Wcms 106474

PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE ILO CONVENTION NO. 169 (PRO 169)International Labour Standards Department, 2009

INDIGENOUS & TRIBAL PEOPLES’ RIGHTS IN PRACTICE

A GUIDE TO

ILO CONVENTION No. 169

INDIGENOUS & TRIBAL PEOPLES’ RIGHTS IN PRACTICE

A GUIDE TO ILO CONVENTION No. 169

2 INDIGENOUS & TRIBAL PEOPLES’ RIGHTS IN PRACTICE – A GUIDE TO ILO CONVENTION NO. 169

TABLE Of CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ················································································································ 4 How to use this Guide ············································································································ 6

I. Identificationofindigenousandtribalpeoples ································································ 8 1.1. Coverage of ILO Convention No. 169 ············································································ 9 1.2. Identificationofindigenouspeoplesinstatistics ··························································· 10 1.3. CommentsbytheILOsupervisorybodies:Coverage ·················································· 11 1.4. Practicalapplication:StatementofCoverage······························································· 13

II. Theconceptofindigenouspeoplesinthecontextofrights ········································ 24

III. Governmentresponsibilities ···························································································· 28 3.1. Coordinated and systematic action ············································································· 29 3.2. Fundamental rights ······································································································ 32 3.3. Specialmeasures ········································································································ 35 3.4. Keyprovisionsforimplementation ··············································································· 36 3.5. CommentsbytheILOsupervisorybodies:Coordinatedandsystematicaction ··········· 37 3.6. Practicalapplication:Governmentresponsibilities ························································ 39 3.6.1. Coordinated and systematic action ·································································· 39 3.6.2. Combatingdiscriminationandclosingthesocio-economicgaps ····················· 44

IV. Indigenousinstitutions ····································································································· 48 4.1. Retaininganddevelopingindigenouscustoms,traditionsandinstitutions ···················· 49 4.2. Practicalapplication:Respectforindigenousinstitutions ············································· 50

V. Participation,consultationandconsent ········································································· 58 5.1. Consultationandparticipation:ThecornerstoneoftheConvention ····························· 59 5.2. CommentsbytheILOsupervisorybodies:Consultationandparticipation ··················· 64 5.3. Practicalapplication:consultationandparticipation ····················································· 66 5.3.1. Procedures for consultation ············································································· 66 5.3.2. Establishment of consultative bodies ······························································· 69 5.3.3. Participationinelectivebodies ········································································· 75 5.3.4. Participationinlocalgovernance ······································································ 77

VI. Customarylaw,penalsystemsandaccesstojustice ··················································· 80 6.1. Customs and customary law ······················································································· 81 6.2. Offencesandpenalsystems ························································································ 83 6.3. Access to justice ········································································································· 84 6.4. Practicalapplication:Customarylaw ··········································································· 86

VII. Landandterritories ··········································································································· 90 7.1. Theconceptofland ···································································································· 91 7.2. Protectingtherighttoownershipandpossession························································ 91 7.3. Displacement ·············································································································· 97 7.4. CommentsbytheILOsupervisorybodies:Righttolandsandterritories ······················ 99 7.5. Practicalapplication:Landsandterritories ································································ 100

3TABLE Of CONTENTS

VIII.Naturalresources ············································································································ 106 8.1. Rightstonaturalresources,consultation,benefitsandcompensation ······················· 107 8.2. CommentsbytheILOsupervisorybodies:naturalresources ····································· 108 8.3. Practicalapplication:naturalresources ······································································ 112

IX. Development ··················································································································· 116 9.1. Therighttodevelopment ··························································································· 117 9.2. Practicalapplication:Development ············································································ 122

X. Education ························································································································· 128 10.1.Individualandcollectiveaspectsoftherighttoeducation ·········································· 130 10.2.Thequalityofindigenouspeoples’education ···························································· 133 10.3.Diminishingdiscriminationandprejudicesthrougheducation. ···································· 136 10.4.Practicalapplication:Therighttoeducation ······························································ 136

XI. Healthandsocialsecurity ······························································································ 144 11.1. Equality and adequacy of services ············································································· 145 11.2.Practicalapplication:Healthandsocialsecurity ························································· 148

XII. Traditionaloccupations,labourrightsandvocationaltraining ·································· 152 12.1.Respectforindigenouspeoples’traditionaloccupations ··········································· 153 12.2.Respectinglabourrights ···························································································· 153 12.3. Access to vocational training ····················································································· 159 12.4.Practicalapplication:Employmentandlabourrights ·················································· 160

XIII.ContactsandCooperationacrossborders ·································································· 164 13.1.Peopleandpeoplesdividedbyborders ····································································· 165 13.2.Practicalapplication:Cross-bordercontactandcollaboration···································· 166

XIV.ConventionNo.169:Ratification,implementation, supervisionandtechnicalassistance. ·········································································· 172 14.1.HistoryoftheILO´sinvolvementwithindigenouspeoples ·········································· 173 14.2.TheILO’stripartitestructure ······················································································· 173 14.3.Ratification ················································································································ 174 14.4.Implementationingoodfaith ····················································································· 176 14.5.Accompanyingimplementation:Theprocessofregularsupervision ··························· 177 14.6.Complaintsregardingnon-observanceofConventionNo.169 ·································· 182 14.7. The Convention in national courts. ············································································· 182 14.8. Entry into force and retroactivity ················································································· 183 14.9.Flexibilityintheimplementation ·················································································· 184 14.10.PossibilityofseekingclarificationonprovisionsofILOConventions ························· 184 14.11.ILOtechnicalcooperationandadvisoryservices ······················································ 185 14.12. ILO information resources ························································································ 185

Annexes: ································································································································· 186 AnnexA:ConventionNo.169 ···························································································· 187 AnnexB:TheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples ···································· 192 AnnexC:Furtherreading ··································································································· 197 AnnexD:Indexofcountrycasesandreferences ······························································· 198


ThepresentworkistheresultofthecollaborativeeffortsofawidegroupofILOstaff,indigenousorganizations,expertsandresearchers.

Beforeitsfinalization,thedraftwaswidelycirculated for comments and further discussed and enrichedinregionalworkshops,whichbroughttogethergovernmentandindigenouspeoples’representativesfromAsia,AfricaandLatinAmerica.

The main author and editor of the Guide was Birgitte Feiring,ProgrammetoPromoteILOConventionNo.169,withexpertadvicefromShaunaOlney(ILO)andMartinOelz(ILO),DevasishRoy,JohnHenriksen,NaomiKipuriandMyrnaCunningham.

Specialthanksgotothefollowingpersonsandorganizations who all contributed with their invaluable experiencesandexpertise,eitherintheformofspecificexperiencesandcasesorgeneraladvice:

HassanIdBalkassm,PatriceBigombe,BelkacemBoukherouf,SergeBouopda,JoanCarling,StefaniaErrico,MorseFlores,BrendaGonzalesMena,LeliaJimenez,GracielaJolidon,CoenKompier,Mukta

Lama,ChanelLoubaky,ChonchuirinmayoLuithui,HindouOumarou,VenantMesse,RamiroMolinasBarrios,HenrietteRasmussen,SannaSaarto,ToveSøvndalPedersen,SekSophorn,FrancescaThornberry,KanakoUzawa,SarahWebster,TimothyWhyte,AlexandraXanthaki,ValeriKendoYonou;

AlianzaVerde,AsiaIndigenousPeoplesPact(AIPP),CentrodeEstudiosJurídicoseInvestigaciónSocial(CEJIS),CentrodePolíticaspúblicasparaelSocialismo(CEPPAS),GrupodeApoyoJurídicoporelAccesoalaTierra(GAJAT),LonkoPuran,Tamaynut.

Inparticular,specialthanksgototheInternationalWorkGroupforIndigenousAffairs(IWGIA)andindividualphotographers,whogenerouslyallowedtheILOtomakeuseoftheirphotosinthepublication.

ThisworkwasmadepossibleduetothefinancialcontributionoftheEuropeanCommission’sEuropeanInstrumentforDemocracyandHumanRights(EIDHR)andtheDanishMinistryofForeignAffairs(Danida).

ACkNOwLEDGEmENTS

5INTRODUCTION

In1989,theInternationalLabourOrganisation(ILO)adoptedtheIndigenousandTribalPeoplesConvention(ILOConventionNo.169).Sincethen,theConventionhasbeenratifiedby20countries.Inthesecountries,theILOsupervisorybodieshavemonitoredandguidedtheimplementationprocessthroughregularexaminationofreportsandprovisionof comments to the concerned governments. In this context,workers’organizationshavealsoassistedindigenous and tribal1)peoples’organizationstobringspecificissuestotheattentionoftheILOsupervisorybodies.Moreover,theConventionhasinspiredgovernmentsandindigenouspeoplesfarbeyondtheratifyingcountries,intheirworktopromoteandprotectindigenouspeoples’rights.The20yearsthathavepassedsincetheadoptionoftheConventionthusrepresent20yearsofefforts,dialogue and achievements in the challenging processofgraduallydeepeningtheunderstandingandimplementationofindigenouspeoples’rights.

In2007,theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyadoptedtheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples(A/RES/61/295).Theadoptionwas the culmination of years of discussions and negotiations between governments and indigenous peoplesandisalandmarkachievement,whichprovidestheinternationalcommunitywithacommon framework for the realization of indigenous peoples’rights.

FollowingtheadoptionoftheUNDeclaration,thereis now a general consensus that there must be a focusonimplementationofindigenouspeoples’rights at the country-level to ensure that international instruments bring the necessary changes for the millionsofindigenouspeoplesaroundtheworld,who are still living in marginalized and disadvantaged situations.

Convention No. 169 and the UN Declaration are compatibleandmutuallyreinforcing(seesection

1) Convention No. 169 uses the terminology of ‘indigenous and tribal peoples’ (see section 1 for a more detailed discussion of the term). The Convention does not differentiate between the rights ascribed to the two groups. However, for practical reasons, this Guide uses the term ‘indigenous peoples’, which is also the most commonly used term and the one that is used by international instruments such as the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

2),althoughtheseinstrumentswerenegotiatedatdifferenttimeperiodsbydifferentbodiesandthereforedivergeinsomerespects.However,theimplementationprocessofthetwoinstrumentsislargelythesame,andexperiencesgeneratedsofarin the context of Convention No. 169 can thus to a certaindegreeservetoinspirethefurthereffortstoimplementtheDeclaration.

ThemainpurposeofthisGuideistoprovidegovernments,indigenousandtribalpeoplesandworkers’andemployers’organizationswithapracticaltoolfortheimplementationofindigenouspeoples’rights,basedontheexperiences,goodpracticesandlessonslearnedthathavebeengenerated so far.

