Introduction to Communication Communication is the process of sharing ideas, information and messages with others in a particular time and place. Is the process in which the message moves from source to destination. According to Harold Lasswell (political scientist & communication theorist), communication is “Who says, what, in which channel, to whom , and with what effect.

Communication includes:1. Writing and talking2. Nonverbal communication (such as facial expressions, body language, gestures)3. Visual communication (images, pictures, painting, photography, video, film)4. Electronic communication (telephone calls, e-mails, cable tv, satellite broadcasts)

Communication PrinciplesCommunication begins with the self. It involves others. It has both a content and a relational dimension

“Sit down”“Would you care to be seated?”

• It is complicated• Its quantity does not increase its quality• It is inevitable, irreversible and unrepeatable• Communication Has Purpose & it is often continuous• Communication messages vary in conscious thought• Communication is guided by cultureCommunication Functions Information Dissemination Instruction Persuasion Debate and discussions Cultural promotion Integration Entertainment Transmission of knowledge Social contactCommunication tools

Communication equipments in businesses1. Fax machines2. Video cameras3. Cd players4. Printing presses5. PCs6. Telephones7. Internet8. Spokespersons9. Newspapers, printing materials, press releases

Communication Process• It’s a very basic lesson but also perhaps the most imp lesson.• It serves as the foundation and understanding on how communication process

works and how to apply it to everyday situations. That serves as the foundation of all other communication skills.

• It helps in improving professional and personal communication skills.What is the Goal of Communication?• The actual goal of communication is • To create a shared meaning• Whatever message we sent must be accurately received.

BASIC COMPONENTS of Communication Process• You have the Sender, who uses verbal and non-verbal means to initiate

communication.• They have a message, the verbal and non-verbal expression of the sender’s

purpose.• Then there is a receiver, the target of the sender’s communication. They can be

listener or observer or both.• But there is problem with the model. We don’t usually communicate in such a uni-

directional manner. A one-way version of communication.Dual Role• We have a sender but they pick up the dual role of a receiver as well.• Sender sends a message in a simple manner.• The receiver has also picked up a secondary role of a Sender.• What do they send? They send Feedback.• Feedback is the response of the receiver to the sender’s message. Which tells the

sender how the message is received.• But it is not always as simple and does not work smoothly.Encode, Decode• There is more to the process.• The Sender/Receiver needs to encode their msg.• The Receiver/Sender encodes their feedback.• On the sending side, they need to encode their msg in such a way that it gets

received correctly.• On the receiving end, they need to decode the msg correctly as well.• Encoding is the sender’s selection of the means of expression. E.g How do I shape that

smile? What kind of tone do I put in my hello?Do I record the msg in English?• Decoding is how the receiver gives meaning to the msg in their own perception. Interference• Decoding could be the hardest.• Why? Due to Interference.• Interference is anything that disrupts or prevents the receiver’s interpretation of the

sender’s message as the sender intended it.• E.g. may be I am not feeling well, which makes my Hello sounds erratic and receiver

decodes it as sarcastic. And their feedback may be a puzzled expression.• That make the sender reiterate the message to make it accurately understandable.Context• It becomes little more complicated if we add the idea of context.• It brings in more potential interference.• It is the physical, social, psychological and time elements in which the

communication takes place.

• How can it effects the msg?• e.g. if a person had a bad day and I come in and say hello. He might not be in a state

of mind to receive my msg in a way that I intended. •

•

Components/Elements of Communication ProcessThe main components of communication process are as follows:• Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This

context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with context. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a context.

• Sender / Encoder/Source - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required response. For instance - a training manager conducting training for new batch of employees. Sender may be an individual or a group or an organization. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal and non verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the sender.

• Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is a sign that elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins with deciding

about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear.

• Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice of communication medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there.

• Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on decoder.

• Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos, reports, etc.

Contexts of communicationThe environment in which communication takes place is called the context of communication. Some of the important contexts are discussed below:

1. Intrapersonal communication Communication that takes place within oneself is called intrapersonal communication. Conversation with self and planning or thinking about the schedule of your study for an examination, are the examples of intrapersonal communication.

