogress to a greater extent depend on training.

Flexibility : Training makes the employees versatile in operations. All roundercan be transferred to any job. Flexibility is therefore ensured.

Efficient utilization of resources : Accidents scrap and damaged to machineryand equipment can be avoided or minimized through training. Training enablesemployees to make better usage of resources- men, materials and machinerywhich helps in reducing the cost and time wastage.

Recruitment : Training serves as an effective source of recruitment. It is aninvestment in human resources with a promise.

Need for training:

The need for training of employees is universally accepted and practical training in theform of information, instructions and guidance is given to all categories of employees.It is a must for raising efficiency of employees. Training is necessary in presentcompetitive and ever changing industrial world. The following points (reasons) justifythe need for training:

Training is needed as a good supplement to school/college education. Trainingat the industry level is practical and is needed for creating confidence amongemployees. It is also needed for personal growth and development ofemployees.

Training is needed due to continuous changes in the field of science and

technology. Workers can work as per new methods or can use new machinesonly when suitable practical training is given to them. Training is the onlymethod by which the knowledge and skills of workers are updated.

Training is needed in order to introduce modern methods or for theintroduction of rationalization and computer technology in the industrial units.

Training is needed for raising the efficiency and productivity of industrialemployees.

It is needed for improving the quality of production and also for avoidingaccidents and wastages of all kinds in the industrial units.

Training is needed for personal safety of employees and also for avoidingdamage to machines and property of the company.

Training is needed as it creates highly skilled manpower in an organization.Such skilled manpower is the real asset of an industrial unit.

Training is needed for preventing manpower obsolescence, for improving healthand safety of workers, for improving organizational climate and finally formeeting future personnel needs of the organization.


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Types of training:

Induction (orientation) training: Induction training is basically for introducingthe organization to newly appointed employees. The purpose is to give themthe birds eye view of the organization. It is a very short informative type oftraining given immediately after joining the organization. For inductiontraining, information booklets are issued and short informative films are shown.In addition, lecture by personnel manager/HRD manager is also arranged.Companies such as Blue Star Ltd., SANDOZ (India) Ltd. and TISCO take keeninterest in induction training. Induction training is a simple, economical andquick method which introduces the company to newly recruited/appointedemployee in an orderly manner.

Job training: Job training relates to specific job which the worker has tohandle. It gives information about machines, process of production,instructions to be followed, methods to be used and precautions to be takenwhile performing the job. This training develops skills and confidence among

the workers and enables them to perform the job efficiently. Training for promotion: Promotion means giving higher position. Training must

be given for performing duties at a higher level efficiently. This facilitates easyand quick adjustment with the new job and also develops new insight into theduties and responsibilities assigned. For this, training is given after promotionand before actually joining the new assignment. This training is specific,precise and of short duration.

Refresher training: The purpose of refresher training is to refresh theprofessional skills, information and experience of persons occupying importantexecutive positions. It gives information about new developments andtechniques to trainees. This training is of short duration and is given byprofessional institutions such as Indian Institute of Management, productivity

Councils, NITIE, etc. Refresher training needs to be given frequently due torapid technological/managerial developments in the business world. It is usefulfor updating the knowledge and skills of executives.

Corrective training: corrective training is necessary when employees violatecompany rules and procedures. For example, absence without prior sanction orsmoking in a No Smoking area or not using safety devices while operatingdangerous machines. Here the behaviour of employees cannot be changedsimply by disciplinary action. The manager should motivate, handle theproblem and criticize the act and not the individual.


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Objectives of training:

To enhance technical skill and thus productivity :

Knowledge and skill in the special field.

Use of systems and OR techniques for assessing technical feasibility andeconomic viability of project and proposals.

Coordination and control of resources and use of ergonomics, workstudy to improve working conditions.

Training increases the level of learning and understanding the job. This in turn,results in over-all improvement in the performance and productivity.

To enhance employee growth : A trained and experienced employee is morecompetent in specialized areas like production, finance, marketing etc. andstands better chances for promotion, higher earnings and up graduation instatus.

To improve the quality of workforce : A trained person makes less operationalmistakes and at the same time takes less time to adjust to new operations,

hence an improvement in quality and quantity of work performance. Betterinformed workers are less likely to make operational mistakes. Organizationsthat have a training programmed will have to make less drastic manpowerchanges and adjustments.

To prevent obsolescence of technical skills and competencies : Training anddevelopment programmers foster the initiative and creativity of employees andhelp to prevent manpower obsolescence, which may be due to age,temperament or motivation, or the inability of a person to adapt him totechnical changes.

To improve Health and Safety : Proper training can help prevent industrialaccidents. A safer work environment leads to more stable mental attitudes onthe part of employees. Managerial mental state would also improve ifsupervisors know that they can better themselves through company-designeddevelopment programmers. Physical fitness is also an important aspect forshop-floor workers. For e.g.: At Mahindra & Mahindra six day trainingprogrammed is conducted for staff level called STRIDE. Out of these three daysare dedicated to training, which mainly comprises programmers stressing onhygiene, safety, fitness etc. all workers are supposed to undergo theseprogrammers.

To develop cordial labour-management relations and thereby to improve theorganizational environment.

To develop certain personal qualities among employees which can serve aspersonal assets on long term basis.

To prevent manpower obsolescence in an organisation which is quite possible ifemployees are not given training facilities periodically to update theirknowledge and skills.


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The Training Process:-1. Assessment of Training Needs:-

Identifying the training needs of an organization is the first step in the systematictraining process. All training needs should be related to the specific needs of theorganization and also of the individual employees. For the identification of trainingneeds, the gap between the existing level of knowledge, skills, performance andaptitudes of employees and the required levels of the knowledge, skills performanceand aptitude should be clearly specified. Training needs can be identified clearlythrough the following types of analysis.

a) Organizational Analysis.b) Operational Analysis.c) Manpower Analysis.

a) Organizational Analysis:- it relates to the determination of the organisationsgoals, its resources and the allocation of the resources as they relate to theorganizational goals. The analysis of the organizational goals establishes theframework within which training needs can be defined more clearly. Thepurpose of the organizational analysis is to determine where training emphasisshould be placed within the organization.

b) Operational Analysis:- it focuses on the task or job regardless of theemployee doing the job. This type of analysis includes the determination withwhich the worker must perform the job and the specific worker behaviorrequired in order to perform the job effectively. The jobs are also analyzed inorder to identify job contents, the knowledge, skills and aptitudes required andthe work behavior.

c) Manpower Analysis:- it reviews the knowledge, attitudes and skills of theworkers in each position and determines what knowledge, attitude he mustacquire and what adjustments in his behavior he must introduce if he is tocontribute substantially to the attainment of organizational objectives.

Training can be effective if the three types of analysis are carried on continuously.In addition the conclusions from this analysis should be integrated in a properlydesigned and executed training programme.

2. Establishment of Training Goals:-

After deciding the training needs, the logical steps in the training process is to settraining and development objectives in concrete terms. In fact, without clearly setobjectives/goals, it is not possible to design a well planed training programme which isto be executed and also evaluated for judging its effectiveness. Training objectivesdecided should be tangible, verifiable and measurable. Some objectives are tangiblewhile some others are difficult to state.

The overall training objective is to fill in the gap between the existing and thedesired pool of knowledge, skills and aptitudes. Defining training objectives in


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quantitative and qualitative terms is useful for designing, executing and also forevaluation of the training programme.

3. Designing Training Programme:-

After finalizing the objectives of training, the next step in the training programme

is designing a training programme which acts as a base of actual training toemployees. For achieving training objectives, an appropriate training policy isabsolutely essential. This policy represents the commitment of top management toemployee training and development. Training policy involves rules and proceduresrelating to training activity.