TheGuidedoesnotattempttoprovideablueprintforimplementation.Thediversityofsituationsfacedbyindigenouspeoplesdoesnotallowforasimplistictransferorreplicationofmodelsfromonecountrytoanother.Rather,theGuideisacatalogueofideasthathopefullywillbeassessed,discussedand,eventually,willinspireadaptationofgoodpracticestonationalandlocalcircumstances.

TheGuidehasbeendevelopedthroughcollaborativeefforts,therebyreflectingthemulti-partyandcollectivenatureoftheimplementationprocess.ThemainsourcesofinformationandinputfortheGuideare:

Analysisandcommentsprovidedbythe•ILOsupervisorybodiesinordertoguidetheimplementationofConventionNo.169inratifying countries.Aseriesofcasestudies,conductedby•indigenouspeoples’organizationsandresearchersthatdocumentkeypositiveexperiences,achievementsandimpactsoftheimplementationofindigenouspeoples’rights. Aseriesofshortexamplesofkeyexperiences,•which the reader can further study by following the links and references included in the Guide.

INTRODUCTION


This Guide is not meant to be read from beginning to end,butisratheracataloguefromwhichthereadercanchoosethemostrelevantentrypointandfollowthecross-referencestoexplorehowthefullrangeofindigenousandtribalpeoples’rightsrelatetoeachother.

The guide is divided into sections covering all the mainaspectsofindigenousandtribalpeoples’rights. Each section is divided into the following maincategories:

An • introductorypart,whichexplainstherelevantarticle(s)ofConventionNo.169andtheirimplications.ThissectionalsoprovidesreferencestosimilarprovisionsoftheUNDeclaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

A summary of • commentsoftheILOsupervisorybodies, which have been providedtogiveguidanceandassistancetocountriesregardingimplementationofConvention No. 169. Such comments do not exist in relation to all areas of the Convention and are thus only available in relation to some sections of the Guide.

A series of examplesofpracticalapplication oftheconcernedprovisionsofILOConventionNo.169,drawnfromallareasoftheworld.AnnexDprovidesanindexofthevariouscasespresentedinthe Guide.

ConventionNo.169isanholisticinstrument,whichattemptstoaddressallkeyaspectsofindigenouspeoples’rights.Therangeofrightscontainedinthis instruments are inter-related and issues such as therighttoconsultationandparticipationarecross-cuttingandhaverepercussions,forexample,fortherightsstipulatedinsectorssuchashealthandeducation.

ThisisreflectedintheGuide,whichstartswithafocusonkeyprinciplesofthegeneralpolicyofConventionNo.169(mainlyarticles1-12)andthenaddressesmorespecificsubstantiveissues(mainly

articles13-32).

TheGuideisdividedintothefollowingsections,coveringthevariousareasofindigenousrights:

Identificationofindigenousandtribal1. peoples.Thissectionexplainsthecoverageofthe Convention and the criteria used to identify indigenousandtribalpeoplesindifferentregions,includingtherighttoself-identification.Theconceptofindigenouspeoplesinthe2. contextofrights. This section elaborates on theimplicationsoftheuseoftheterm‘peoples’and its connotations with regard to the right toself-determination,asrecognizedintheUN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.Governmentresponsibilities.3. This section explainstheresponsibilityofStatestoundertake coordinated and systematic action to end discrimination against indigenous and tribalpeoples,byrespectingtheirfundamentalrightsandalsodevelopingspecialmeasurestothat effect.Indigenousinstitutions.4. Thissectionexplainstherighttomaintainanddevelopindigenousinstitutionsasafundamentalright,whichiscrucial for maintaining indigenous and tribal peoples’identityandautonomy.Participation,consultationandconsent.5. Thissectionexplainsthefundamentalprinciplesofparticipationandconsultationwithaviewtoachievingagreementorconsent,whicharethecornerstone of Convention No. 169.Customarylaw,penalsystemsandaccess6. tojustice.Thissectionexplainstherighttoretaincustomsandcustomarylaw,includingpenalsystems,aslongasthesearenotinconflictwithinternationalhumanrights,aswellastheneedtoimproveindigenousandtribalpeoples’accesstojustice.Landandterritories.7. Thissectionexplainsthecrucialconceptsofindigenousandtribalpeoples’landsandterritoriesandtherelatedrights,includingtoownershipandpossession.Naturalresources.8. Thissectionexplainsindigenousandtribalpeoplesgeneralrightto the natural resources in their territories as

HOw TO USE THIS GUIDE

7INTRODUCTION

wellastherightstoconsultation,participationandbenefit-sharingincaseswheretheStateretains the rights over mineral resources.Development.9. Thissectionexplainsindigenousandtribalpeoples’rightstodeterminetheirownprioritiesfortheprocessofdevelopmentandhowthisrelatestothecurrentinternationaldevelopmentagenda.Education.10. Thissectionexplainsindigenousandtribalpeoples’generalrighttoeducationaswellastheneedforspecialeducationalmeasurestomeettheirneedsandpriorities,forexampleforbilingualinterculturaleducation.Healthandsocialsecurity.11. This section explainsindigenousandtribalpeoples’generalrights to health and social security as well as theneedtotakeintoaccounttheireconomic,geographic,socialandculturalconditionsandtheirtraditionalpreventivecare,healingpracticesandmedicines.Traditionaloccupations,labourrightsand12. vocationaltraining.Thissectionexplainstheneedtoprotectindigenousandtribalpeoples’traditionaloccupationsandprovidespecialmeasurestoprotectthemfromdiscriminationand violation of other fundamental labour rights in the labour market.

Contactsandcooperationacrossborders.13. Thissectionexplainstherightofindigenousandtribalpeoplestomaintaincontactincaseswhere they have been divided by international borders.ConventionNo.169:ratification,14. implementation,supervisionandtechnicalassistance.ThissectionexplainstheproceduralaspectsofConventionNo.169;howitcanberatified;howthesupervisoryandcomplaintsmechanismswork;itslegalstandinginthenationallegalsystems;andthepossibilityofgettingtechnicalassistancefromthe ILO.

ThisGuideismeanttoinspireandmotivatethereadertoseekfurtherinformation.Therefore,aseriesofreferencesandlinksareprovidedthroughoutthetext.Also,inAnnexC,thereisalistof suggested furtherreadingon the various issues dealt with in the Guide.Additional information and the full text of some of the case studies can be found at the ILO’s website on indigenouspeoples:www.ilo.org/indigenousorberequestedonCD-ROMfrompro169@ilo.org.Alsoaseriesofinformationresources,includingvideointerviews,PowerPointpresentationsandbackgroundmaterialsareavailableatwww.pro169.org.

I. IdentIfIcatIon of

IndIgenous and trIbal peoples

9I . IDENTIfICATION Of INDIGENOUS AND TRIBAL PEOPLES

1.1. COVERAGE Of ILO CONVENTION NO. 169

Indigenousandtribalpeoplesconstituteatleast5,000distinctpeopleswithapopulationofmorethan370million,livingin70differentcountries.Thisdiversitycannoteasilybecapturedinauniversaldefinition,andthereisanemergingconsensusthataformaldefinitionoftheterm“indigenouspeoples”isneithernecessarynordesirable.Similarly,thereisnointernationalagreementonthedefinitionoftheterm“minorities”ortheterm“peoples”.

The Convention does not strictly define who are indigenousandtribalpeoplesbutratherdescribesthepeoplesitaimstoprotect(Article1).

ILOConventionNo.169Article 1(1). This Convention applies to: (a)tribalpeoplesinindependentcountrieswhosesocial,culturalandeconomicconditions distinguish them from other sectionsofthenationalcommunity,andwhosestatusisregulatedwhollyorpartiallyby their own customs or traditions or by speciallawsorregulations;(b)peoplesinindependentcountrieswhoareregarded as indigenous on account of their descentfromthepopulationswhichinhabitedthecountry,orageographicalregiontowhichthecountrybelongs,atthetimeofconquestorcolonisationortheestablishmentofpresentstateboundariesandwho,irrespectiveoftheirlegalstatus,retainsomeoralloftheirownsocial,economic,culturalandpoliticalinstitutions. Article 1(2)Self-identificationasindigenousortribalshall be regarded as a fundamental criterion fordeterminingthegroupstowhichtheprovisionsofthisConventionapply.

Elementsoftribalpeoplesinclude:Culture,socialorganization,economic•conditions and way of life different from other segmentsofthenationalpopulation,e.g.intheirwaysofmakingaliving,language,etc.;Owntraditionsandcustomsand/orspecial•legal recognition.

Elementsofindigenouspeoplesinclude:Historicalcontinuity,i.e.theyarepre-•conquest/colonizationsocieties;Territorialconnection(theirancestors•inhabitedthecountryorregion);Distinctsocial,economic,culturalandpolitical•institutions(theyretainsomeoralloftheirowninstitutions).

TheelementsoutlinedinArticle1(1)constitutethe objectivecriteria of the coverage of ILO


Convention No. 169. It can objectively be determinedwhetheraspecificindigenousortribalpeoplemeetstherequirementsofArticle1(1)andrecognizesandacceptsapersonasbelongingtotheirpeople.

Article1(2)recognizestheself-identificationof indigenousandtribalpeoplesasafundamentalcriterion. This is the subjectivecriterion of ConventionNo.169,whichattachesfundamentalimportancetowhetheragivenpeopleconsidersitself to be indigenous or tribal under the Convention andwhetherapersonidentifieshimselforherselfasbelongingtothispeople.ConventionNo.169wasthefirstinternationalinstrumenttorecognizetheimportanceofself-identification.

The Convention’s coverage is based on a combination of the objective and subjective criteria. Thus,self-identificationcomplementstheobjectivecriteria,andviceversa.

TheConventiontakesaninclusiveapproachandisequallyapplicabletobothindigenousandtribalpeoples.TheConventiontherebyfocusesonthepresentsituationofindigenousandtribalpeoples,althoughthehistoricalcontinuityandterritorialconnectionareimportantelementsintheidentificationofindigenouspeoples.

ThecriteriaelaboratedinArticle1(1)bofConventionNo.169havebeenappliedwidelyforthepurposeofidentifyingindigenouspeoplesininternationalandnationalpoliticalandlegalprocesses,farbeyondthegroupofStatesthathaveratifiedtheConvention.Itisusedasaninternationalworkingdefinitionforthepurposeofidentifyingindigenouspeoples,includingintheapplicationoftheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,andhasalsobeenthebasisonwhichvariousUNspecializedagencieshavedevelopedtheirownoperationaldefinitionsofthetermindigenouspeoples,includingtheWorldBankandtheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme.

UNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoplesThe UN Declaration on the Rights of IndigenousPeoplesidentifies“indigenouspeoples”asbeingthebeneficiariesoftherightscontainedintheDeclaration,withoutdefiningtheterm.

ThepreambleoftheDeclaration,however,makes reference to certain characteristics normallyattributedtoindigenouspeoples,suchastheirdistinctiveness,dispossessionoflands,territoriesandnaturalresources,historicalandpre-colonialpresenceincertainterritories,culturalandlinguisticcharacteristics,andpoliticalandlegalmarginalization.

Also,article33,para.1,statesthat:Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodeterminetheirownidentityormembershipinaccordance with their customs and traditions. ThisdoesnotimpairtherightofindigenousindividualstoobtaincitizenshipoftheStatesin which they live.

1.2. IDENTIfICATION Of INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN STATISTICS

Therecognitionandidentificationofindigenouspeopleshasrepercussionsfortheirvisibilityinnationalstatisticsandinformationsystems,aswellasforthecapacityofStatestorespondtotheirspecificneedsandprioritiesandtomonitortheimpactofinterventions.

Inmanycountries,therearenodisaggregateddataor accurate statistics on the situation of indigenous peoplesandevenbasicdemographicinformationregarding their numbers and location may be lacking.Therefore,ananalysisofthesituationinindigenouscommunitieswilloftendependonroughestimatesormakeuseofproxiesinorderto,forexample,assessthesituationinaparticulargeographicalareathatispredominantlyinhabitedbyindigenouspeoples.Itisevenrarertofinddisaggregated data that describe the differentiated situationofdistinctindigenouspeoplesinagiven


countryorwithinindigenouscommunities,forexampleasrelatedtogenderandage.

Theriskisthatthespecificsituationofindigenouspeoples,aswellasdifferencesbetweenandwithinindigenouscommunities,isinvisibleinnationalstatistics.Thismakesitdifficulttoaccuratelymonitor the effects of state interventions addressing indigenouspeoplesandleavespolicy-makerswithoutnecessaryinformationfordevelopingpoliciesandprogrammes.

Someofthemaindifficultieswithregardstothecollection of disaggregated data on indigenous peoplesare:

Controversyoverdefinitionsorterminology•Fluidity of ethnic identity•Migration,conflictsandwars•Lackoflegalprovisions/politicalacceptance•Lackofunderstandingoftheimportanceof•disaggregated dataWeaknationalcapacityfordatacollection,•analysis and disaggregationResistancefromindigenouspeoplesif•they are not themselves in control of data collection

(Including Indigenous Peoples in Poverty Reduction Strategies, ILO 2007)

Experience,particularlyfromLatinAmerica,hasshownthatovercomingthesedifficultiesisaprocess,basedondialogue,throughwhichadeeperunderstandingandrespectfordiversifiedindigenousidentitiesisdeveloped.RecentlythefocusonincludingindigenouspeoplesinnationalcensuseshasbeengaininggroundinAsiaalso,withindigenouspeoples’organizationsandexpertsinNepalandthePhilippinesworkingwiththegovernmentanddonorsinthepreparationoftheupcomingnationalcensuses.

1.3. COmmENTS By THE ILO SUPERVISORy BODIES: COVERAGE

InmonitoringtheapplicationofConventionNo.169incountriesthathaveratifiedit,theILOsupervisorybodies,particularlytheCommitteeofExpertsontheApplicationofConventionsandRecommendations(CommitteeofExperts)(seesection14formore

information)havemadeanumberofcomments,concerningtheapplicationofArticle1regardingthescopeofapplicationoftheConvention.

Paraguay:Includingself-identificationasafundamentalcriterionTheCommitteeofExpertsnotedthatthestatisticaldataprovidedbytheGovernmentfromthe2002censuscarriedoutbytheDirectorateofStatistics,SurveysandCensus,indicatesthenumberofindigenouspersonsinthecountrybyregionandbyethnicgroup.Italsonoted,however,thattheGovernmenthadnotmodifiedtheIndigenousCommunitiesCharter,andthatself-identificationasacriterionfordefiningindigenouspeoplesasprovidedforbytheConventionhadnotbeenincorporated.TheCommitteeofExpertsrecalledthatunderArticle1(2)oftheConvention,self-identificationas indigenous or tribal shall be regarded as a fundamentalcriterionfordeterminingthegroupstowhichtheprovisionsofthisConventionapplyandthus requested the Government to give legislative expressiontothiscriterioninconsultationwithindigenouspeople.(Committee of Experts, 77th Session, 2006, Individual Direct Request, Paraguay, submitted 2007).

Argentina:RecognizingindigenouscommunitiesaslegalentitiesTheCommitteeofExpertsnotedthatinsomeprovinces,indigenouscommunitieswereapplyingforlegalpersonalityascivilassociations.TheCommitteerequestedtheGovernmenttotakestepsto ensure that the communities are recognized as indigenouscommunities,“sinceacivilassociationseemstoimplytheformationofsomethingnew,which is not fully consistent with the Convention’s principleofrecognitionofapre-existingreality”.

The Committee also noted with interest a court decisionintheChacoProvince,inwhichtheConvention and the Provincial Constitution were reliedon“toordertheProvinceofChacotosetuparegisterofindigenouscommunitiesandorganizationswithdeclaratoryeffect,andtoregistertheCouncilconcernedwithinfivedays“becausethelegalpersonalityofindigenousgroupsisapre-existing fact of reality and requires unconditional and unqualifiedrecognitionbytheState;whatalreadyexistsisthusdeclared,namelythepre-existence


ofthepersonalityofindigenouscommunitiesandorganizations”.Committee of Experts, 77th Session, 2006, Individual Direct Request, Argentina, submitted 2007.

Colombia:ApplyingtheConventiontoAfro-ColombiancommunitiesIn2005,theCommitteeofExpertsreceivedinformation about two Colombian communities ofAfricanextraction,whichclaimedthat“theCurbaradóandJiguamiandócommunitiesfulfillthecriteriaforatribalpeoplesetforthintheConvention”,andthattheyhave“usedtheirlandin accordance with their ancestral and traditional practices”.

The communication made reference to a national Act,whichprovidesthat“theblackcommunityconsists of the combined families of Afro-Colombian extractionwhohavetheirownculture,acommonhistory and their own traditions and customs in the contextoftherelationbetweenoccupiedandruralareas,whodemonstrateandmaintainawarenessofidentity which distinguishes them from other ethnic groups”.

Initsconclusions,theCommitteeofExpertsconsideredthat,inthelightoftheinformationprovided,theblackcommunitiesofCurbaradóandJiguamiandóappearedtofulfilltherequirementssetoutinArticle1.1.(a),oftheConvention.

Furthermore,buildingontheprinciplesofself-identification,theCommitteeofExpertsnotedthat:“indicatingthattherepresentativesofthecommunitycouncilsofCurbaradóandJiguamiandóparticipatedinthepreparationofthecommunication,itwouldappearthat,inseekingtheapplicationoftheConventiontotheircommunities,theyidentifythemselvesasbeingtribal”.Committee of Experts, 76th Session, 2005, Observation, Colombia, published 2006.

Mexico:LanguageascriteriafordeterminingwhoareindigenousAccordingtotheGovernment’sreport,Mexico’sindigenouspopulationisnumericallythelargestinLatinAmerica,estimatedbythe2000NationalCouncilofPopulation(CONAPO)Surveyat12.7millionandmadeupof62indigenouspeoples.

The CONAPO survey included questions about the indigenouslanguagesspokenandmembershipofindigenousgroupsofatleastonememberofthehousehold.Thesurveyprovidedsixcategoriesinanswertothequestions;thefourthofwhichwas”Donotspeakanindigenouslanguageandbelongtoanindigenousgroup”.

However,theGovernment’sreportalsoindicatedthatthe“de-indianization”processledmanyindigenouspersonstoabandontheircommunitiesoforigin,contributingtoasignificantlossintheirindigenous languages and their ethnic identities.

SinceformalcensuseswerefirstintroducedinMexicoin1895,languagehadbeenthemaincriterion used for identifying the indigenous population.However,sincemanyindigenouspeoplehadlosttheirlanguage,theCommitteeofExpertsrequestedtheGovernmenttostatewhetherthepersonsinthecategory“Donotspeakanindigenous language and belong to an indigenous group”enjoyedtheprotectionaffordedbytheConvention.

TheCommitteenotedthat“theapplicationofArticle1isnotlimited,asitdoesnotincludelanguageasacriterionfordefiningthepeoplesprotectedbytheConvention”.Committee of Experts, 76th Session, 2005, Individual Direct Request, Mexico, submitted 2006.

Greenland:recognitionasapeopleratherthanasindividualcommunitiesIn1999,acasewasbroughttotheILOpursuantto Article 24 of the ILO Constitution alleging that DenmarkhadfailedtocomplywithArticle14(2)ofConventionNo.169,whichstipulatesthatGovernmentsshalltakestepstoidentifythelandsthatindigenouspeoplestraditionallyoccupy,andtoguaranteeeffectiveprotectionoftheirrightsofownershipandpossession.ThecomplaintaroseoutoftherelocationinMay1953ofthepopulationlivinginthesettlementofUummannaq(ThuleDistrict)innorthwesternGreenland,dueto the extension of the Thule Air Base. Subsequently,theUummannaqpopulationclaimedspecificlandrightswithintheGreenlandicterritory.Inthecontextofthiscase,


itwasdebatedwhethertheUummannaqpopulationconstitutedadistinctindigenouspeoplewithdistinctlandrightsorwhetheritwaspartofthebroaderGreenlandicindigenouspeople(Inuit).

Inexaminingthecase,theILOtripartitecommitteenotedthatthepartiestothecase“donotdisputethat the Inuit residing in Uummannaq at the time of the relocation are of the same origin as the Inuit inotherareasofGreenland,thattheyspeakthesamelanguage(Greenlandic),engageinthesametraditionalhunting,trappingandfishingactivitiesas other inhabitants of Greenland and identify themselvesasGreenlanders(Kalaalit)”.

The Committee furthermore noted that these persons“sharethesamesocial,economic,culturalandpoliticalconditionsastherestoftheinhabitantsofGreenland(seeArticle1(1)oftheConvention),conditionswhichdonotdistinguishthepeopleoftheUummannaqcommunityfromotherGreenlanders,butwhichdodistinguishGreenlandersasagroupfrom the inhabitants of Denmark and the Faroe Islands.AsconcernsArticle1(2)oftheConvention,whileself-identificationisafundamentalcriterionfordefiningthegroupstowhichtheConventionshallapply,thisrelatesspecificallytoself-identificationasindigenousortribal,andnotnecessarilytoafeelingthatthoseconcernedarea“people”differentfromothermembersoftheindigenousortribalpopulationofthecountry,whichtogethermayformapeople.The Committee considers there to be no basis for considering the inhabitants of the Uummannaq communitytobea“people”separateandapartfromotherGreenlanders”.