2. Interpersonal communication It is the process in which communication takes place between two or a small group of persons. Interpersonal communication always takes place into a face to face situation and the communicator and destination are known to each other.

3. Mass CommunicationMass communication is the one in which the message is sent simultaneously to a greater number of people through a mass medium ike radio, tv or newspaper. The receivers of the mass communication are separated, heterogeneous and unknown to each other as well as to the communicator. The process of feedback in this type of communication is mostly slow and delayed. 4. Extrapersonal communication

When human beings communicate with non-human things, this is called extrapersonal communication. For example, communication with animals, plants etc.5. Group CommunicationWhen communication takes place between groups of people, it is known as group communication. West and Turner say that a group comprises three to eight people.

6. Organizational CommunicationThe communication within an organization or between organizations is termed as organizational communication. The official correspondence falls into this category.

7. Inter-cultural CommunicationCommunication among sub-cultures or different cultures physically away from one another is called inter-cultural communication. This type of communication is usually carried out with the help of mass communication.

Barriers of communication 1. Physical hurdles/impediments2. Psychological hurdles

a. Field of experience (Attitudes, lessons, perceptions, and value that an individual or a group brings to a situation or problem.)

b. Cognitive dissonance (mental stress or discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time; performs an action that is contradictory to one or more beliefs, ideas, or values; or is confronted by new information that conflicts with existing beliefs, ideas, or values.)

c. Frame of reference (a set of criteria in relation to which judgements can be made) e.g. I look at a group of young people wearing hooded sweatshirts and immediately assume they are social deviants who out looking for trouble. I avoid eye contact and breathe a sigh of relief when they have passed by.

d. Misunderstanding (failure to understand something)e. Stereotypesf. Restricted experienceg. Culture, norms and values

3. Semantic hurdles (Semantic barriers occur when the sender and receiver have different understandings of the message sent. For example, a person who uses the word “bimonthly” might mean twice per month while the person hearing it thinks it means every other month.• Semantic barriers are usually either denotative or connotative. In denotative

barriers, sender and receiver disagree about the straight definition of a word or phrase, often without knowing it. The word “bimonthly” is an example.

• A connotative barrier includes how a word is meant in a particular context. For example, someone might describe a game as “simple.”

•  Generally, both sender and receiver agree on the straight definition of the word, but the sender of the message might mean the game was a little slow and boring where the receiver might think he means it was fun and easy.

• Another example of a semantic barrier is technical language. Different industries tend to use different terms in different ways. Unless everyone working at a particular company knows what a particular term means, miscommunication often results due to the semantic barrier. After all, there are often many different people from different fields working in the same company, such as engineers, psychologists and biomedical scientists.)

Behavioural Communication• Communication occurs in many guises.• It occurs in English or urdu or sign language, body language, emotions.• Fourth form of communication is through BEHAVIOUR.• It can be more problematic because individuals who use this unconventional form

of communication are often unable to communicate themselves. • There is a logical reason behind behavior adopted and message communicated.• Misbehaviour may not seems productive or rational from our point of view but it

must be understood by the other person’s pov.• Communication behaviours/Behavioual communication• A psychological construct that addresses people's use of day-to-day behaviors as a

form of communication.• Specifically, it refers to people's tendency to express feelings, needs, and thoughts

by means of indirect messages and behavioral impacts.• Any behavior (or its absence when one is expected) may be judged as

communicative if it has the intent to convey a message. • E.g, an expressive hairstyle, a show of a certain

emotion, stonewalling (emotional withdrawal), or simply doing (or not doing) the dishes all can be means by which people may convey messages to each other.

Different types of communication behavior• Instead of focusing on the right way to communicate all the time, focus on the

situations where you are likely to communicate in certain ways and determine if your communique would be better received if delivered differently.

• Our thoughts and feelings are constantly communicated to others whether we aware of it or not.

