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A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is apassivetwo-terminalelectrical componentused to
storeenergyin anelectric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least
twoelectrical conductorsseparated by adielectric(insulator). Capacitors are used as parts of
electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film.
When there is apotential difference(voltage) across the conductors, a staticelectric fielddevelops
across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other
plate.Energyis stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single
constant value,capacitance, measured infarads. This is the ratio of theelectric chargeon each
conductor to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor,
hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In
practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount ofleakage currentand also has an
electric field strength limit, resulting in abreakdown voltage, while the conductors andleadsintroduce
an undesiredinductanceandresistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blockingdirect currentwhile allowingalternating
currentto pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output ofpower supplies, in theresonant
circuitsthat tune radios to particularfrequenciesand for many other purposes.
Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that it is a rare
electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.
Energy storage
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used
like a temporarybattery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain power
supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.)
Conventional capacitors provide less than 360joulesper kilogram of energy density, while capacitors
using developing technologies could provide more than 2.52kilojoulesper kilogram.[23]
Incar audiosystems, large capacitors store energy for theamplifierto use on demand. Also for
aflash tubea capacitor is used to hold thehigh voltage.
[edit]Pulsed power and weapons
Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-voltage capacitors (capacitor banks) are
used to supply huge pulses of current for manypulsed powerapplications. These
includeelectromagnetic forming,Marx generators, pulsedlasers(especiallyTEA lasers),pulse
forming networks,radar,fusion research, andparticle accelerators.
Large capacitor banks (reservoir) are used as energy sources for theexploding-bridgewire
detonatorsorslapper detonatorsinnuclear weaponsand other specialty weapons. Experimental work
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is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources forelectromagneticarmourand
electromagneticrailgunsandcoilguns.
[edit]Power conditioning
A 10,000microfaradcapacitor in an amplifier power supply
Reservoir capacitorsare used inpower supplieswhere they smooth the output of a full or half
waverectifier. They can also be used incharge pumpcircuits as the energy storage element in the
generation of higher voltages than the input voltage.
Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger
systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power
source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example,
uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signalcircuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from
the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for
the inductance and resistance of the leads to thelead-acidcar battery.
[edit]Power factor correction
In electric power distribution, capacitors are used forpower factor correction. Such capacitors often
come as three capacitors connected as athree phaseload. Usually, the values of these capacitors
are given not in farads but rather as areactive powerin volt-amperes reactive (VAr). The purpose is to
counteract inductive loading from devices likeelectric motorsandtransmission linesto make the load
appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power factor
correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a
load center within a building or in a large utilitysubstation.
Supression and coupling
[edit]Signal coupling
Main article:capacitive coupling
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Polyester film capacitors are frequently used as coupling capacitors.
Because capacitors pass AC but block DCsignals(when charged up to the applied dc voltage), they
are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method is known as AC
couplingor "capacitive coupling". Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be
accurately controlled, but whosereactanceis small at the signal frequency, is employed.
[edit]Decoupling
Main article:decoupling capacitor
A decoupling capacitor is a capacitor used to protect one part of a circuit from the effect of another,
for instance to suppress noise or transients. Noise caused by other circuit elements is shunted
through the capacitor, reducing the effect they have on the rest of the circuit. It is most commonly
used between the power supply and ground. An alternative name is bypass capacitoras it is used to
bypass the power supply or other high impedance component of a circuit.
A linear resistor is a linear,passivetwo-terminalelectrical componentthat implementselectrical
resistanceas a circuit element. Thecurrentthrough a resistor is indirect proportionto the voltage
across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to
the intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance. This relation is represented byOhm's
law:
Resistors are common elements ofelectrical networksandelectronic circuitsand are ubiquitous
in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as
well asresistance wire(wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors
are also implemented withinintegrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be
integrated intohybridandprinted circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nineorders of magnitude. When specifying
that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require
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A transistor is asemiconductordeviceused toamplifyand switchelectronicsignals and power. It is
composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external
circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing
through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output)powercan be much more than the
controlling (input) power, a transistor canamplifya signal. Today, some transistors are packaged
individually, but many more are found embedded inintegrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modernelectronic devices, and is ubiquitous in
modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the transistor revolutionized the
field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaperradios,calculators, andcomputers,
among other things.
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