TheCommitteenotedthat“thelandtraditionallyoccupiedbytheInuitpeoplehasbeenidentifiedandconsistsoftheentireterritoryofGreenland”.Consequently,“undertheparticularcircumstancesofthiscase,theCommitteeconsidersthattocallfor a demarcation of lands within Greenland for the benefitofaspecificgroupofGreenlanderswouldrun counter to the well-established system of collective land rights based on Greenlandic tradition and maintained by the Greenland Home Rule Authorities”.Governing Body, 280th Session, March 2001, Representation under Article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Denmark, GB.280/18/5.

1.4. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: STATEmENT Of COVERAGE

The ILO statement of coverage is widely used as anoverallguidingprincipleinnationalandregionalprocessesofidentifyingindigenouspeoples.Somecountriesdonotspeakof“indigenous”or“tribal”peoplesbutuseotherlocalornationalterms.Someofthesetermshavereferencestowherethepeopleslive or how they traditionally make their living. In countriesinAsia,forexample,thelanguageholdsexpressionslike“hillpeople”or“shiftingcultivators”,whilesomeindigenouspeoplesinAfricaareknownas“pastoralists”and“hunter-gatherers”.InLatinAmerica,theterm“’peasants”hasbeenusedinsomecountries.Overthelastdecades,most


countriesandregionshaveprovidedsuchpracticalinterpretationsoftheconceptofindigenousandtribalpeoples.Inparallel,indigenouspeoplesareincreasinglyidentifyingasspecificpeoplesornations and also gaining constitutional and legal recognition as such in many countries. Another tendency is related to the increasing number of indigenousmigrantsthatmovetourbansettings,wheretheyassumenewformsofexpressingidentity.Thenewexpressionsofidentityarecontributingtochanges,suchasthetransformationoftraditionalcommunitystructuresandtheappearanceofextendedcommunities,bi-nationalortransnationalcommunities.

Africa:IdentificationofindigenouspeoplesbytheAfricanCommissiononHumanandPeoplesRightsIn2003,aWorkingGroupundertheAfricanCommissiononHumanandPeoples’Rights(ACHPR)issuedaReportonIndigenousPopulations/CommunitiesinAfrica.

Thereportconcludedthatastrictdefinitionofindigenouspeoplesis“neithernecessary,nordesirable”,andwouldriskexcludingcertaingroups.TheReportalsoaddressedthecommonargumentthat“allAfricansareindigenous”,whichitsawasanargumentrelativetoEuropeancolonizationthatisnotthepointofdepartureorcurrentunderstanding

oftheterm.Furthermore,theReportemphasizedthatitisnotanissueof“specialrights”overandaboveothersectionsofsociety;itisanissueoftheneedforspecificrightstoaddressthespecificforms of discrimination and marginalization faced by indigenouspeoples.

TheReportrecommendedanapproachtoidentifying,ratherthandefining,indigenouspeoples,basedonasetofcriteriaandemphasizedthefollowing characteristics of African indigenous peoples:

Their cultures and ways of life differ •considerably from those of the dominant society;Theirculturesareunderthreat,insomecases•onthevergeofextinction;Thesurvivaloftheirparticularwayoflife•dependsonaccessandrightstotheirtraditionallandandresources;Theyoftenliveininaccessible,geographically•isolatedregions;andTheysufferfrompoliticalandsocial•marginalization and are subject to domination andexploitationwithinnationalpoliticalandeconomic structures.

Report of the African Commission’s Working Groups of Experts on indigenous Populations/Communities, adopted by the ACHPR, at its 28th Session, 2005. Published by the ACHPR and IWGIA.


Africa:ExamplesofidentificationofindigenouspeoplesInAfrica,indigenouspeoplesarealsoreferredto by terms such as ethnicminorities,vulnerablegroups,pastoralists,hunter/gatherers,Pygmies,etc. The majority of communities who self-identify asindigenouspracticepastoralismorhuntingandgatheringfortheirlivelihoods,althoughtherearealsosmallfarming/huntingcommunitieswhoidentifyas indigenous. These communities are gradually beingacceptedasindigenous,particularlyinKenyaandSouthAfrica.Theprocesshasbeenpromotedand encouraged by the visit to both countries by theUNSpecialRapporteuronhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsofindigenouspeoplein2006.InKenya,theSpecialRapporteurrecommendedthat‘”therightsofpastoralistsandhunter-gatherercommunities should be constitutionally entrenched andthatspecificlegislationshouldbeenactedtoincludeaffirmativeactionwherenecessary.”

InSouthAfrica,thecabinetadoptedamemorandumin2004settingoutapolicyprocesstorecogniseKhoe and San as vulnerable indigenous communities,whohavebeenmarginalisedanddeservespecialprotection.However,thishasnotyetbeentranslatedintoanofficialpolicyrecognisingtheKhoeandtheSanastheindigenouspeoplesofSouth Africa.

InUganda,thereisnoofficialgovernmentpolicyrecognisingindigenouspeopleasunderstoodunderinternationallawbutthereisaprocesstowardsrecognitionofsomegroupsasparticularlymarginalised and vulnerable and as minorities. The MinistryofGender,LabourandSocialDevelopmenthas,forinstance,recentlyembarkedonanexercisetoestablishadatabankprovidinginformationonminorityethniccommunities.InRwanda,despitethelackofofficialrecognitionofindigenouspeoplesassuch,theNationalCommissionofUnityandReconciliationrecognised,in2006,thattheBatwahad been systematically forgotten and ignored and meritedspecialattention.TheCommissionthusrecommendedspecialmeasuresinfavouroftheBatwa in terms of education and health services.Reports of the UN Special Rapporteur on the human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous people,’ Mission to South Africa and Kenya, 2006;IWGIA, the Indigenous World, 2006;

CAURWA, Convention relative aux droits de l’enfant, Contre rapport présenté par CAURWA, Kigali, 2004.Case prepared by Naomi Kipuri.

Nepal:RecognitionofindigenousnationalitiesTheNepaliGovernmentfirstrecognizedtheconceptof“indigenousnationalities”in1997,withthepromulgationofanordinanceonthecreationofaNationalCommitteefortheDevelopmentof Indigenous Nationalities. Together with the subsequentgovernmentplanningdocument,theNinthPlan(1997-2002),thisconstitutedformalrecognitionofalistofspecificethnicgroupsasbeingindigenous.However,neitherdocumentsdefinedtheterm“indigenousnationalities”noritslegalsignificanceandittookanother5yearsbeforetheNationalFoundationfortheDevelopmentofIndigenousNationalities(NFDIN)cameintobeing.WiththeestablishmentofNFDINin2002,indigenouspeopleshadasemi-autonomousfoundation,withagoverningcouncilconsistingofbothgovernmentandindigenouspeoples’representatives.

The Government list of recognized indigenous groupsandtherecognitionprocedurehascausedsomecontroversy.Thelistiscurrentlycomprisedof59groups,buttherearegroupsthatarenotonthelistthatalsoclaimtobeindigenouspeoples.Thereare also communities who have been recognized asbelongingunderalargergroupidentity,butwhoclaimtobeadistinctpeople,deservingtheirownseparatenameandrecognition.

Toalargeextent,theseconflictshavegrownoutofthesystemsandpracticesthathavedevelopedinNepaltoensureindigenouspeoples’representationand access to government services. Each of the 59 recognizedgroupshasanationalorganization.Untilrecently,bothNFDINandtheindigenouspeoples’ownumbrellaorganization,theNepalFederationofIndigenousNationalities(NEFIN),havereliedexclusively on these organizations as the basis for representation,consultationandparticipation.Inthisway,thenationalorganizationsandtheirindividualleadershiphavebecomedefactogatekeepersinprocessesofindigenouscommunities’consultationandparticipation.Manyoftherecognizedgroupscover large linguistic and culturally diverse populations.Ifsomecommunitiesdonotfeelwell


representedbytheexistingnationalindigenousorganizations,theyarelikelytoseekrecognitionasseparateindigenouspeoplestogainbetteraccesstoGovernment.Inthisway,tensionsandconflictsconcerningtherepresentativenessinthenationalindigenousorganizations’spilloverintoquestionsregardinggovernmentrecognitionofcertaingroups.

AfterratificationofILOConventionNo.169in2007,theNepaliGovernmentestablishedaCommitteetoreviewthelistofrecognizedindigenousgroups.Also,aGovernmentTaskForceonImplementationofILOConventionNo.169(seesection3)hasrecommendedthattheGovernmentadoptaformaldefinitionofindigenouspeoples,basedontheidentificationcriteriaintheConvention.Theprocessisnotyetconcludedbutitislikelythatitwillleadtoalessstaticandmoreprocess-orientedapproachtorecognitionofindigenousgroupsinthefuture. The underlying question of how to ensure communitiesrightstoconsultation,participationandrepresentation,regardlessoftheirconnectiontonationalorganizations,hasnotyetbeenresolved.

AnothersignificantquestionemerginginNepaliswhetherrecognitionasindigenouspeoplesshould

automaticallyentitlecommunitiestoaffirmativeactionprogramsfromthegovernment(seesection11).Programme to Promote ILO Convention No. 169, project reports Nepal, 2008-9; Krishna Bhattachan: Indigenous Peoples and Minorities in Nepal, 2008.

TheWorldBank:criteriatodeterminetheapplicationoftheBank’spolicyonindigenouspeoplesTheWorldBankusestheterm“indigenouspeoples”inagenericsensetorefertodistinctgroupswiththefollowingcharacteristicsinvaryingdegrees:“(a)self-identificationasmembersofadistinctindigenousculturalgroupandrecognitionofthisidentitybyothers;collectiveattachmenttogeographicallydistincthabitatsorancestralterritoriesintheprojectarea and to the natural resources in these habitats andterritories;customarycultural,economic,social,orpoliticalinstitutionsthatareseparatefromthoseofthedominantsocietyandculture;and(d)anindigenouslanguage,oftendifferentfromtheofficiallanguageofthecountryorregion.”

Thisoperationaldefinitionofthetermindigenouspeoplesisbasedonthestatementofcoverage


ofConventionNo.169,andincludesallthemainelementsoftheILO-definition:self-identificationasindigenous;historicalattachmenttoancestralterritories;distinctcultural,economic,socialandpoliticalinstitutions.Operational Policy 4.10 on Indigenous Peoples, World Bank 2005; John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.