• There are 4 different types of communication behavior.Aggressive CommunicationAggressive communication tends to violate the rights of others. It is not uncommon for aggressive communicators to be verbally or physically abusive, or both. Aggressive

communication is typically the result of low self-esteem, often caused by past physical or emotional abuse, unhealed emotional wounds, and feelings of powerlessness.Aggressive individuals display a low tolerance for frustration, use humiliation, interrupt frequently, and use criticism or blame to attack others. They use piercing eye contact, and are not good listeners. • Aggressive people express statements implying that:• E.g. The other person is inferior, wrong, and not worth anything• The problem is the other person’s fault• They are superior and right• They will get their way regardless of the consequences• The other person ‘owes’ them.Passive CommunicationPassive communication avoids expressing opinions or feelings, protecting one’s rights, and identifying or meeting one’s needs. People who communicate passively usually have poor eye contact and slumped body posture, and tend to speak softly or apologetically. When passive people talk, they usually convey one of the following: e.g.• “I’m unable to stand up for my rights.”• “I get stepped on by everyone.”• “I’m weak and unable to take care of myself.”• “People never consider my feelings.”Assertive CommunicationAC clearly states one’s opinions, feelings, & firmly advocates for his rights & needs without violating the rights of others. Assertive communication is the result of high self-esteem. They value themselves, their time, & their emotional, spiritual, & physical needs.They are strong advocates for themselves — while being very respectful of the rights of others.Assertive people feel connected to other people.. They are in control of their emotions and speak in calm and clear tones. They are good listeners, maintain good eye contact and create a respectful environment for others, and do not allow others to abuse or manipulate them.When assertive people communicate with others, they send the messages:• “I am confident about who I am.”• “I cannot control others, but I control myself.”• “I know I have choices in my life, and I consider my options. I am fully responsible

for my own happiness.”Passive-Aggressive Communication

Passive-aggressive person uses a communication style in which the individual appears passive on the surface, but is really acting out anger in a subtle, indirect, or behind-the-scenes way.Passive-aggressive communication usually has an undercurrent of powerlessness, feeling stuck, and resentful. People who are passive-aggressive are often alienated from others, feel incapable of dealing directly with the object of or the person whom they resentments. Instead, they express their anger by subtly undermining the real or imagined object/person whom they resentment. Frequently they mutter to themselves instead of confronting another person. They often smile at you, even though they are angry, use subtle sabotage, or speak with sarcasm.When passive-aggressive individuals communicate, they send the following messages:• “I’m weak and resentful, so I sabotage, frustrate, and disrupt.”• “I’m powerless to deal with you head on so I must use Guerrilla warfare.”• “I will appear cooperative, but I’m not.”

Models of Communication A model is a representation of real world phenomenon in more abstract terms, which can be applied to different forms at different times.Communication ModelsHow we try to understand communicationWhat are models?

• Drawings• Charts• Diagrams• Pictograms• Schematics• Cartoons

Why are models useful?They help simplify complex ideas

– For teaching purposes– For evaluation purposes

• They offer an organized way of looking at a complex processWhat makes a model “good”?

• All the main points of the relationship or process are described• The description is simple and clear• The description contains as little textual explanation as possible

The Shannon and Weaver Communication Model (Linear Model)

Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) model includes noise or interference that distorts understanding between the speaker and the listener.In 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer and Weaver was an American scientist both of them join together to write an article in “Bell System Technical Journal” called “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” and also called as “Shannon-Weaver model of communication”.This model is specially designed to develop the effective communication between sender and receiver. Also they find factors which affecting the communication process called “Noise”. At first the model was developed to improve the Technical communication. Later it’s widely applied in the field of Communication.The model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise, channel, message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.

• Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both ways. 