Every training and development programme must address certain vital issues- whoparticipates in programme?, who are the trainers?, what methods of techniques are tobe used for training?, what should be the level of training?, what learning principlesare needed? And where is the programme conducted?

Who are the trainees? Trainees should be selected on the basis of self nomination, recommendations ofsupervisors or by the HR department itself. Whatever the base, it is advisable to havetwo or more target audiences. Bringing several target audience together can alsofacilitate group processes such as problem solving and decision making, elementsuseful in quality circle projects.

Who are the trainers?Training and development programme can be conducted by several people,

including the following:i. Immediate supervisors.ii. Co-workers as in buddy systems.iii. Members of the personnel staff.iv. Specialist in other parts of the company.v. Outside consultants.vi. Industry associationsvii. Faculty members at universities.

4. Implementation of training Programme:-After designing training programme, the same is to be implemented as per the

details decided. This means actual imparting training to trainees who may beworkers, supervisors or executives. Programme implementation involves concreteaction on the following points.

a) Organizing training and other facilities and deciding the location of trainingwhere training activity is to be arranged.

b) Arranging the schedule of training programme which will make trainingeffecting and also offer convenience to participants and trainers.

c) Conducting training programme as per the designed prepared.


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d) Monitoring the process of the training programme as well as the progress oftrainees.

In the execution of training programme, time factor is one more difficulty.Training for executives needs to be arranged without disturbing their busy schedule. Itis also not possible to keep them away from the regular work during the trainingperiod.

It is desirable to have separate administrative machinery for the execution oftraining programme. This ensures orderly conduct of training and maintaining records,follow-up and evaluation. Moreover, the efforts made and money invested on traininwill be wasted if the training programme is not implemented in a disciplined manner.

5. Evaluation of Training Programme:-Since the huge amounts of money are spent on training and development, how far

the programme has been useful must be judged/determined. Evaluation helps indetermine the results of the training and development programme

NEED FOR EVALUATION:-

The need for evaluation of training programme is to determine if they areaccomplishing specific training objectives to ensure trainee capabilities, determinetheir cost effectiveness. Finally, credibility of training and development is greatlyenhanced when it is proved that organization has benefited tangibly from it.

PRINCIPLES OF EVALUATIONS:-

Evaluation of the training programme needs to be decided on the following principles:1. Goals and purpose of evaluation must be clear and specific.2. Evaluation must be continuous.3. Evaluation must be specific.4. Evaluation must provide focus for trainees to be able to appraise them.5. Evaluation must be based on objective method and standards.

CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION:HR professionals should try to collect four types of data while evaluating trainingprogramme.

1. Measures of reactions: reaction measures reveal trainees opinion regarding thetraining programme.

2. Learning: learning measures assess the degree to which trainees havemastered the concepts, knowledge and skills of training.

3. Behavior Change: the behavior indicates the performance of learners.4. Organisational Result: organisatinal result is to examine the impact of training

on the work group or the entire company.

TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATION:


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Several techniques of evaluation are being used in organization.

1. EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS: each group is randomly selected, one toreceive training (experimental) and other not to receive training (control). Therandom selection helps to assure formation of groups quite similar to others.Measures are taken of the relevant indicators of success before and after

training of both groups. If gains demonstrated by the experimental group arebetter than those by the control group, the training programme is labeled assuccessful.

2. LONGITUDNAL OR TIME SERIES ANALYSIS: measurements are taken before theprogramme is completed. The results are plotted on graphs to determinewhether the changes have occurred and remain as a result of the trainingeffort.

3. QUESTIONNAIRE: another method of evaluation is to send questionnaire to thetrainees after the completion of programme to obtain their opinion about theprogramme worth. Their opinion could be obtained through interviews.

IMPEDIMENTS TO EFFECTIVE TRAINING:

There are many impediments which can make a training programme ineffective.Following are the major hindrances.

1. MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT IS LACKING AND UNEVEN: most of the companiesdo not spend money on training. Those that do tend to concentrate onmanagers, technicians and professionals. The rank-and-file workers areignored. This must change, for, as a result of rapid technological change,combined with new approaches to organisatonal design and productionmanagement workers are required to learn of new skills.

2. AGGREGARE SPENDING ON TRAINING IS INADEQUATE: companies spendextremely small proportion of their revenues on training. Worse still, budgetallocation to training is the first item to be cut when a company faces afinancial crunch.

3. EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AWARDS DEGREES BUT GRADUATES LACK SKILLS:this is the reason why business must spend vast sums of money to train workersin basic skills. Organizations also need to train employees in multiple skills.

Manager, particularly at the middle level, need to be retrained in team playingskills, entrepreneurship skills leadership and customer-orientation skills.

4. LARGE SCALE POACHING OF TRAINED WORKERS: trained work force is in greatdemand. Unlike Germany, where local business groups pressurize companiesnot to poach on another companys employees, there is no such system in ourcountry. Companies in our country however, insist on employees to sign bondsof tenure before sending them for training, particularly before deputing themto undergo training in foreign countries. Such bonds are not effective as the


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employees or the poachers are prepared to pay the stipulated amounts ascompensation when the bonds are breached.

5. NO HELP TO WORKERS DISPLACED BECAUSE OF DOWNSIZING: organizationsare downsizing and de-layering in order to trim their work force. Thegovernment should set apart certain fund from the National Renewal Fund forthe purpose of retraining and rehabilitating displaced workers.

6. EMPLOYERS AND B-SCHOOLS MUST DEVELOP CLOSER TIES: B schools are oftenseen as not responding to labour market demands. Business is seen as notcommunicating its demands to B schools. This must change. Businessmen mustsit with Dean and structure the courses that would serve the purpose ofbusiness better.

7. ORGANISED LABOUR CAN HELP: organized labour can play a positive role inimparting training to workers. Major trade unions in our country seem to bebusy in attending to mundane issues such as bonus, wage revision, settlementof disputes and the like. They have little time in imparting training to theirmembers.

HOW TO MAKE TRAING EFFECTIVE?

Actions on the following lines need to be initiated to make training practice effective:1. Ensures that the management commits itself to allocate major resources and

adequate time to training.2. Ensures that training contributes to competitive strategies of the firm. Let

training help employees at all levels acquire the needed skills.3. Ensure that a comprehensive and systematic approach to training exists, andtraining and retraining are done at all levels on a continuous and ongoing basis.

4. Make learning one of the fundamental values of the company.5. Ensure that there is proper linkage among organizational, operational and

individual training needs.6. Create a system to evaluate the effectiveness of training.

METHODS OF TRAINING .

Two methods of training.

A) ON THE JOB TRAINING: This type of training is also known as job instructiontraining, is the most commonly used method. Under this method the individualis placed on a regular job and certain skills are taught that are necessary toperform that job. The trainee learns under the supervision and guidance of aqualified worker or instructor. On the job training has the advantage of givingfirst hand knowledge and experience under the actual working conditions. Onthe job training method include job rotation, coaching, job instruction ortraining through step-by-step and committee assignments.


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a) Job rotation: Job rotation involves movement of trainee from one job toanother. The trainee receives job knowledge and gains experience fromthe supervisors or trainers in each of different job assignment. Thismethod gives on opportunity to the trainee to understand the problemsof employees on other jobs and respect them.

b) Coaching: In coaching superior plays an active role in training thesubordinate by assigning him challenging tasks. The superior acts as acoach in training the subordinate by assisting and advising him tocomplete the assigned task.

c) Job instruction: This method is known as training through step by step.Under trainer explains trainee the way of doing job, job knowledgeand skills and allows him to do the job. The trainer appraises theperformance of the trainee, provides feedback information and correctsthe trainee. The process or the steps under job instruction method areas followsStep1: Prepare the employee for instruction. Put him at ease. Explainthe job and its importance. Get him interested in learning the job.Step 2: Present the job. Follow your breakdowns. Explain anddemonstrate one step at a time tell why and how? Stress key points.Instruct clearly and patiently. Give everything you will want back, butno more.Step 3: have him do the job. Have him tell why and how and stress keypoints. Correct errors and omissions as he makes them. Encourage him.Get back everything you gave him in the step 2. Continue until youknow he knows.Step 4: Follow through. Put him on his own. Encourage questions. Checkfrequently. Let him know how he is doing.