Bangladesh:IdentificationWithapopulationof120million,Bangladeshistheeighthmostpopulouscountryintheworld.Theindigenouspopulationaccountsfor1.08%ofthenationalpopulation.TheindigenouspeoplesinBangladeshareidentifiedbydifferentnamessuchaspahari(hillpeople),jumma(fromthetraditionofjhum/jumorshiftingcultivation),adivasi(originalinhabitant)upajatiortribal.Therearealsocertainlaws which use indigenous hillmen or indigenous tribes interchangeably.

Previously,theGovernmentofBangladeshpreferredtousetheterms“tribe”or“tribal”asopposedtothe“adivasi”or“indigenous”whicharethepreferredtermsoftheindigenousgroups.However,inthe

PovertyReductionStrategyPaperpublishedin2005(“PRSP-I”),theterms“Adivasi/EthnicMinority”wasused,whileinthemorerecentPRSP-II,theterms“indigenouspeople”and“indigenouscommunities”werebothused,reflectingperhapsthewidercurrency of the latter terms in the media and generally use by Bangladeshi civil society.

BangladeshratifiedtheILOIndigenousandTribalPopulationsConvention,1957(No.107)in1972,whichcoversanumberofissuesincludingfundamentalrights,landrights,employment,vocationtraining,health,etc.InBangladeshthereis no constitutional recognition of the indigenous peoplesexceptundertheblanketcategoryof“BackwardSectionsofCitizens”.

Different estimates have been given on the number ofdistinctindigenouspeoplesinBangladesh,ranging from twelve to forty-six. The reasons for this uncertainty include the number of names by which a communityisknownbydifferentpeople,thedifferentwaysofspellingthenamesofthegroups,thecategorizationofthesub-groupsasseparategroupsandtheincreasingnumberofgroupsidentifyingthemselves as indigenous.


Raja Devasish Roy: The ILO Convention on Indigenous and tribal Populations, 1957 and the Laws of Bangladesh: A Comparative Review, Forthcoming; The Finance Act, Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) Regulation 1900.Case prepared by Chonchuirinmayo Luithui

India:IdentificationofscheduledtribesIndiaisafederalrepublicwithaparliamentaryformofgovernment.TheIndianpolityisgovernedbytheConstitution,whichwasadoptedon26November1949.Indiahasapopulationofover1billionandranksrightafterChinaasthesecondmostpopulouscountryintheworld.Indiawasoneofthefirstnations to ratify the ILO Convention on Indigenous andTribalPopulation,1957(No.107)inSeptember1958.However,ithasnotratifiedConventionNo.169,whichrevisedConventionNo.107.

The Government of India has contested the use oftheterm“IndigenousPeoples”foraparticulargroupofpeople,sayingthatallcitizensareindigenoustoIndia,andithaspreferredtousetheterm“ScheduledTribes”.The2001censusputsthenumberofpersonsbelongingtoaScheduledTribeat84.3million,constituting8.2%ofthetotalpopulation.TheAnthropologicalSurveyofIndiahasidentified461tribalcommunitiesinIndia,whileotherestimates of the number of tribes living in India reach upto635.

Article366(25)oftheConstitutionofIndiareferstoScheduled Tribes as those communities who are “scheduled”1) in accordance with Article 342 of the Constitution through a declaration by the President. ScheduledTribestendtoliveinspecificareasand the Constitution of India recognizes these as “ScheduledAreas”.

TheLokurCommittee,anadvisorycommitteesetupin 1965 to revise the lists of Scheduled Castes and ScheduledTribes,definedthecharacteristics2) of a communitytobeidentifiedasScheduledTribesas:1) Members of a community, which has been declared a scheduled tribe, benefits from all the laws and schemes created specifically for the scheduled tribes including reservation of seats in appointments and education.

2) A scheme for determining whether an individual belongs to a Scheduled Tribe has been laid down in Annual Report 2006-2007, published by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, New Delhi. This is available at http://tribal.nic.in/TribalAR0607-E.pdf

(a)primitivetraits;(b)distinctiveculture;(c) shyness of contact with the community at large;(d)geographicalisolation;and(e)backwardness – social and economic.

ThelistofScheduledTribesisarea-specificandtherefore a community declared as a Scheduled Tribe in one state need not be so in another state. Forexample,theSantalslivinginAssamdonothaveaccesstothebenefitsasScheduledTribes,whichareaccordedtotheSantalsinJharkhand,OrissaandWestBengal.

ThetribalpeoplesinIndiaprefertoidentifythemselvesas“Adivasi”whichliterallymeanstheoriginalinhabitants.However,inthenortheasternregionofIndia,theindigenouscommunitiesprefertocallthemselvesindigenouspeoples.Whilethereare many large indigenous communities whose numberaremorethanamillion(liketheSantals,Oraon,NagasandBhils),therearealsotribessuchastheJarawasandOngeswhoareonthevergeofextinction.Constitution of India: http://india.gov.in/govt/constitutions_india.php;Virginius Xaxa; Tribes as Indigenous People of India, http://www.icrindia.org;IWGIA: Indigenous Peoples in India, http://www.iwgia.org.Case prepared by: Chonchuirinmayo Luithui.

Indonesia:ProcesstowardsrecognitionTheissueofdefinitionofindigenouspeoplesremainsa sensitive one and has not been fully resolved. Differentdefinitionsareusedinvariousofficialdocuments:

The Second Amendment of the Constitution •identifiesindigenouspeoplesas“traditionallegalcommunities”andas“traditionalpeoples”.The National Assembly’s Decree on Agrarian •Reform and Natural Resource Management (DecreeNo.9of1999)alsoidentifiesindigenouspeoplesas“traditionalpeoples”.PresidentialDecreeNo.111/1999andSocial•MinistryDecreeNo.06/PEGHUK/2002definesindigenouscommunitiesas“remoteindigenouscommunities”: “Remote


indigenous community is a local social (cultural) group, which is spread-out and lacks access to public social, economical and political services.” The Law on Coastal and Small Island •Management(2007)incorporatesadefinitionwhichhasbeendevelopedbyAMAN(AliansiMasyarakatAdatNusantara)3) - the national indigenouspeoplesumbrellaorganization:“Indigenous communities are a group of people who have lived in their ancestral land for generations, have sovereignty over the land and natural resources, and who govern their community by customary law and institution which sustain the continuity of their livelihood.” 4)

TheAMAN-definitionislargelyinspiredbyandbasedontheILOdefinition.Itisgraduallybeingacceptedbynationalinstitutionsandauthorities,e.g.theMinistry of Fisheries and the National Human Rights Commission.TheexampleshowsthatthestatementofcoverageofConventionNo.169hasimplicationsbeyondtheterritoriesofstatesthathaveratifiedtheConvention.John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.

Norway:RecognitionoftheSamiasanindigenouspeopleIn1990,NorwaybecamethefirstStatepartytoratifyConventionNo.169.Intheratificationprocess,theNationalParliamentofNorway(theStorting),acknowledgedtheSamipeopleasanindigenouspeopleinNorwayinaccordancewiththestatementof coverage of the Convention. This was a natural conclusionastheSamiterritory,history,culture,traditions,language,livelihood,dressandfeelingofbelonging stretch beyond the territory of Norway. TheSamidefinethemselvesasadistinctpeople,differentfromtheFinnish,Russian,NorwegianandSwedishpeoplesinthefourcountriestheyinhabit.

TheSamiActof12June1987,whichwasadoptedbytheNationalParliamentthreeyearspriortotheratificationoftheConvention,restslargelyonthe notion that Norway as a state is established

3) English translation: The Indigenous Peoples’ Alliance of the Archipelago.

4) Adopted at the First AMAN Congress, 17 March 1999.

ontheterritoryoftwopeoples,theNorwegiansandtheSami,andthattheSamihavelivedwithintheterritoryofthepresentNorwaypriortotheestablishment of the State. This fact distinguishes theSamifromminoritygroupsinthecountry.

Thereisnoformaldefinitionoftheterm“Sami”,apartfromthecriteriainSection2-6oftheSamiAct,whichareconnectedwiththerighttoparticipatein the elections to the Sami Parliament. Although these criteria have no formal legal relevance and significanceoutsidetheAct’sareaofapplication,these criteria nevertheless indicate who are consideredtobeaSami.TheSamiActstipulatesthefollowingcriteriafortherighttoparticipateintheSamiParliamentelections:

“Everyone who declares that they consider themselves to be a Sami, and who either (i) has Sami as home language, or (ii) has or has had parents, grandparents or great-grandparents with Sami as home language have the right to be enrolled in the Sami census in the region of residence.”

The Sami Act uses both objective and subjective criteria in identifying who is to be regarded as a Sami. The fundamental element is the subjective self-identificationasSami:thatapersonconsiders


himself/herselftobeaSamiandthereforebelongingtotheSamipeople.TheobjectivecriterionisrelatedtotheSamilanguage;thatthepersonhimself/herself,orparents,grandparentsorgreat-grandparentshaveorhadSamiastheirfirstlanguageorhomelanguage.Theterm“Sami”notonlyidentifiestheSamiasadistinctpeople,itisalsolinkedtothetraditionalterritoryoftheSamipeople–knownas‘Sápmi’.

Thedefinitionoftheterm“Sami”intheNorwegianSamiActisbasedonthenotionof“indigenousness”– although the term is not used. It is based on anacknowledgmentthattheSamipeoplehaveaparticularandhistoricalassociationwiththetraditionalSamiterritory,andthattheyinhabitedthisareapriortotheestablishmentoftheNorwegianState. It is based on recognition of the Sami society asadistinctsociety,verydifferentfromthemajorityNorwegian society. John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008;White Paper No. 52 (1992-93): Stortingsmelding nr. 51 (1992-93) – Om norsk samepolitikk.

Bolivia:Recognitionofrights–statisticaluncertaintyInBolivia,indigenouspeoplesarekeyactorsinthenationalpoliticalandsocialprocesses,andthereisavery high degree of visibility and legal recognition of their rights. Bolivia has elevated both ILO Convention No. 169 and the UN Declaration on the Rights of IndigenousPeoplestothestatusofnationallaw(LeydelaRepúblicaNo.1257andNo.3760).The2009ConstitutionofBoliviaprovidesamplerecognitionofthepluralisticcharacterofthestate:

Article 1 – Bolivia is constituted as a Unitary Social State of Pluri-national Communitarian Law [Derecho],free,independent,sovereign,democratic,intercultural,decentralisedandwithautonomousareas.Itisgroundedonpluralityandpolitical,economic,legal,culturalandlinguisticpluralism,withinthecountry’sintegrationprocess.Article 2 –Giventhepre-colonialexistenceoftheindigenousandaboriginalpeasantnationsandpeoplesandtheirancestralcontroloftheirterritories,their self-determination within the framework of Stateunityisguaranteed,whichincludestheirrighttoautonomy,self-governmentandculture,andthe

recognition of their institutions and the consolidation oftheirterritorialentities,inaccordancewiththisConstitution and the Law.