• This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common fields of experience, or fields which overlap (please refer to Figure 1.4): 

Noise in the Modified Shannon and Weaver Model• Physical:

– Occurrences in the physical surroundings or in the media that can distort a message• Physiological:

– Physical discomfort in the body of either the sender or the receiver• Psychological:

– Negative feelings in the mind of either the sender or the receiver• Perceptual:

– Incorrect perceptions of the message and the receiver by the sender, and vice-versa• Semantic:

– Misinterpretation of words and sentences by the sender or receiver

Practical Example of  Shannon-Weaver model of communication :Thomson made call to his assistant “come here I want to see you”.  During his call, noise appeared (transmission error) and his assistant received “I want” only. Again Assistant asked Thomson (feedback) “what do you want Thomson”.Sender       :   ThomsonEncoder     :   Telephone (Thomson)Channel     :   CableNoise          :   Distraction in voiceReception  :   Telephone (Assistant)Receiver     :   Assistant.Due to transmission error or noise, Assistant can’t able to understand Thomson’s messages.*The noise which affect the communication flow between them.

Criticism of Shannon-Weaver model of communication :1.       One of the simplest model and its general applied in various communication theories2.       The model which attracts both academics of Human communication and Information theorist to leads their further research in communication3.       It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass audience4.       The model based on “Sender and Receiver”. Here sender plays the primary role and receiver plays the secondary role (receive the information or passive)5.       Communication is not a one way process.  If it’s behaved like that, it will lose its strength. For example: Audience or receiver who listening a radio, reading the books or watching television is a one way communication because absence of feedback6.       Understanding Noise will helps to solve the various problems in communication

Berlo’s SMCR ModelIn 1960, David Berlo expanded Shannon and Weaver's 1949 linear model of communication and created the Source-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model of Communication. The SMCR Model of Communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.

The berlo’s model follows the smcr model this model is not specific to any particular communication.

Elements:SOURCE

– Communication skills– Attitudes

– Knowledge– Social system– Culture

MESSAGE– Content– Elements– Treatment– Structure– Code

CHANNEL– Seeing– Hearing– Touching– Smelling– Tasting

RECEIVER– Communication skills– Attitudes– Knowledge– Social system– Culture

• Source : The source is were the message originates.• Communication skills  – It is the individual’s skill to communicate (ability to read, write,

speak, listen etc…)• Attitudes   – The attitude towards the audience, subject and towards one self for e.g. for the

student the attitude is to learn more and for teachers wants to help teach.• Knowledge - The knowledge about the subject one is going to communicate for e.g.

whatever the teacher communicates in the class about the subject so having knowledge in what you are communicating.

• Social system  – The Social system includes the various aspects in society like values, beliefs, culture, religion and general understanding of society. It is were the communication takes place.

• For e.g. class room differs from country to country like behaviors, how we communicate etc.• Culture : Culture of the particular society also comes under social system.• All to this model, only if you have the above in the proper or adequate proportion v can

communicate.• Encoder : The sender of the message (message originates) is referred as encoder, so the 

source is encoding the message here.• Message • Content  – The beginning to the end of a message comprises its content for e.g.  From

beginning to end whatever the class teacher speaks in the class is the content of the message.

• Elements  – It includes various things like language, gestures, body language etc, so these are all the elements of the particular message. Content is accompanied by some elements.

• Treatment   – It refers to the packing of the message. The way in which the message is conveyed or the way in which the message is passed on or deliver it.

• Structure - The structure of the message how it is arranged, the way you structure the message into various parts.

• Code - The code of the message means how it is sent in what form it could be e.g. language, body language, gestures, music and even culture is a code. Through this you get/give the message or through which the communication takes place or being reached.

• Channel -   It is nothing but the five senses through this only we do. The following are the five  senses which we use, Hearing, Seeing, Touching, Smelling, TastingWhatever communication we do it is there either of these channels.

• Hearing : The use of ears to get the message for e.g. oral messages, interpersonal etc.• Seeing : Visual channels for e.g. TV can be seen and the message is delivered.• Touching : The sense of touch can be used as a channel to communicate for e.g. we touch

and buy food, hugging etc.• Smelling : Smell also can be a channel to communicate for e.g. perfumes, food, charred smell

communicates something is burning, we can find out about which food is being cooked etc.• Tasting  : The tongue also can be used to decipher e.g. Food can be tasted and

communication can happen.• Decoder  : Who receives the message and decodes it is referred to as decoder.• Receiver : The receiver needs to have all the thinks like the source.• This model believes that for an effective communication to take place the source and the

receiver needs to be in the same level, only if the source and receiver are on the same level communication will happen or take place properly. So source and receiver should be similar

• For e.g. Communication skills on source side is good then the receiver should equally have good listening skills.