If the learner has not learnt, correct him and teach him repeatedly.

d) Committee assignment: Under committee assignment group of traineesare given and asked to solve an actual organizational problems. Thetrainee solves the problem jointly. It develops teamwork.

B) OFF THE JOB TRAINING: Under this method of training, trainee isseparated from the job situation and his attention is focused uponlearning the material related to his future job performance. Since thetrainee is not distracted by the job requirements, he can place hisentire concentration on learning the job rather than spending his timein performing it. Off field job training methods are as follows:

1) Classroom method:Classroom method for training personnel includes lectures, discussions,

role-playing and case study.

a) Lectures: It is common method to impart facts, concepts,principles etc to a large group at one time. The main


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advantage of lectures is that it can be used for a very largegroup at one time and there is low cost per trainee.

b) Discussion: Combining lectures with discussion eliminate thelimitation of one-way communication. In this method thetrainees interact with the lecturer and any doubts ormisunderstanding of the concept and principles are cleared.

c) Case study: In this technique, an actual or hypotheticalproblem is presented to a training group for discussion andsolution. It is important to note that the problem presented incases usually do not have a single solution, but narrowmindedness of trainees is reduced as problem-solving ability isincreased.

2) Vestibule training: In this method, actual work conditions are simulatedin the classroom. Material, files and equipments those are used inactual job performance are also used in training. This type of training iscommonly used for training personnel for clerical and semi-skilled jobs.The duration of this training ranges from days to a few weeks.

3) Committee conference: Committees can be a method of training. Thejunior members of the committee can learn from the discussion andinteraction with the senior member of the committee. The seniormember can also learn from the opinions and views expressed by thejunior members. Committees can serve the purpose of developing goodsocial relations. In the case of conference, group discussions and the

meetings are held to discuss various issues and to provide solutions tovarious problems. The chairperson leads the discussion and then theparticipants attempt to provide solutions. The conferences act as agroup interaction and exchange of views and idea. It reshapes thinkingand attitudes of the participants.

4) Reading, television and video instructions: Planned reading of relevantand current management literature is one of the best methods ofmanagement development. It is essentially a self-development

programme. A manager may be aided by training department, whichoften provide a list of valuable books. Also there are televisionprogramme that are features towards management development.Videotapes are also available whereby important managerialdiscussions, debates and talks can be viewed and listened.

5) Role playing: It is defined as a method of human interaction thatinvolves realistic behavior in imaginary situations. this method oftraining involves actions, doing and practice. The participants play the


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role of certain characters, such as production manager, mechanicalengineer, superintendents, maintenance engineers, quality controlinspectors, foreman, workers and the like. This method is mostly usedfor developing interpersonal interactions and relations.

Requirements of successful training programme (principles of training):

1) Training should be exactly as per the training needs: The training needs shouldbe identified clearly and precisely before deciding the details of trainingprogramme. It is also necessary to identify the organizational constraints thatare creating roadblocks in the performance. It deals with the problems due towhich production efficiency reduces. Identifying training needs are the basicrequirements of successful training programme.

2) Elaborate and systematic: The training programme should be elaborate andsystematic. It should be directly related to specific training needs of theorganization.

3) Motivation of trainees: Training programme should motivate trainees to takeinterest and initiative in the training process. For this some attraction shouldbe created. This may be like pay increase, promotion or delegation ofauthority.

4) Theoretical and practical character: Training should be theoretical as well aspractical. The contents of training programme should be prepared with thehelp of experts. This will make training purposeful/ result-oriented.

5) Superior in quality: The training programme should be superior in quality.There should be proper balance between theory and practice. Expert trainersshould be appointed for giving training. Suitable materials and facilities such as

books, workshops must be provided.6) Provision of periodical tests for evaluation: There should be periodical test and

evaluation of candidate. Progress report should be given to trainee. Thisfacilitates the learning and encourages the trainee to take interest in trainingprogrammes.

7) Longer period training: Training programme should be of a reasonable longerduration. It should not be too short or too long as both these extremes areundesirable.

8) Training by experts: Experts with suitable qualification, qualities, experienceand maturity should provide training. Professional field trainer should beinvited for giving additional information and guidance to trainee.

9) Involvement of trainees: Industrial training should not be like spoon-feeding.

Effective participation of trainees should be encouraged. Training should act asa tool for self-learning and self-development.

10) Periodical updating: Training programme should be reviewed periodically forupdating the course content. It is necessary for removing deficiencies in thetraining programme and also making it result oriented. Training should bemade interesting with use of films, audio-visuals and visit to industrial estateetc.


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11) Provision for rewards and penalties: Rewards should be given those who showsatisfactory progress and punishments to those who do not take active interestin training programme. For this instructor should maintain progress report oftrainees.

12) Convenient place: The place of training should be peaceful with necessaryfacilities and conveniences to instructor and trainees. On the job training has

certain limitation as it is given in factory premises where as off the job trainingis always better as the place is convenient.

13) Reinforcement of trainees: Training should be followed by promotion to higherposition where practical application of training can be done. There should besuitable increase in pay and status of a trained employee. In the absence ofsuch training will be wasted and trained person will face frustration.

14) Efficient training administration: This is also one more essential requirement oftraining. It includes deciding training content, types of training programmes,location of training activities and the general administration of training. Fordecision making proper planning and efficient execution is required by themanagers. Suitable administrative machinery must be created.

DEVELOPMENT

Meaning:An organization has to take steps for training programmes for supervisory staff andmanagers such training programs are called management development programmes.Management development programme acts as a key factor for the survival and growthof a business unit.

Management development programme includes systematic review to identify themembers of the management who can be expected to raise their managerialeffectiveness through training and special assignments.Management development is a way to improving the culture of the organization so thatit could be geared to excellence. Leading houses like Tatas, Birlas, Bajaj and othershave started taking keen interest in management development.They believe that People move organizations not machines.

Definition:-

The term Development here refers to those learning opportunities designed to helpemployees to grow.

Objectives of Development


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1. Attitude Tuning:- it is done to broaden the mind of employees by providingthem with opportunities for an inter change of experiences within and outside.Development helps in correcting the narrowness of outlook, emotionalstability, analytical ability, acquiring long term perception, professional ethics,and social objectives.

2. Motivation:- one of the objectives of development is to boost individual andcollective moral and motivate the employees through words and deeds.

3. Leadership:- To build and maintain an appropriate working climate, developdecision making abilities and delegation through adaptive leadership.

4. Communication:- communication helps in maintaining good inter personal andinter group relations, it also helps in Conflict settlement, compromises.

5. Paradigm Shift:- To prepare the employee both the new and the old to meetthe present as well as changing requirement of the job and the organization.

Importance of Development

1. Increase in moral and motivation of employees:- Development increasesemployees moral and motivation by inculcating sense of better self confidence.Higher efficiency and productivity gives higher job satisfaction, which

motivates him to work attentively.

2. Better human relations:- development gives the employees an opportunity tocultivate better inter personal and human relations. Development in the senseis sharing of experiences and helps in improving the quality of human relations.This facilitates smooth and harmonious functioning of the organization.

3. Development and promotion:- Development not only improves the knowledgeand skills for doing the existing job successfully but also helps the employeeswith abilities and attitudes needed for higher positions. In a way developmentaids in contribution to growth of their personality.