Inordertooperationaliseindigenouspeoples’rights,theStateneedstodeveloplegalandoperationalcriteria to identify who are the holders of such rights. However,definingwhoisindigenousandnot,isoneofthecomplexquestionswhichhasbeendiscussedin Bolivia since the time of conquest and which is still not concluded.

TherearethreemainreferencepointstothediscussiononidentificationofindigenouspeoplesandindividualsinBolivia:

1. The criteria arising from international legal instruments,namelythoseofILOConventionNo.169,whicharealignedwithindigenouspeoples’ownproposals;2. ThelegaldefinitionsincludedintheBolivianlegislation;3. TheoperationaldefinitionsprovidedbytheNationalInstituteofStatistics(INE)andotherinstitutions,basedoninformationstemmingfrom national Census and Surveys.

The criteria outlined in Convention No. 169 are reflectedtovaryingdegreesinthefewdefinitionsofindigenouspeoples,whichexistinthenationallegislation.TheSupremeDecree23858(1994)describesindigenouspeoplesas:

Human communities descending from •populationsthatsettledpriortothetimeof conquest or colonization and that arecomprisedwithinthepresentStateboundaries;theyhavehistory,organization,language or dialect and other cultural characteristics which their members identify withacknowledgingthemselvesaspertainingtothesamesocialandculturalunit;theyretain a territorial bond in terms of managing theirhabitatandtheirsocial,economic,politicalandculturalinstitutions

•Althoughthenormativedefinitionsmayappearclear,theoperationalapplicationishighlycomplexandnotyet fully resolved.

Forexample,oneoftherequirementsforclaiming“CommunalLandsofOrigin”(CLO),asindigenous


territoriesarecalledinBolivia,isthattheclaimantiscertifiedasanindigenouscommunitybyapublicinstitution.IntheruralAndes-regionofBolivia,whichischaracterizedbyahighdegreeofhomogeneityintermsofculturalandsocialpracticesandinstitutions,virtuallyallcommunitiescanclaimindigenousstatus.Moreover,evencommunitiesthat have been established as an effect of migration from the Andes-region to the lowland areas of theAmazon-regionwouldqualify.Therefore,thecertificationof“indigenouscommunities”hasbeenreducedtoastrictlyadministrativeprocedure,whichdoes not resolve the underlying issue.

Anotherchallengeisthatdifferentpublicinstitutionshavedevelopeddifferentoperationaldefinitions.TheNationalInstituteofStatistics(INE),forexample,includes several questions to identify the indigenous populationinthecensus.Thesecomprise:

Thelanguagecurrentlyspoken;•Thelanguageinwhichthepersonlearnedto•speak(above4years);Self-identificationasbelongingtooneofthe•

indigenouspeoplesofBolivia(above15yearsofage)

Inofficialpublications,INEdefinesindigenouspeoplesonlyonthebasisofthelanguagespoken.By using the spoken languageasthecriteria,theofficialfigureisthat49.9%oftheBolivianpopulationisindigenous.However,theindigenousorganizationsandthepublicingeneral,seethecriteria of belonging to an indigenous people as the morevalidcriteria.Basedonthis,theindigenouspopulationconstitutes62%ofthetotalpopulationabove 15 years of age.

Ingeneral,theuseofanindigenouslanguageasidentificationcriteriaisproblematic,asitisinfluencedbyanumberoffactors,including:

Manypeopledonotreporttheirknowledge•ofanindigenouslanguage,duetothestillprevailingnegativeperceptionandstigmatization of indigenous language and identity;Theexpansionofthedominantlanguage•


(Spanish)andthereductionordisappearanceofindigenouslanguages;Theexpansionofsomeindigenouslanguages•attheexpenseofothers;forexampletheQuechualanguage,whichinmanyplacesisreplacingtheAymaralanguage.Thismakestheuseoflanguageasanidentifierofethnicidentitymuchmorecomplex;Territorialcontexts,wheretheknowledge•ofawidelyspokenlanguagesuchasQuechuadoesnotimplyself-identificationasindigenous;Thedisappearanceofindigenouslanguages•amongthenumericallysmallpeoplesinthelowlands of Bolivia.

Moreover,noneofthesector-specificadministrativeregisters,forexampleregardinghealthoreducation,includeanidentifiertodistinguishtheindigenousfromthenon-indigenouspopulation.Therefore,itisnotpossibletomonitorthespecificimpactsontheindigenouspopulationofnationalprogrammes,anditisnotpossibletoadequatelysetprioritiesforpublicinvestmentstobridgetheinequalitygapswithregards to access to social services.

Althoughtherecognitionandimplementationofcollectiverightsisgenerallynotdependentonthenumericalsizeofanindigenouspeople,therearecases in which the number of individuals belonging

toacommunityorapeopledoesmatter,Thisis,forexamplethecasewhendeterminingtheextensionofacollectiveterritory(CLO),whichisbasedonthecalculationofthespatialneedofagivengroup,calculatedonthebasisoftheirnumbers,demographicgrowthandthecharacteristicsoftheirsocialandproductiveorganization.

InspiteofaveryadvancedlegalrecognitioninBoliviaofindigenouspeoples’rights,thereisthusstillaneedtofurtherdevelopoperationalcriteria,methodologiesandproceduresinordertoovercomethe“statisticalinvisibility”andbetteraddresstheexistingpatternsofexclusions,inequalityanddifferentiated access to social services.Ramiro Molinas Barrios: Los Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas en un Proceso de Cambio de la Naturaleza de la Nación y del Estado, ILO, 2009;http://www.minedu.gov.bo/pre/ley/DS23858.pdf;Características socio demográficas de la población indígena, INE, Bolivia, 2003.

Guatemala:ClassificationcriteriainnationalcensusInGuatemala,theunderstandingofthediverseindigenousidentitieshasevolvedanddeepenedoverthelast30years.Thisisreflectedinthequestionsaskedandtheacceptedcategoriesofanswers in the national censuses carried out from 1981-2002:

yEAR: SOURCE: CLASSIfICATION CRITERIA:

1981 IXCensus Thecriteriausedwasthe“socialestimateoftheperson”,implyingthatthepersongatheringinformationforthecensuswouldmakeanassessmentbasedonhisorherownperceptionofwhetherapersonbelongedtothecategory“indigenous”or“not-indigenous”

1994 XCensus Respondentswereaskedthefollowingquestions:Areyouindigenous?(yes/no)Inwhichlanguagedidyoulearntospeak?(fourmainindigenouslanguagegroups+Spanish)DoyouspeakaMayalanguage?(fourmainindigenouslanguagegroups+Spanish)DoyouwearMayanclothes?(yes/no)

2002 XICensus Allrespondentswereaskedthefollowingquestions:Areyouindigenous?(yes/no)Towhichethnicgroupdoyoubelong?(27options;21Mayagroups,Xincas,Garífunas,Ladinos,none,other)Personsolderthan3years:Mothertongue?(27options;21Mayalanguages,Xinca,Garífuna,Spanish,none,others?Otherlanguages?(27options,21Mayalanguages,Xinca,Garífuna,Spanish,none,others)

UNDP: Informe de Desarrollo Humano, Guatemala, 2005.


Peru:IndigenouspeoplesinthecensusInPeru,the1st Census of Indigenous Communities inPeru,conductedin1993,indicatedthatthecountry’sindigenouspopulationwascomprisedof8millionQuechuas,603,000Aymarasand299,000indigenouspeoplefromtheAmazonregion,accountingfor40%ofthePeruvianpopulation.ThiswastheonlytimethatthistypeofcensuswasconductedinPeru,asanyreferencetomothertongueorlanguagespokenwaseliminatedfrom the 10thNationalCensusin2005which,inpractice,ledtothestatisticaldisappearanceoftheindigenouspeoples.Inthe11th National Census conductedin2007,mothertonguewasusedasthesoleidentificationcriterion,despitethefactthatindigenousorganisationsproposedotherindicatorsfortheidentificationofindigenousandAfro-descendantpeoples.http://www.inei.gob.pe/Case prepared by Myrna Cunningham

Japan:IdentifyingAinuHistorically,theJapaneseGovernmenthasnotrecognizedtheAinuasanindigenouspeople.The1899 Hokkaido Aboriginal Protection Act was the firstlegalinstrumentontheissue,butaimedatassimilatingtheAinuintoJapaneseculture.Thiswaschangedwiththe1997AinuCulturePromotionLaw,whichaimsatpreservingtheAinuculture.ThelawrecognizestheAinuasanethnicgroupinHokkaidoandguarantees,interalia,socialwelfareassistancetotheAinulivinginHokkaido.However,itdoesnotacknowledge the rights of the Ainu living outside ofHokkaidoanddoesnotprovidefortherightstopracticeandfurtherdevelopAinucultureingeneral.Thislimitedapproachwasalsoreflectedinthe2006survey,whichonlycoveredtheAinulivingincommunitieswithasignificantAinupopulationinHokkaido,whileAinulivinginotherareaswereautomaticallyexcluded.Self-identificationisanotherchallenge,asmostAinuhaveinter-marriedwithJapaneseandhavemovedtodifferentregions.Moreover,manyparentsdecidenottotelltheirchildrenthattheyhaveAinuancestorsinhopesofprotectingthechildrenfromthesocialstigmathatisstillwidespread.Forthesereasons,identifyingoneself as Ainu or having access to or knowledge of one’sfamilybackgroundmaybedifficult.

Therefore,theestimatedfiguresofAinuwhohave

mixedJapanesedescentrangefromabout25,000toonemillionpersons.ThisextremelylooseestimatehasbecomeapoliticalrallyingpointforAinuactiviststoforcegovernmentattentiontotheirissues,whilethefiguresdonotnecessarilyreflectthepersonalidentityofallthosewithmixedAinuandJapaneseorigin. There is also a recent trend within certain sectors ofJapanesesocietythatithasbecomefashionabletobeidentifiedasAinu,sinceAinucultureislookeduponasholyorspiritual.ItthusseemsthatsomepeopleidentifythemselvesasAinuwithoutanybackground. This has created some friction in the Ainucommunity,asitisconsideredcrucialtohaveafamily background or community recognition in order toidentifyoneselfasAinu.Self-identificationisnotenoughtolegitimize“Ainuness”inthecommunity.June6,2008,markedahistoricaldayastheJapaneseParliamentpassedaresolution,callingfor the recognition of the Ainu as an indigenous peopleofJapan.Onthesameday,theChiefCabinetSecretarymadeastatement,recognizingthattheAinupeopleisindigenoustothenorthernpartoftheJapanarchipelago,especiallyHokkaido,andthatthey,asanindigenouspeople,possessauniquelanguage,religionandculture.Hefurtherannouncedtheestablishmentofa“GovernmentalPanelofExpertsonAinuAffairs”.ThePanelwillundertakeareviewofAinumatters,withthepurposeofimprovingitspolicyfortheAinu.Thefinalreportfromthecommitteeisscheduledtobefinalizedinthesummer2009.Untilthis,itisstillnotclearwhether the Government’s recognition of the Ainu as anindigenouspeopleimpliesfullrecognitionoftherightsthatareascribedtoindigenouspeoplesunderthe ILO Convention No. 169 and the UN Declaration ontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples.