• We cannot say the entire message passed doesn’t reaches the receiver has it is because the receiver may not good in listening, so only for the effective communication the source and the receiver to be in the same level.

Criticism of berlo’s smcr model of communication:• No feedback / don’t know about the effect• Does not mention barriers to communication• No room for noise• Complex model• It is a linear model of communication• Needs people to be on same level for communication to occur but not true in real life• Main drawback of the model is that the model omits the usage of sixth sense as a channel

which is actually a gift to the human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc).

Harold Dwight Lasswell (February 13, 1902 — December 18, 1978)Harold Dwight Lasswell, the American political scientist states that a convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions

• Who• Says What• In Which Channel• To Whom• With what effect?

This model is about process of communication and its function to society, According to Lasswell there are three functions for communication:

• Surveillance of the environment• Correlation of components of society• Cultural transmission between generation

• Lasswell model suggests the message flow in a multicultural society with multiple audiences. The flow of message is through various channels. And also this communication model is similar to Aristotle’s communication model.

Example: CNN NEWS – A water leak from Japan’s tsunami-crippled nuclear power station resulted in about 100 times the permitted level of radioactive material flowing into the sea, operator Tokyo Electric Power Co said on Saturday.Who – TEPC OperatorWhat – Radioactive material flowing into seaChannel – CNN NEWS (Television medium)Whom – PublicEffect – Alert the people of japan from the radiation.

Advantage of lasswell model:• It is Easy and Simple• It suits for almost all types of communication• The concept of effect

Disadvantage of lasswell model:• Feedback not mentioned• Noise not mentioned• Linear Model

 

SCHRAMM’S LINEAR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION(1954) (Transactional Model)

• BACKGROUND• THE PROPONENT Wilbur Schramm (1907-1987) The founder of the academic field of communication First Professor of communication• Schramm’s Communication Model• Based on Shannon & Weaver’s prior mathematical model.• the Fields of Experience• Role of Exchangeability• Feed back loops• Definition of Terms• Encoding• Decoding• Interpreting• Message• Source• Destination• Signal

• Feedback• Schramm’s Model of Communication

Schramm’s Model of Communication with Feedback

• Feedback “the return process in which the originator of a message also acts as the recipient of a message resulting directly from the first message” – Tannenbaum

• Two Sources of Feedback

• The message returning to the originator of the first message from the recipient (originated with Ferdinand de Saussure – 1915)

• People are constantly monitoring their personal communication behavior and evaluating it – what is sometimes called “self-monitoring”.

• * Feedback can initiate from sender or receiver.

Schramm’s Field of Experience Model

STRENGTHS• The model provides an additional perspective which is the ‘field of experience’• Included feedback, context and culture• Adapted by other model designers

WEAKNESS• Does not include multiple levels of communication• Why is this important?• Applying Communication to Educational Communication• Being able to identify noise• Helping Create Overlapping fields of experiences

Berlo’s SMCR ModelIn 1960, David Berlo expanded Shannon and Weaver's 1949 linear model of communication and created the Source-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model of Communication. The SMCR Model of Communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.The berlo’s model follows the smcr model this model is not specific to any particular communication.

Difference between Mass Communication and Journalism

Even if Mass Communication and Journalism seems similar, both are entirely different streams. Mass Communication deals with the procedure of conveying or transmitting a message to the general population through media like radio, newspapers, magazines, television, internet and so on. However, Journalism is concerned with the compilation and transmission of news through the print media and electronic media.

Key differentiators between Mass Communication and Journalism

The circulation of information to a wide range of populace remains the key function of mass communications whereas journalism requires investigation and coverage of any incident, occurrence or contemporary affairs, through mass media like the print, televise or new media, whereby lakhs of people all through the world may be able to know what is happening all over the world.