4. Accuracy:- it makes the employee more proficient and competent and enableshim to avoid mistakes. It helps an individual in making better decision andsolving efficiently.

Techniques of development

1. On the Job Techniques


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2. Off the Jon Techniques

On the Job Techniques:- These are the most widely used techniques. The success ofthese techniques depends on the immediate supervisor and how good a teacher is.

Some important On the Job techniques are;

1. Coaching: - In coaching the trainee is placed under a particular supervisor whoacts as an instructor and teaches job knowledge and skills to the trainee. Hetells him what he wants him to do. How it can be done and follows up while itis being done and corrects errors.

2. Job Rotation: The transferring of executives from job to job and fromdepartment to department in a systematic manner is called job rotation. Theidea behind this is to give him the required diversified skills and a broaderoutlook which are very important at senior management levels. It is up to themanagement to provide a variety of job experiences for those who have thepotential for higher ranks before they are promoted. Job rotation increases theinterdepartmental co-ordination and reduces the monotony of work.

3. Understudy: - An understudy is a person who is in training to assume at futuretime, the full responsibility of the position currently help by his superior. Thismethod supplies the organization a person with as much competence as thesuperior to fill his post which may fall vacant because of promotion, retirementor transfer.

4. Delegation: - The performance of subordinates may not improve unless

additional responsibility and authority are delegated to them. Making thesubordinates achieve a particular target through delegation will help themgrow and develop independently.

5. Promotion and Transfers: - Promotion gives an opportunity to a manager toacquire new skills required for the job at a higher level. It motivates theemployee for self improvement. Transfers facilitates in broadening the viewpoint required for higher positions. It gives an opportunity to work at differentpositions and develop.

Off The Job Techniques: - Trainings conducted in simulated environments,classrooms, seminars, etc are called Off the Job Training. Some of the important Offthe Job techniques are.

1. Classroom Methods:- Classroom methods for training personnel includelectures, discussion, role playing and case study.


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A. Lectures: - It is a common method to impart facts, concepts,principles etc to a large group at one time. The main advantage oflecture is that it can be used for a very large group and the cost pertrainee is low.

B. Discussion:- Through discussion a trainee can interact with thelecturer and clear and of his doubts or misunderstanding of theconcepts or principles.

C. Case Study: - It is a written description of an actual situation in thepast in same organisation or some where else and trainees aresupposed to analyze and give their conclusions in writing. This isanother excellent method to ensure full and whole heartedparticipation of employees and generates good interest among them.Case is later discussed by instructor with all the pros and cons ofeach option. It is an ideal method to promote decision-makingabilities within the constraints of limited data.

D. Role Playing: - Here trainees assume the part of the specificpersonalities in a case study and enact it in front of the audience. Itis more emotional orientation and improves interpersonalrelationships. Attitudinal change is another result.

2. Simulation Training : A simulation learning situation is an imitation of reality. Itis a Technique used for creating a real life situation for decision-making andunderstanding the actual job conditions give it. Ensures active participation ofall trainees. Can be very effective but needs good conductors.

3. Sensitivity Training:- Its main objective is the Development of awareness andsensitivity of behavioral patterns of oneself and others. It results into

Increased openness with others

Greater concern for others

Increased tolerance for individual differences

Less ethnic prejudice

Increased trust and support

Understanding of group processes

4. Audio Visuals instructions:- Television and Video instructions are used in trainingand development programmes. Today, programmes on management problems arearranged on Tv network regularly.

5.Business games:- Here the trainees are divided into groups. One team has toconsider itself as the management of an existing firm and come up with the solution ofa particular problem with subjects related to production, pricing, research,


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expenditure, advertising etc. and other group should assume themselves ascompetitors and react to their decisions.

Types of Business games

Morphological analysis Listing of alternative solutions to problems

Ice Breaks games to get team members know each other.

Team building games Exercise requiring collaborative efforts

Leadership games Exercise to teach different styles of leadership

Communication games Exercise to build bias free listing and talking.

Management Development in India

In India, progressive and professional managements take keen interest in training andmanagement development as it is the way for building a world class organization. Theyuse internal as well as external methods for training and management development.Induction training is given to middle and higher executives in large majority of thecompanies.Expenditure on training and development is rather limited/ inadequate in largemajority of companies. Also growing awareness about management developmentprogrammes in private as well as public sectors should be treated as a positive trendand healthy development in the corporate sector.

Some companies such as Larsen and Tourbo Ltd. Indian oil Corporation Ltd, SAIL, ONGCand TELCO, are taking special interest in management development through differentmethodsTELCO for example, has Engineering Trainees scheme and Management Traineesscheme for persons with outstanding academic record.There is also Tata Management Training Centre at Pune. Reliance, Birlas and otherleading private sector organizations have formulated their own managementdevelopment programmes as per their specific needs.Many companies including HMT, Hindustan Antibiotics, Bharat Electricals, Voltas,Hindustan Lever, State Bank in India, RBI, etc, have their own company trainingprogrammes for managerial development.The Administrative Staff College of India (Hyderabad) acts as the college for practicing

managers. It is Asias foremost institution for management development research andconsultancy.The Importance of training and development is now accepted by the corporate sectorin India. This is due to globalisation, introduction to technologies and so on.


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Formulation of Training PolicyEven though training is primarily the responsibility of the HR /PersonnelDepartment, a suitable training policy has to be evolved by the topmanagement. It should reflect the primary and secondary objectives of the

organization with relation to environment. A training policy should be ableto provide answers to the following questions:1 What do you want and hope to accomplish through training?2 Who is responsible for the training function?3 Should the training be formal or informal?4 What are the training priorities?5 What types of training is needed?6 When and where should training be given?7 Should training be continuous or casual?8 How much should the employees be paid during training?

9 Which outside agencies should be associated with training?10 How should training be related to labour policy?

Importance/signifiance of training

1: higher productivity: training helps to improve the level of performance. Trainedemployees perform better by using better method of work. Improvements inmanpower productivity in developed nations can be attributed in to small measure totheir educational and industrial training programs.

2: Better quality of work: in formal training the best methods are standarised andtaught to employees. Uniformity of work methods and procedures helps to improve thequality of product or services. Trained employee are less likely to make operationalmistakes.

3: Less learning period: a systematic training program helps to reduce the time andcost involved in learning. Employees can more quickly reach the acceptable level ofperformance. They need not waste their time and efforts in learning through trial anderror

4: Cost reduction: Training employees make more economical use of materials andmachinery. Reduction is wastage and spoilage together with increase in productivityhelp to minimize cost of operations per unit Maintenance cost is also reduced due tofewer machine breakdown and better handling of equipments. Plant capacity can beput to the optimum use.

5: reduced Supervision: well trained employee tends to be self-reliant and motivatedthey need less guidance and control . Therefore, the supervisory burden is reducedand he span of supervision can be enlarged.


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6: Low accident Rate : trained personnel adopt the right work methods and make useof the prescribed safety devices. Therefore, the frequency of the accidents isreduced. Health and safety of employee can be improved.

7: high Morale: Proper training can be develop positive attitudes among employees.

Job satisfaction and morale are improved due to rise in the earning and job security ofemployees. Training reduces employees grievances because opportunities for internalpromotion are available to well trained personnel.

8: Personal growth: Training enlarges the knowledge and skills of the participants.Therefore, well trained personnel can grow faster in their career. Training preventsobsolescence of knowledge and skills. Trained employees are a more valuable assest toany organization. Training helps to develop people for promotion to higher posts andto develop future managers.