ThisrecentpolicydevelopmenthasalsostrengthenedtheAinumovement,whichisnowdiscussingtheintegrationofseparateAinuorganizations into one larger umbrella organization ornetwork,therebyovercomingpreviousfrictions.Thiscollectivewayofworkingisunifyingallparties,especiallyamongAinuthemselves.Thefrictionwithin the Ainu community has always been problematic,buttheserecenteventsseemtobebringingapositivechangeintothemovement.Kanako Uzawa: Challenges in the process of self-recognition, ILO, 2008.

II. the concept of IndIgenous peoples In the context of rIghts

25I I . THE CONCEPT Of INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN THE CONTExT Of RIGHTS

AsopposedtothepreviousILOConventionNo.107,adoptedin1957on“indigenousandtribalpopulations”,ConventionNo.169usestheterm“peoples”.1) It was decided during the discussions leadingtotheadoptionofConventionNo.169thatthis term was the only one which could be used todescribeindigenousandtribalpeoples:“thereappearstobeageneralagreementthattheterm“peoples”betterreflectsthedistinctiveidentitythata revised Convention should aim to recognise for thesepopulationgroups”(InternationalLabourConference,75thSession.Partial Revision of the Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, 1957 (no. 107).ReportVI(2),Geneva1988,pp.12-14).

However,duringtheadoptionofConventionNo.169in1989,theILO’smandatebeingeconomicandsocialrights,itwasconsideredoutsideitscompetencetointerpretthepoliticalconceptofself-determination.Forthisreason,adisclaimerasregardstheunderstandingoftheterm“peoples”wasincludedinArticle1(3):

ILOConventionNo.169,Article1(3).The use of the term peoples in this Convention shall not be construed as having anyimplicationsasregardstherightswhichmay attach to the term under international law.

TheobjectiveofArticle1(3)wasthustoavoidinternational legal questions related to the conceptof“peoples”,inparticulartherighttoself-determination,whichisacknowledgedasarightof“allpeoples”,asprovidedforincommonarticle1of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights(ICCPR),andtheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(ICECSR).

WiththeadoptionoftheUNDeclarationonRightsofIndigenousPeoplesin2007,theinternationalcommunityhasacknowledgedindigenouspeoples’righttoself-determination:

1) The Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, No. 107 (1957) was revised by Convention No. 169. It is therefore no longer open for ratification, but remains in force in a number of countries (e.g. Bangladesh, India and Pakistan).

The UNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoplesidentifiesindigenouspeoplesas“peoples”withtherighttoself-determination:Article 3IndigenousPeopleshavetherighttoself-determination. By virtue of that right they freelydeterminetheirpoliticalstatusandfreelypursuetheireconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.Article 4Indigenouspeoples,inexercisingtheirrighttoself-determination,havetherighttoautonomyor self-government in matters relating to their internalandlocalaffairs,aswellaswaysandmeansforfinancingtheirautonomousfunctions.

TheDeclarationrecognizesthatindigenouspeoples,basedontherighttoself-determination,havetherighttofreelypursuetheireconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.Thisrightcannotberealizedunlesstheirpractices,customs,prioritiesandinstitutions are fully acknowledged.

JamesAnaya(2008;citedinHenriksen2008),theUNSpecialRapporteuronthehumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsofindigenouspeoples,notesthattheDeclarationrepresentsabreakwiththehistoricalandongoingdenialofindigenouspeoples’righttoself-determination,andcallsuponstatestoremedy that denial.

The remaining articles of the Declaration elaborate upontheelementsofself-determinationforindigenouspeoplesinlightoftheircommoncharacteristicsandmarktheparametersformeasurestoimplementafutureinwhichself-determination for them is secure. The Declaration requiresthatstates,inconsultationandcooperationwithindigenouspeoples,shalltaketheappropriatemeasures,includinglegislativemeasures,toachievetheendsoftheDeclaration(Article38);including“autonomyorself-government”forindigenouspeoplesovertheir“owninternalandlocalaffairs”(Article4),inaccordancewiththeirowninstitutions,practicesandcustoms.


The Government of Sweden has recently ontwooccasions(UNDocumentsE/C.12/SWE/52006andCCPR/C/SWE/62007) explicitlyacknowledgedthatindigenouspeoples,includingtheSamiinSweden,havethe right to self-determination under common Article1ofICCPRandICESCR:“Itistheviewof the Government of Sweden that indigenous peopleshavetherighttoself-determinationinsofarastheyconstitutepeopleswithinthemeaning of common Article 1 of the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and 1966 International Covenant on Economic,SocialandCulturalRights”(UNDocument CCPR/C/SWE/62007:para5).

Also,theDanish2008ActonGreenlandSelf-Government(seesection4.2.)isexplicitlybuilt on recognition of the right to self-determinationofthepeopleofGreenlandunder international law.

AnotherexampleinthisregardisthedraftNordicSamiConvention(seesection13.2.),formulatedbyaNordicexpertgroupinNovember2005(NordiskSamekonvensjon2005),2)whichrecognizestheSamias“apeople”withtherighttoself-determination.John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.

WhileConventionNo.169issilentontheissueofself-determination,itdoesprovideforparticipation,consultation,self-managementandtherightofindigenouspeoplestodecidetheirownpriorities,allofwhichareimportantmechanismsfortherealization of the right to self-determination as reflectedintheDeclaration.

2) An unofficial English translation of the draft convention is available at the Norwegian Government’s website: http://odin.dep.no/filarkiv/280873/.

Also,itisimportanttonotethatConventionNo.169doesnotplaceanylimitationsontherighttoself-determination or on the obligations that States may have under the broader body of international law regardingindigenouspeoplesinrelationtothisright.

Inaddition,Article35,consistentwithArticle19(8)oftheILOConstitution,clarifiesthatConventionNo.169setsoutminimumstandards,theapplicationofwhich should not adversely affect more favourable rights granted at the national level or through internationalinstrumentsratifiedoracceptedbythecountryinaccordancewithinternationaltreatylaw:

ILOConventionNo.169,Article35TheapplicationoftheprovisionsofthisConvention shall not adversely affect rights andbenefitsofthepeoplesconcernedpursuanttootherConventionsandRecommendations,internationalinstruments,treaties,ornationallaws,awards,customoragreements.

Article19(8)oftheILOConstitutionInnocaseshalltheadoptionofanyConvention or Recommendation by the Conference,ortheratificationofanyConventionbyanyMember,bedeemedtoaffectanylaw,award,customoragreementwhich ensures more favourable conditions to theworkersconcernedthanthoseprovidedfor in the Convention or Recommendation.

TheprovisionsofConventionNo.169andtheDeclarationarethuscompatibleandmutuallyreinforcing.TheDeclaration’sprovisionsdealwithalltheareascoveredbytheConvention.Inaddition,theDeclarationaffirmsrightsthatarenotcoveredbytheConvention,includingtherighttoself-determination.3)

3) For more information see: Information Note for ILO staff and partners: ILO standards and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 2008, available at http://www.pro169.org.

27I I . THE CONCEPT Of INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN THE CONTExT Of RIGHTS

III. government

responsIbIlItIes

29I I I . GOVERNmENT RESPONSIBILIT IES

Allovertheworld,deep-rootedinequalitiesexistbetweenindigenouspeoplesandthedominantcommunities within state boundaries. ILO Convention No. 169 and the UN Declaration callupongovernmentstoensureindigenouspeoples’fundamentalrightsandworktogetherwith indigenous communities to end discrimination both as it relates to inequalities in outcomes – differencesinhealth,education,employment,etc– and as it relates to inequalities in the processes ofgovernance–participationandinvolvementofindigenouspeoplesindecision-making,governmentinstitutionsandprograms.Toachievetheseends,theConventionspecifiestheneedfora)coordinated and systematic action,whichwillensuretheintegration of indigenous rights into government structuresacrosssectorsandprograms;b)reaffirmsthatindigenouspeoplesmustenjoyallfundamental rights,grantedtoallcitizensandc)providesforspecial measures,inordertoeliminatediscrimination.

3.1. COORDINATED AND SySTEmATIC ACTION

Indigenouspeoples’situationistheresultofhistoricaldiscriminationprocessesthathaveinfluencedallaspectsoftheirlivesandwhichcutacross sectors and transcend administrative borders andinstitutionalstructures.ThisisreflectedinthebroadscopeofConventionNo,169,coveringthewholerangeofissuespertainingtoindigenouspeoples’rightsandwell-being.Consequently,ConventionNo.169explicitlycallsforgovernmentsto undertake coordinated and systematic action to ensurethatalltheprovisionsoftheConventionarefullyimplemented.ThisisreflectedinArticle2oftheConvention:

ConventionNo.169,Article2:Article 2(1)Governmentsshallhavetheresponsibilityfordeveloping,withtheparticipationofthepeoplesconcerned,co-ordinatedandsystematicactiontoprotecttherightsofthesepeoplesandtoguaranteerespectfortheir integrity. Article 2(2)Suchactionshallincludemeasuresfor:(a)Ensuringthatmembersofthesepeoplesbenefitonanequalfootingfromtherightsandopportunitieswhichnationallawsandregulations grant to other members of the population;(b)Promotingthefullrealisationofthesocial,economicandculturalrightsofthesepeopleswithrespectfortheirsocialandculturalidentity,theircustomsandtraditionsandtheirinstitutions;(c)Assistingthemembersofthepeoplesconcernedtoeliminatesocio-economicgapsthat may exist between indigenous and other membersofthenationalcommunity,inamannercompatiblewiththeiraspirationsandways of life.