Types of television or radio programme

breakfast televisiontelevision programmes that are broadcast early in the morning

broadcasta programme that can be seen or heard on radio or television

bulletina short news broadcast

call-ina phone-in

Ceefaxa written information service on British television, provided by the BBC

chat showa television or radio programme in which famous people talk about themselves and their work

closed-captioneda closed-captioned television programme has the words being spoken written at the bottom of the screen for people who do not hearwell

docudramaa television programme or film based on events that really happened

documentarya film or television programme that deals with real people and events

docusoapa television programme series about the lives of real people

featurea part of a programme on television or radio that concentrates on a particular subject

fly-on-the-walla fly-on-the-wall television programme or film shows real people doing what they normally do every day

free-to-air

free-to-air television programmes can be watched without having to pay anything extra

game showa television programme in which people play games or answer questions in order to win prizes

the God slotthe time at which religious programmes are usually broadcast on television or radio. Some people consider this word offensive.

infomerciala long advertisement on television that is made in the style of an ordinary programme

infotainmenttelevision programmes about real events or facts that are made in a way that entertains people

Types of Journalism

The general field of journalism has become specialized with various types of writing, depending on the audience and motives of the writers. Distinctions are also made to separate various journalism genres as categories of writing. Some types include:

Advocacy journalism - writing to advocate particular viewpoints or influence the opinions of the audience.

Broadcast journalism - writing or speaking which is intended to be distributed by radio or television broadcasting, rather than only in written form for readers.

Investigative journalism - writing which seeks to add extra information to explain, or better describe the people and events of a particular topic.

Tabloid journalism - writing which uses opinionated or wild claims. Yellow journalism (or sensationalism) - writing which emphasizes exaggerated claims

or rumors. Fashion journalism: Fashion journalism is all about articles or reports related to the

fashion world. Journalists are also known as fashion writers or fashion editors. The primary job is to cover the latest in the fashion business or develop lifestyle articles. Such fashion articles can be found in magazines and newspapers. Today, there are many television channels that cater only to fashion, which gives ample opportunity for journalists who have a passion to cover such topics.

News journalism: Here, the primary aim of the journalist is to report news in a straight-forward manner that covers all the required facts. The style is direct with focus on the gist of the story with other necessary points. The news style should be concise and precise. The facts must be crosschecked which makes the news item as authentic as possible without any media bias. Here, the news story can be for the print media, television, radio, etc. Such news pieces often cover politics and social movements. News stories based on political suppression, public movements or abuse of human rights have proved instrumental in effecting many a social change, or giving voice to the oppressed. Similarly, cultural events are also covered in news journalism.

Celebrity journalism: As the name suggests, the journalist is connected to news and events related to celebrities from the entertainment world and also includes celebrities from other fields such as music, sports, dance, art, politics, etc. This journalism is all about news that is related to their professional and personal life. Reporting gossip is one of the angles of celebrity journalism, wherein journalists are often accused of misconstruing news or quotes in a deliberate fashion. This journalism is particularly popular with newspapers, magazines and television.

Investigative journalism: This type of journalism is about unearthing facts and studying cases that may require more efforts, which can take months or even years. Journalists who specialize in investigative journalism create headlines with news that expose scandals. Sometimes, persistent follow-up of a story proves beneficial to uncover some hitherto unsolved cases. This would require in-depth research from the journalist along with evidence.

Sports journalism: Here, journalists spend hours reporting on a particular sport event. A journalist has to report the accurate facts and statistics related to that event. Interviews with celebrity sport stars are yet one of the interesting features of sports journalism. Although sports-lovers watch the live coverage thanks to the media, there are many people who still enjoy reading or watching in-depth details about the event.

Citizen journalism: Here, it is not the professional journalists who are responsible for the news reports. Any citizen can participate and report news to the media. He/she collects and reports news to the media and participates voluntarily to offer help to the media. They bring to notice issues that may have been missed by media houses.

Environmental journalism: There are many journalists who prefer to cover issues related to the environment and its protection and conservation. Environmental journalists may only report about the news while some work for a cause.

Business and finance journalism: Here, the journalist or reporter covers in-depth reports about the latest in business, launch of products, stock markets etc. There are many shows dedicated only for business news on television whereas in newspapers, one can find a special section dedicated to this subject.