9: organizational climate: a sound training program helps to improve the climate ofan organization. Industrial relations and discipline are improved. Therefore,

decentralization of authority and participative management can be introduced.Resistance to change is reduced. Training us an investment in people and thereforesystematic training is a sound business investment. In fact no organization can choosewhether or not to train employees the only choice left to management is whethertraining shall be haphazard, casual and possibly misdirected or whether it shall bemade a carefully planned part of an integrated programme of human resourceadministration.

Education and Training/Training and Education:

Both education and training are ways of abandoning random learning routes in favourof more productive and planned routes. We have already defined training. Let us lookat the definition of education.

Education is defined as "activities which aim at developing the knowledge, skills,moral values, and understanding required in all aspects of life rather than a knowledgeand skill relating to only a limited field of activity. The purpose of education is toprovide the conditions essential to young people and adults to develop anunderstanding of the traditions and ideas influencing the society in which they live andto enable them to make a contribution to it. It involves the study of their owncultures and of the laws of nature, as well the acquisition of linguistic and other skills

which are basic to learning, personal development, creativity and communication.

Thus, both education and training are achieved by creating conditions in which thenecessary attitudes, skill and knowledge are learned by a person who becomesrelatively confident of applying them in real situations. The difference, however, isthat:

Education gives the general basis for living whereas training modifies anddirects one's abilities towards a particular activity or activities.


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Education deals mostly with knowledge and understanding.

Training deals mostly with understanding, skills, and action. Thus a course inengineering is education, but teaching a person how to assemble two parts andtighten nut is training to do a specific job.

Philosophies of Training

The vast majority of personnel and training staff do appear to believe that:1. The organization is a learning system.2. Employee development is essentially that part of the organizations planning

activities which aims to make learning happen.3. Training interventions can serve at the same time the individual and the

organization.

Learning to learn and self-development

Learning theory in the past assumed that learning objectives represent a static workstate. In this case, competence depends largely upon memory and the acquisition ofbasic skills, which ought to last a lifetime. Knowing what and how and when is amatter of remembering what the manual (or textbook) says; and/or what worked lasttime. But memory cannot always be relied on if the content, and the context, of workis constantly changing. For example, if manual bookkeeping changes to computerisedbookkeeping, the individuals memory of mental arithmetic wont be enough: thecomputer now performs this task. Confidence in the relevance of the bookkeepersknowledge base is dented, and must be replaced by some new knowledge (eg how tomake the computer perform calculations), plus keyboard skills.

Curiosity is a strong motivator. Learning is like opening a door in a corridor that givesa view into a room beyond. The room has other doors that had not previously been inview, and when we open these doors further doors appear. This phenomenon becomesvery apparent to users of the Internet, where the skill often lies not in finding a door,but in choosing which one to open and which corridor to enter, as Martins experiencein the fifth example at the beginning of this chapter shows. The Internet is full offascinating learning blind alleys! As the Internet becomes universally available it willbe an increasingly important tool for self-development. There may be conflictbetween a highly structured learning style of formulating and pursuing preciseobjectives, and one that is more open, creative and exploratory when the user isconfronted with the dilemma of sticking to what appears to be totally relevantmaterial at the expense of missing something that could lead to exciting andunpredictable learning outcomes. Sometimes the latter might well be the morerewarding in the long term by opening up new perspectives that might otherwise neverhave been contemplated at least that is what divergent thinkers, who like to followtheir learning noses, maintain. Although an important tool for self-development, theInternet offers a lot more than the opportunity for the learner to obtain almost


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unlimited information by means of a computer. It can provide continuous learning inthe form of contact and exchange of views and information with people with similarinterests and problems throughout the world.

Distinction between training and education:

Following are some important distinctions between training and education:1. The content and scope of training is always specific, narrow and job-related;

the content and scope of education is always broad and general.2. Training is always applied and practical; education is usually pure and

theoretical.3. Training is mostly of short duration; education is of long durations.4. Training gives quick and apparent results; the results of education are not so

quick and apparent.

Theories of the Process of Learning

1. Behaviorist approaches to learning2. Information-processing approach to learning

Behaviorist approaches to learning

The behaviourist approach has been one of the most influential in the field of psychology.It proposes that learning is the process by which a particular stimulus, repeatedlyassociated with, or conditioned by, desirable or undesirable experiences comes to evoke aparticular response. This conditioning can be of two kinds:

Classical conditioningoccurs when a stimulus leads automatically to a response. Dogs,for example, salivate at the presentation of food: Pavlov demonstrated that they couldalso be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell rung before food is presented.

Operant conditioning takes place after a desired response, which is then reinforced, orrewarded, to increase the probability of the repetition of the same response when thestimulus recurs.

There has been much experimental research (including many animal studies) into suchissues as the nature of the reinforcement (negative reinforcement, or punishment is not aseffective for learning as positive reward); the schedule of reinforcement (whether fixed orvariable intervals; intermittent reinforcement is more effective than continuousreinforcement). This form of conditioning is also used to shape behaviour, that is tocontinue to reinforce responses that approximate to the desired behaviour until that behaviour is finally achieved. We are familiar with this kind of approach to the


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encouragement of fairly simple forms of learning: we use it with small children, withanimals, and in basic forms of training.

The S-R approach pays no attention to the cognitive processes whereby the stimuluscomes to be associated with a particular response. Cognitive learning theory, however,offers a more complex understanding of learning, proposing, again on the basis originally

of animal studies, that what is learned is not an association of stimulus with response (S-R), but of stimulus with stimulus (S-S). The learner develops expectations that stimuli arelinked; the result is cognitive map or latent learning. Hence insightful behaviourappropriate to a situation takes place without the strengthening association or S-R bonds.Social learning theory also addresses what is in the black box. It recognizes the role inlearning of the observation and imitation of the behaviour of others, but as seen in thedebates over the influence of the media upon, say, young peoples behaviour, there areclearly many moderating variables.

Information-processing approach to learning

This approach regards learning as an information-processing system in which a signal,containing information, is transmitted along a communication channel of limited capacityand subject to interference and noise (Stammers and Patrick, 1975). The signal has to bedecoded before it can be received, and then encoded to pass it on. In learning, datareceived through the senses are filtered, recognized and decoded thorugh the interpretiveprocess of perception; this information is then translated into action through the selectionof appropriate responses. The effectiveness of learning depends on attention being padionly to the relevant parts of the stimuli, the rapid selection of appropriate responses, theefficient performance of them, and the feeding back of information about their effects

into the system. Overload or breakdown of the system can occur at any of these stages.Gagne (1974, in Fontana, 1981 : 73) expresses this as a chain of events, some internaland others external to the learner. It begins with the learners readiness to receiveinformation (motivation or expectancy), and continues as the learner perceives it,distinguishes it from other stimuli, makes sense of it and relates it to what is alreadyknown. The information is then stored in short or long term memory. Thereafter it can beretrieved from memory, generalized to and put into practice in new situation. Its finalphase is feedback from knowledge of the results obtained from this practice. Thoseconcerned to facilitate learning in others can use knowledge of this chain to preventfailure to learn, which can take place at any one of those levels.

Elements in the Process of Learning

This subsection will deal briefly with other important elements in the process of learningthat need to be taken into account when designing or facilitating learning. These are theneed for feedback, the choice of whole or part learning, and the role of memory.


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Feedback (or knowledge of results)

The feedback to learners of the results of their performance is recognized as essential totheir effective learning. This is discussed inRibeaux and Poppleton (1978) and Stammersand Patrick (1975). Feedback will be either intrinsic or extrinsic (or augmented).Learners receive visual or kinaesthetic feedback (intrinsic) from their responses to

stimuli in the learning situation; they need to be encouraged to listen to such bodilycues in order to improve performance. They may also receive feedback (extrinsic,augmented) form an external source while they are performing (concurrent feedback) orafter it (terminal). Learners may also benefit from guidance before their performanceabout what to look out for during it. The sources cited above set out the characteristics,advantages and disadvantages of these different kinds of feedback.

The nation of feedback is frequently discussed in terms of learning perceptual-motor orsimilar skills. It is still of considerable importance in the learning of the higher orderskills discussed in this chapter, but here it is very complex in nature and difficult for thelearner to be aware and make sense of it. However, by reflecting and engaging in thewhole loop learning discussed below, the learner will have opportunity to pay attention toboth intrinsic and extrinsic feedback.

The choice of whole or part learning

Psychologists continue to debate the appropriateness of whole or part learning to thelearning of various tasks, that is, whether the task is learned as a whole, or in partsRibeaux and Poppleton (1978:61) report on one approach that classifies tasks according

to their complexity (the difficulty of the component sub-tasks) and organisation (thedegree to which they are interrelated). Where complexity and organisation are both high,whole methods appear superior; where either is low, part and whole methods are equallysuccessful. Stammers and Patrick(1975: 85 88), however report on research that drawsopposite conclusions: where the elements of a task are highly independent the task is bestlearned as a whole, but where they are interdependent, they should be learned in parts.

It tends to be the whole method in operation when learning takes place during theperformance of a job, through actions learning, or through observing others.

The role of memory in learning

Memory plays a significant role in learning, and some understanding of it can, therefore,

be used to make learning more effective. Once again, it is not possible to do more thanpresent an outline here, but texts such asFontana (1981), Atkinson et al.(1993), Ribeauxand Poppleton (1978) and Stammers and Patrick (1975) give further information.

Memory involves three kinds of information storage: the storage of sensory memoriesshort-term of primary memory, and long-term or secondary memory. Unless transferredto short-term memory, and sensory memory retains sense data for probably less than twoseconds. Unless incoming information is paid particular attention or rehearsed, short-termmemory holds it for up to 30 seconds and appears to have limited capacity, whereas


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long-term memory appears to have unlimited capacity and to hold information for years.What is, therefore, of concern for effective learning is the ability to transfer informationto the long-term memory.

There are two aspects to such transfer;

The first is rehearsal, that is paying attention to and repeating the information until it iscoded and enters the long-term store; it is other wise displaced by the incominginformation.

The second aspect of the transfer of information to long-term memory is coding: thetranslation of information into the codes that enable it to be field into the memorysfiling system. Information is largely coded according to meaning ( a semantic code) orthrough visual images, but sometimes (where the meaning itself is unclear) according tosound.

The ability to retrieve information from long-term memory depends in part upon howeffectively it ha been organized (filed) in storage (for example, words may be storedaccording to sound and meaning), and having the most appropriate retrieval cue. Weexperience this when we are searching for something that we have lost; we thinksystematically through what we were doing when we believe we last used the lost object.Recognition is easier that recall from memory because it follows the presentation of clearretrieval cues.

Difficulty in retrieving information, or forgetting, occurs for several reasons apart fromthose concerning the degree of organisation in storage. Interference from otherinformation can disrupt long-term as well as short-term memory (where new itemsdisplace existing items in the limited capacity). Interference may be retroactive, whennew information interferes with the recall of older material, or proactive, when earlierlearning seems to inhibit the recall of later information. Forgetting also takes place

through anxiety or unhappy associations with the material to be learned, which maybecome repressed. Unhappy childhood experiences, for example, may be repressed formany years.

Finally, memory does not just operate as a camera recording what is experienced: it is anactive and a constructive process, particularly when learning the kind of complexmaterial that constitutes the world of organizations and human resource management. Aswell as recording its data inputs, the process of memory draws inferences from and soelaborates upon them, filtering them through the individuals stereotypes, mind-set andworld view. What is then stored is this enhanced and repackaged material.

An understanding of the nature of memory suggests various ways in which it might beimproved to make learning more effective. The transfer of new information to long-termmemory is clearly crucial: attention, recitation, repetition and constant revision (known asoverlearning) are needed. The coding and organisation of material to be stored is alsoimportant: this is helped by associating the new information with what is already familiar,especially using visual imagery, by attending to the context giving rise to the informationto be learned, and by making the effort to understand the information so that it can bestored in the appropriate files. Facilitators of learning need to ensure that the learningcontext or event does not provoke anxiety.


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The Stages of Learning

As we suggested above, the hierarchies of skills outlined there could be regarded asmacro stages of the learning process. Here we shall examine the micro stages throughwhich the learner has to pass within each of the levels of those hierarchies. Below weexamine a related, and more dynamic, notion: that of a cycle of learning.

Fittss stages of skills acquisition

Fitts (1962, in Stammers and Patrick, 1975) distinguished three stages of learning, inparticular of perceptual-motor skills acquisition. It is recognized that they may overlap.

Cognitive stage: The learner has to understand what is required, its rules and concepts,

and how to achieve it.

Associative stage: The learner has to establish through practice the S-R links, the correctpatterns of behaviour, gradually eliminating errors.

Autonomous stage: The learner refines the motor patterns of behaviour until externalsources of information become redundant and the capacity simultaneously to performsecondary tasks increases.

Gagnes classification of learning

Gagne (1970, in Stammers and Patrick, 1975) studied both the process of learning and themost effective modes of instruction, and has made several classifications of types of

learning. For example, he identified the ability to make a general response to a signal; todevelop a chain or two or more S-R links, including verbal chains and associations; tomake different responses to similar though different stimuli; to achieve concept learningand identify a class of objects or events; to learn rules through the acquisition of a chainof two or more concepts; and, finally, to combine rules and so achieve problem solving.

Gagnes classification allows us to identify the processes whereby skills of the all levelsare acquired, and hence suggests how to facilitate learning and prevent failure to learn atthe various levels.

The learning curve

It is recognized that there is a relationship between the rate of learning and the passage of

time: managers working on the introduction of a new system, for example, may say weare on a learning curve. According toHodgetts (1991: 99), many psychologists feel thatthe S-shaped curve represents the most accurate description of learning. However, sincethe shape of the curve must clearly depend on the nature and circumstances of thelearning, this notion of a learning curve perhaps adds little of value to the understandingof learning. The S-shaped curve of learning.


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Cyclical Models of Learning Learning Styles

The recognition that learning is a process that may have different identifiable phases, and

that more effective learning may be facilitated if methods appropriate to the variousphases are used, has led to the development of models of learning as a cycle. As you willsee, they offer a number of important insights to the human resource manager concernedto facilitate higher order skills in the organisation. They draw attention to the significanceof learning through action and reflection, as well as through the traditional channels ofteaching/learning. They recognize that individuals may prefer different phases of thecycle and have different styles: they offer means to identify those preference; to engagein dialogue about them with individuals; and to identify means of helping individualscomplete the whole cycle.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Following are important distinctions between training and development:1. Training is meant for operatives and development is meant for managers.2. Aim of training is to improve a special skill relating to a job whereas development

aims at improving the total personality of an individual.3. Training is a one shot deal; whereas development is an ongoing continuous

process.

4. Training is mostly the result of initiatives taken by management or result of someoutside motivation. Development is mostly result of internal motivation.5. Training seeks to meet current requirements of the job and individual; whereas

development aims to meet the future needs of the job

Developing Training Programs:

HRD is based on the faith in the inherent potential in every human which can bemanifested by giving right direction and orientation. At the same time human resource isunpredictable resource which has unlimited potential. Human resource is anunpredictable resource but it has unlimited potential. HRD process maximizes the use ofhuman resource by optimizing the competence. HRD process maximise the use ofhuman resource by way of optimising competence of available human resource,improving the competence for future challenges and utilising unemployed resource HRD,thus performs the role of personnel management as well as training and Developmentdepartment and it therefore, needs to be studied, analysed minutely and accurately before


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deciding the real roles and activity of department. The roles and activities of HRD willmostly depend on the HRD mechanism being utilised, the HRD needs of the organisationand the facilities, opportunities provided. Thus the role of HRD starts from the analysisof organisational objectives/goals, in par with characteristics of available resources anddesired specifications manpower planning recruitment, placement, appraisal reward,

punishments and maintenance of resource is one aspect of HRD accountability, where as.organisational climate and opportunity are another.