Multimedia Journalism

This is the newest field of journalism and also the fastest-growing. Multimedia journalism can encompass all the fields listed above because a web page can have a written story, still photos, video, and audio. Multimedia journalists are encouraged to have a wide set of storytelling abilities, as well as highly defined technical skills.

Photojournalism

Photojournalists are different from traditional photographers in that they are more interested in capturing images that tell a story than ones that just look nice. Photojournalists are generally highly-trained photographers who may have worked in a traditional photography medium like wedding photography before transitioning into journalism.

White Journalism (Not giving equal representation to minorities and not hiring minority journalists to their capabilities in the newsroom)

Yellow journalism, or the yellow press, is a type of journalism that presents little or no legitimate well-researched news and instead uses eye-catching headlines to sell more

newspapers. Techniques may include exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering, or sensationalism.

Purple Journalism (In literary criticism, purple prose is prose text that is so extravagant, ornate, or flowery as to break the flow and draw excessive attention to itself. Purple prose is characterized by the extensive use of adjectives, adverbs, and metaphors.)

Envelope journalism (also envelopmental journalism, is a colloquial term for the practice of bribing corrupt journalists for favorable media coverage.

Data journalism is a journalism specialty reflecting the increased role that numerical data is used in the production and distribution of information in the digital era. It reflects the increased interaction between content producers (journalist) and several other fields such as design, computer science and statistics. From the point of view of journalists, it represents "an overlapping set of competencies drawn from disparate fields"

Mobile journalism is an emerging form of new media storytelling where reporters use portable electronic devices with network connectivity to gather, edit and distribute news from his or her community

Non-profit journalism (NPJ), also known as a not-for-profit journalism or think tank journalism) is the practice of journalism as a non-profit organization instead of a for-profit business. NPJ groups are able to operate and serve the public good without the concern of debt, dividends and the need to make a profit. Just like all non-profit organizations, NPJ outfits depend on private donations and or foundation grants to pay for operational expenses.

Backpack journalism is an emerging form of journalism that requires a journalist to be a reporter, photographer, and videographer, as well as an editor and producer of stories. 

Pack journalism is the characterization of news reporting in which reporters from different news outlets collaborate to cover the same story, leaving news reporting homogenous. 

Gonzo journalism is a style of journalism that is written without claims of objectivity, often including the reporter as part of the story via a first-person narrative.

Immersive Journalism is a form of journalism production that allows first person experience of the events or situations described in news reports and documentary film. Using 3D gaming and immersive technologies that create a sense of "being there" and offer the opportunity to personally engage with a story, immersive journalism puts an audience member directly into the event. By accessing a virtual version of the location where the story is occurring as a witness/participant, or by experiencing the perspective of a character depicted in the news story, the audience could be afforded unprecedented access to the sights and sounds, and even the feelings and emotions, which accompany the news.

Comics journalism, or Graphic journalism, is a form of journalism that covers news or non-fiction events using the framework of comics – a combination of words and drawn images.

Comedic journalism is a new form of journalism, popularized in the twenty-first century, that incorporates a comedic tone to transmit the news to mass audiences, using humour and/or satire to relay a point in news reports.

Community journalism is locally-oriented, professional news coverage that typically focuses on city neighborhoods, individual suburbs or small towns, rather than metropolitan, state, national or world news.

Online JournalismJournalists today, try new tactics that are very different from the methods used by reporters earlier. Often, journalists are accused of aggressive reporting and media sensationalism, which is a serious issue. The Internet has also provided a medium for people to voice their opinions online. News written for the web is updated minute-by-minute which is referred to as online journalism. Besides, implicit faith of people in the news items has introduced a

new form of advertising, i.e. advertorials. In this, advertisers merge their product content in the guise of an article for brand promotion and marketing of products.

A keen news sense and creativity to present the news in an effective manner are obviously the main ingredients in any kind of journalism. After all, it’s all about how you put into words to create an impact that makes a journalist stand apart from ordinary reporters!