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS ARE REQUIRED DUE TO THE

FOLLOWING GROUND REALITIES:

1. The rapid rate of technological and social change in society has necessitated thetraining of managers so that they may cope with these development

2. The introduction of automation, intense market competition from foreigncountries, the growth of new markets in the under developed countries.3. Increased recognition by business and industrial leaders of the social and public

responsibilities of management has necessitated the development of managerialpersonnel.

4. The increased size and complexity of most organizations governmental,industrial, commercial, on-profit public services require trained managers

5. The frequent labor-management strife have necessitated the services of trainedpersonnel

6. The changes in socio-economic forces, including changes in public policy and theconcepts of social justice, industrial democracy.

THE KEY ISSUES AT ASSESSING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS

ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. Are all the gaps between employees and job requirements to be filled2. through T&D programmes?3. Should T&D needs assessment cover all employees at all levels or should

it4. be restricted to few groups of employees?5. Should T&D need assessment take only present requirements or future6. requirements too?7. What model of T&D needs assessment should be applied?8. From where and how relevant information will be collected.9. Who will be responsible for collecting information, analyzing it and10. reporting its results?


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Managements Responsibility for training

Training is the responsibility of four main groups:

The top management, which frames the training policy;

The personnel department, which plans, establishes and evaluates industrialprogrammes.

Supervisors, who implement and apply developmental procedure; and

Employees, who provide feedback, revision and suggestions for corporateeducational endeavors.

Training A continuous process:

Since training is a continuous process and not a one shot affair, and since it consumestime and entails much expenditure, it is necessary that a training programme or policyshould be prepared with great thought and care, for it should serve the purposes of theestablishment as well as the needs of employees.

A successful training programme presumes that sufficient care has been taken to discoverareas in which it is needed most and to create the necessary environment for its conduct.The selected trainer should be one who clearly understands his job and has professional

expertise, has an aptitude and ability for teaching, processes a pleasing personality and acapacity for leadership, is well-versed in the principles and methods of training, and isable to appreciate the value of training in relation to an enterprise.

Certain general principles need be considered while organizing a training programme.For example:

1. Trainees in work organizations tend to be most responsive to training programmeswhen they feel the need to learn, i.e., the trainee will be more eager to learn

training if training promise answers to problems or need he has an employee. Theindividual who perceives training as the solution, to problems will be morewilling to enter into a training programme than will the individual who is satisfiedwith his present performance abilities.

2. Learning is more effective where there is reinforcement in the form of rewardsand punishments, i.e., individual do things that give pleasure and avoid things thatgive pain. In other words, after an action, if satisfier is received, the action will be


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repeated. In other words, after an action if satisfies is received, the action will berepeated. If no satisfaction is received, the action will not be repeated.

3. In the long run, awards tend to be more effective for changing behaviour andincreasing ones learning than punishments.

4. Rewards for the application of learned behaviour are most useful when theyquickly follow the desired performance.

5. The larger the reward for good performance following the implementation oflearned behaviour, the greater will be the reinforcement of the new behaviour.

6. Negative reinforcement, through application of penalties and heavy criticismfollowing inadequate performance, may have a disruptive effect upon the learningexperience of the trainee than positive reinforcement.

7. Training that requests the trainee to make changes in his values, attitudes, andsocial beliefs, usually achieves better results if he trainee is encouraged toparticipate discuss and discover new, desirable behaviour norms.

8. The trainee should be provided with feedback on the progress he is making inutilizing the training he has received. As Miller has stated, if a person with therequired abilities is to improve his performance, he must (i) know what aspect ofhis performance is not up to par; (ii) know precisely what corrective actions hemust take to improve his performance. The feedback should be fast and frequent,especially for the lower level jobs which are often routine and quickly completed.

9. The development of new behaviour norms and skills is facilitated through practiceand repetition. Skills that are practiced often are better learned and less easilyforgotten.

10. The training material should be made as meaningful as possible, because if the

trainee understands the general principles under lying what is being taught, hewill probably understand it better than if he were just asked to memorize a seriesof isolated steps.


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Unit-2

ASSESSMENT OF TRAINING NEEDS AND ORGANIZATION OF TRAINING

PROGRAMS

TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT

Introduction

The training needs assessment is a critical activity for the training and developmentfunction. Whether you are a human resource generalist or a specialist, you should beadept at performing a training needs assessment. This paper will begin with an overviewof the training and development function and how the needs assessment fits into thisprocess, followed by an in-depth look at the core concepts and steps involved inconducting a training needs assessment.

Background

Designing a training and development program involves a sequence of steps that can begrouped into five phases: needs assessment, instructional objectives, design,implementation and evaluation. To be effective and efficient, all training programs muststart with a needs assessment. Long before any actual training occurs, the trainingmanager must determine the who, what, when, where, why and how of training. To dothis, the training manager must analyze as much information as possible about thefollowing:

1. Organization and its goals and objectives.2. Jobs and related tasks that need to be learned.3. Competencies and skills that are need to perform the job.4. Individuals who are to be trained.

Overview of Training and Development Process:

1. Needs assessment2. Design phase3. Implementation4. Evaluation

NEEDS ASSESSMENT

The first step in designing a training and development program is to conduct a needsassessment. The assessment begins with a "need" which can be identified in several waysbut is generally described as a gap between what is currently in place and what is needed,now and in the future. Gaps can include discrepancies/differences between:

1. What the organization expects to happen and what actually happens.2. Current and desired job performance.3. Existing and desired competencies and skills.4. A needs assessment can also be used to assist with:


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5. Competencies and performance of work teams. Problem solving or productivity issues.

6. The need to prepare for and respond to future changes in the organization or jobduties.

The results of the needs assessment allows the training manager to set the trainingobjectives by answering two very basic questions: who, if anyone, needs training andwhat training is needed. Sometimes training is not the solution. Some performance gapscan be reduced or eliminated through other management solutions such ascommunicating expectations, providing a supportive work environment, arrangingconsequences, removing obstacles and checking job fit.

DESIGN PHASE:

Once the needs assessment is completed and training objectives are clearly identified, thedesign phase of the training and development process is initiated:

1. Select the internal or external person or resource to design and develop the2. training.3. Select and design the program content.4. Select the techniques used to facilitate learning (lecture, role play, simulation,5. etc.).6. Select the appropriate setting (on the job, classroom, etc.).7. Select the materials to be used in delivering the training (work books, videos,

etc.).8. Identify and train instructors (if internal).

IMPLEMENTATION:

After completing the design phase, the training is ready for implementation:1. Schedule classes, facilities and participants.2. Schedule instructors to teach.3. Prepare materials and deliver them to scheduled locations.4. Conduct the traini

EVALUATION:

The final phase in the training and development program is evaluation of the program todetermine whether the training objectives were met. The evaluation process includesdetermining participant reaction to the training program, how much participants learnedand how well the participants transfer the training back on the job. The informationgathered from the training evaluation is then included in the next cycle of training needsassessment. It is important to note that the training needs assessment, training objectives,design, implementation and evaluation process is a continual process for the organization.


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NEEDS ASSESSMENT IN DETAIL

There are three levels of needs assessment:1. Organizational analysis2. Task analysis3. Individual analysis.

ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS

1. Organizational analysis looks at the effectiveness of the organization anddetermines where training is needed and under what conditions it will beconducted. The organizational analysis should identify:

2. Environmental impacts (new laws such as ADA, FMLA, OSHA, etc.).3. State of the economy and the impact on operating costs.4. Changing work force demographics and the need to address cultural or language

barriers.5. Changing technology and automation.

6. Increasing global/world market places.7. Political trends such as sexual harassment and workplace violence.8. Organizational goals (how effective is the organization in meetings its goals),

resources available (money, facilities; materials on hand and current, availableexpertise within the organization).

9. Climate and support for training (top management support, employee willingnessto participate, responsibility for outcomes).

The information needed to conduct an organizational analysis can be obtained from avariety of sources including:

1. Organizational goals and objectives, mission statements, strategic plans.2. Staffing inventory, succession planning, long and short term staffing needs.3. Skills inventory: both currently available and short and long term needs,

organizational climate indices: labor/management relationships, grievances,turnover rates, absenteeism, suggestions, productivity, accidents, short termsickness, observations of employee behavior, attitude surveys, customercomplaints.

4. Analysis of efficiency indices: costs of labor, costs of materials, quality ofproducts, equipment utilization, production rates, costs of distribution, waste,down time, late deliveries, repairs.

5. Changes in equipment, technology or automation.6. Annual report.7. Plans for reorganization or job restructuring.8. Audit exceptions; reward systems.9. Planning systems.10. Delegation and control systems.11. Employee attitudes and satisfaction.

TASK ANALYSIS


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Task analysis provides data about a job or a group of jobs and the knowledge, skills,attitudes and abilities needed to achieve optimum performance. There are a variety ofsources for collecting data for a task analysis:

1. Job description-- A narrative statement of the major activities involved in

performing the job and the conditions under which these activities are performed.If an accurate job description is not available or is out of date, one should beprepared using job analysis techniques.

2. KSA analysis-- A more detailed list of specified tasks for each job includingknowledge, Skills, Attitudes and Abilities required of incumbents.

3. Performance standards-- Objectives of the tasks of the job and the standards bywhich they will be judged. This is needed to identify performance discrepancies.

4. Observe the job/sample the work.5. Perform the job.6. Job inventory questionnaire-- Evaluate tasks in terms of importance and time

spent performing.

7. Review literature about the job-- Research the "best practices" from othercompanies, review professional journals.8. Ask questions about the job-- Of the incumbents, of the supervisor, of upper

management.9. Analysis of operating problems-- Down time, waste, repairs, late deliveries,

quality control.

INDIVIDUAL ANALYSIS

Individual analysis analyzes how well the individual employee is doing the job anddetermines which employees need training and what kind. Sources of informationavailable for a individual analysis include:

1. Performance evaluation -- Identifies weaknesses and areas of improvement.2. Performance problems -- Productivity, absenteeism or tardiness, accidents,

grievances, waste, product quality, down time, repairs, equipment utilization,customer complaints.

3. Observation -- Observe both behavior and the results of the behavior.4. Work samples -- Observe products generated.5. Interviews -- Talk to manager, supervisor and employee. Ask employee about

what he/she believes he/she needs to learn.6. Questionnaires -- Written form of the interview, tests, must measure job-related

qualities such as job knowledge and skills.7. Attitude surveys -- Measures morale, motivation, satisfaction.8. Checklists or training progress charts -- Up-to-date listing of current skills.

RESULTS OF THE NEEDS ASSESSMENT:Assuming that the needs assessment identifies more than one training need, the trainingmanager, working with management, prioritizes the training based on the urgency of the


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need (timeliness), the extent of the need (how many employees need to be trained) andthe resources available. Based on this information, the training manager can develop theinstructional objectives for the training and development program.

All three levels of needs analysis are interrelated and the data collected from each level is

critical to a thorough and effective needs assessment.

SUMMARYThe purpose of a training needs assessment is to identify performance requirements orneeds within an organization in order to help direct resources to the areas of greatestneed, those that closely relate to fulfilling the organizational goals and objectives,improving productivity and providing quality products and services. The needsassessment is the first step in the establishment of a training and development program. Itis used as the foundation for determining instructional objectives, the selection anddesign of instructional programs, the implementation of the programs and the evaluation

of the training provided. These processes form a continuous cycle which always beginswith a needs assessment.

SELECTION OF TRAINEESAlthough it is true that in selecting persons for training a company generally givesprimary consideration to its benefits and secondary consideration to the benefits accruingto the individual, yet the standards used for selecting training programme, participantsshould be carefully demised and communicated widely throughout the organization.Training opportunities should not be passed out as reward for a good behavior or for longservice or to get relief for some time from a trouble-making employee. Fairness isapplying the standards is required and can help boost employee morale. Programmeshaving high selection standards become high status prestige programmes which challengethe best persons in the organization to make the grade.

Training a person who has no ability and willingness to learn is like sending an ass tocollege. All one can hope to get back is an educated mule. Whenever an individual issponsored is sponsored for training he should be told categorically the reasons forsponsoring him and the expectations of the organization from him after he returns fromthe programme. Most companies do not inform the employees why they have beensponsored, such a practice reduces learning, as the employees sponsored are concernedabout the reasons for being sponsored than actually getting involved in and benefitingfrom training.

TRAINING METHODS FOR OPERATIVES:The most important type of training is On-the-job training. The worker in this methodlearns to master the operations involved on the actual job situation under the situationunder the supervision of his immediate boss. Some important advantage of this type oftraining is as follows:


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(i) It can be learned in a relative short period of time, say, a week or two.(ii) No elaborate programme is necessary as far as subject content is concerned(iii) There is no line-staff conflict because the workers own supervision is the instructor.(iv) It is highly economical.(v) It is not located in an artificial situation, either physically or psychologically and

,therefore, eliminates the possible problem of transfer of leaning

A training method of carrying on-the-job training which has been found to be great value isknown as a the Training Within Industry (TWI) or the capsule method . The method was devised in the United States during the Second World War when a large number of peoplehad to be trained in a short period. It involves the following steps:

(a)Preparation of the instructor. This includes four steps as under: (i) Have a time-table.How much skill does the instructor expect the worker to have and by what to have by whatdate . (ii) Break down the job. List importance steps, (iii) Have everything ready-the right equipment, materials and supplies, and (iv)Have the workplace properly arranged as theworker will be expected to keep it.

(b)How to instruct. This include the following fore steps:step 1. prepare the worker- put him at ease.

- State the job and find out what he know about.

- Get him interested in learning the job.

- Place in correct position.

Step 2. present the operation- Tell, show, and illustrate one important step at a time.

- Stress each Key Point.

- Instruct clearly, completely, and patiently, but no more than he can master.

Step 3. Try out performance- Have him do the job-correct error.

- Have him explain key point to you as he does the job again.

- Continue unit you know He knows.Step 4. Follow up- Put him on his own. Designate to whom he goes for help.

- Check frequently. Encourage questions.

- Taper off extra coaching and close follow-up.

INTERNSHIP:This refers to a joint programme of training in which technical institutes and corporateenterprises cooperate to enable the students to gain a good balance between theory and


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practice. Selected Candidates carry on regular studies for the prescribed period. They alsowork in some factory or office to acquire practical knowledge.

1. Internship is virtually a practical training of the theoretical knowledge.2. Sometimes it is a part of the course of study of the student (e.g., CA)

3. It is not a service contract. No salary is given during the period. Normally, very smallamount called stipend is given to the students.

4. Under this training programme, the companies get people with fresh ideas and latestknowledge and they have to pay very small amount of salary (called stipend). on theother hand, the students get a chance to practice under the real work situation.

APPRENTICESHIP PROGRAMME TRAINING:The workers seeking to enter skilled job (e.g., plumbers, electricians or iron w

Documents

Training and Development MBA HR