Article2oftheConventionspecifiesthatthepurposeofgovernmentactionistoensureequalityintermsofrightsandopportunitiesandeliminatethesocio-economicgapbetweenindigenouspeoplesand other sectors of society while recognising their specialrights,needsandaspirationsaspeoples.Practically,coordinatedandsystematicactionimpliesundertakingcomprehensivereviewsandrevisionsoflaws,policies,programmesandprojectstoensurethattheseareallalignedwiththeprovisionsforindigenouspeoples’rightsaswell as the establishment of adequate monitoring mechanisms to continuously assess the situation ofindigenouspeoples.Allsuchactionshouldbeundertakenwiththeparticipationofindigenouspeoplesandwithduerespecttotheirsocialandculturalidentity,customs,traditions,institutions,aspirationsandwaysoflife.Theprovisionsonco-ordinated and systematic action are thus naturally linkedtothoseonconsultationandparticipation(seesection5).


TheILOsupervisorybodieshaveemphasizedthat such coordinated and systematic action is the “key to overcoming the deep-seated and enduring inequality that affects indigenous peoples” (GoverningBody,289thSession,March2004,Representationunderarticle24oftheILOConstitution,Mexico,GB.289/17/3:para.133). This isacrucialmessage,asindigenouspeoples’rightsaresometimeswronglyinterpretedasprovidingmoreprivilegesandadvantagestoindigenouspeoplesthantoothersectorsofsociety.Onthecontrary,recognitionofindigenouspeoples’rightsistheprerequisiteforthesepeoplestoparticipateandbenefitonanequalfootinginthenationalsociety and is as such an instrument to eliminate discrimination.

20yearsaftertheadoptionofConventionNo.169,andfollowingthe2007adoptionoftheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,it is generally acknowledged that the challenge istoconverttheserightsintopracticalrealities,throughadequatemeasuresandimplementationmechanisms. Convention No. 169 contains a series ofspecificprovisionsonimplementationtoguidetheprocess.Atthegenerallevel,theILOsupervisorybodieshaveoftenemphasizedtheneedtoreadArticle 2 on coordinated and systematic action in conjunction with Article 33 on the establishment of appropriateinstitutionsandmechanisms:

ConventionNo.169,Article33:1. Thegovernmentalauthorityresponsiblefor the matters covered in this Convention shall ensure that agencies or other appropriatemechanismsexisttoadministertheprogrammesaffectingthepeoplesconcerned,andshallensurethattheyhavethemeansnecessaryfortheproperfulfilmentof the functions assigned to them. 2. Theseprogrammesshallinclude:(a)theplanning,co-ordination,executionandevaluation,inco-operationwiththepeoplesconcerned,ofthemeasuresprovidedforinthisConvention;(b)theproposingoflegislativeandothermeasurestothecompetentauthoritiesandsupervisionoftheapplicationofthemeasurestaken,inco-operationwiththepeoplesconcerned.

CommitteeofExperts:generalobservation2008,published2009.Articles2and33oftheConvention,readtogether,providethatgovernmentsareunderanobligationtodevelop,withtheparticipationofindigenousandtribalpeoples,coordinatedandsystematicactiontoprotecttherightsand to guarantee the integrity of these peoples.Agenciesandotherappropriatemechanisms are to be established to administerprogrammes,incooperationwithindigenousandtribalpeoples,coveringallstagesfromplanningtoevaluationofmeasuresproposedintheConvention.


Again,theConventionunderlinesthattheparticipationofindigenouspeoplesintheplanning,coordination,execution,supervisionandevaluationof such institutions and mechanisms is crucial as is theprovisionofadequateresources.

The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peopleshassimilarprovisionsonthestates’responsibilities:

The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples:Article 8(2)Statesshallprovideeffectivemechanismsforpreventionof,andredressfor:(a)Any action which has the aim or effect of deprivingthemoftheirintegrityasdistinctpeoples,oroftheirculturalvaluesorethnicidentities;(b)Any action which has the aim or effect of dispossessingthemoftheirlands,territoriesorresources;(c)Anyformofforcedpopulationtransferwhich has the aim or effect of violating or undermininganyoftheirrights;(d)Any form of forced assimilation or integration;(e)Anyformofpropagandadesignedtopromoteorinciteracialorethnicdiscrimination directed against them.Article 15(2)Statesshalltakeeffectivemeasures,inconsultationandcooperationwiththeindigenouspeoplesconcerned,tocombatprejudiceandeliminatediscriminationandtopromotetolerance,understandingandgoodrelationsamongindigenouspeoplesandallother segments of society. Article 38 Statesinconsultationandcooperationwithindigenouspeoples,shalltaketheappropriatemeasures,includinglegislativemeasures,toachieve the ends of this Declaration.

AccordingtotheUNSpecialRapporteuronthesituation of human rights and fundamental freedoms ofindigenouspeople,implementingtheUNDeclaration will normally require or may be facilitated bytheadoptionofnewlawsortheamendmentofexistinglegislationatthedomesticlevel,asenvisaged by Article 38 of the Declaration which callsforappropriate“legislativemeasures”.Alsonewregulatoryframeworkswillnormallyberequired,asthoseinplaceinmostcountriesarestilllackingorinsufficient.TheSpecialRapporteurhighlightsthatthe legal and institutional transformations required by theDeclarationareusuallynotsufficientlyaddressedsolelybyenactingspecific“indigenouslaws”,asmanystateshavedone,butratherwillnormallyalsoinvolve the transformation of broader legal structures inkeyareas(UNDocumentA/HRC/9/92008:para.50).


CoordinationonindigenousissueswithintheUNsystem:In2001,theUNPermanentForumonIndigenousIssues(UNPFII)wasestablished,comprisedofeightgovernmentandeightindigenousrepresentatives.TheUNPFIImeetseveryyear,andthousandsofindigenousrepresentativesfromallovertheworldusetheopportunitytopresentanddiscusstheirissuesandexperiences.WiththeestablishmentofthePermanentForum,indigenouspeopleshavegainedanimportantplatformwithintheUNfromwhichtheyaspireto ensure that indigenous issues are taken into consideration in all activities of the UN-System.

ThemandateoftheUNPFIIistoprovideexpertadviceandrecommendationstotheUNEconomicandSocialCouncil(ECOSOC)and the UN system in general on issues of importanceforindigenouspeoples.Theserecommendations can address almost every aspectofindigenouspeoples’lives–namelyeconomicandsocialdevelopment,culture,theenvironment,education,healthand

humanrights.Furthermore,theForumshallraiseawarenessandpromotetheintegrationand coordination of activities related to indigenous issues within the UN system and prepareanddisseminateinformation.

Inparallel,morethan30UNagencies,fundsandprogrammeshaveestablishedtheInter-AgencySupportGroup(IASG).TheaimoftheIASGistosupporttheUNPFII and in general coordinate among itsmemberstobetterpromoteindigenouspeoples’rightsthroughouttheUNsystem.This is in accordance with Article 42 of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples,whichstipulatesthat:

The United Nations, its bodies, including the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, and specialized agencies, including at the country level, and States shall promote respect for and full application of the provisions of this Declaration and follow up the effectiveness of this Declaration.

See more at: www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii

3.2. fUNDAmENTAL RIGHTS

Fundamental rights are inalienable and inherent humanrightsthateveryhumanbeinghasfrombirth,regardlessofrace,ethnicity,gender,religion,classas well as indigenous origin and identity. Indigenous peoplesareentitledtoenjoy all human rights and fundamentalfreedoms,asdoeseveryoneelse.Suchbasicrightsincludetherighttolibertyandequality,aswellasrightstocitizenship,tohealth,education,etc.Thesefundamentalrightsapplyequallytomenand women.

It may seem needless or redundant to state that indigenouspeoplesshouldenjoysuchfundamentalrightsbut,unfortunately,theirhistories are often markedbygenocide,ethnocide,discrimination,forcedlabour–and,inmanycases,violationsof their fundamental rights still continue. Current violationsoffundamentalrightscan,forexample,taketheformofdenialofcitizenship,bondedlabourandhumantraffickingorrestrictedaccesstoeducationandhealthservices.Often,womenare more affected by such violations than men.


ILOConventionNo.169:Article 31. Indigenousandtribalpeoplesshallenjoy the full measure of human rights and fundamental freedoms without hindrance ordiscrimination.TheprovisionsoftheConventionshallbeappliedwithout discrimination to male and female membersofthesepeoples.2. No form of force or coercion shall be used in violation of the human rights and fundamentalfreedomsofthepeoplesconcerned,includingthe rights contained in this Convention.Article 4 (3)Enjoymentofthegeneralrightsofcitizenship,withoutdiscrimination,shallnotbeprejudicedinanywaybysuchspecialmeasures.

TheILODeclarationonFundamentalPrinciplesandRightsatWorksetsoutfourcategoriesoffundamentalprinciplesandrightsatwork,namely:

(a) freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining;(b)the elimination of all forms of forced or compulsorylabour;(c)theeffectiveabolitionofchildlabour;(d)theeliminationofdiscriminationinrespectofemploymentandoccupation.

Italso“declaresthatallMembers,eveniftheyhavenotratifiedtheConventionsinquestion,haveanobligationarisingfromtheveryfactofmembershipoftheILOtorespect,topromoteandtorealize,ingoodfaithandinaccordancewiththeConstitution,theprinciplesconcerningthefundamentalrightswhicharethesubjectofthoseConventions”.ILOConventionNo.169,inArticles20(2)reinforcesthesefundamentalrights(seealsosection12):

Article 20(2)Governmentsshalldoeverythingpossibletopreventanydiscriminationbetweenworkersbelongingtothepeoplesconcernedandother workers […]Article 20(3)The measures taken shall include measures toensure:[…](d)thatworkersbelongingtothesepeoplesenjoyequalopportunitiesandequaltreatmentinemploymentformenandwomen,andprotectionfromsexualharassment.

The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoplesalsohasastrongfocusonindigenouspeoples’righttoenjoyhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms,includinginthefollowingarticles:

Article 1Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttothefullenjoyment,asacollectiveorasindividuals,ofall human rights and fundamental freedoms as recognized in the Charter of the United Nations,theUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights and international human rights law.Article 2Indigenouspeoplesandindividualsarefreeandequaltoallotherpeoplesandindividualsand have the right to be free from any kind of discrimination,intheexerciseoftheirrights,inparticularthatbased on their indigenous origin or identity.Article 6Every indigenous individual has the right to a nationality.Article 71. Indigenous individuals have the rights to life,physicalandmentalintegrity,libertyandsecurityofperson.2.Indigenouspeopleshavethecollectiverighttoliveinfreedom,peaceandsecurityasdistinctpeoplesandshallnotbesubjectedto any act of genocide or any other act of violence,includingforciblyremovingchildrenofthegrouptoanothergroup.


SpecificmechanismsonindigenouspeopleswithintheUNHumanRightsCouncil.WithintheUnitedNations,theHumanRights Council deals with human rights and fundamental freedoms for all. The task of the Councilistopromoteuniversalrespectfortheprotectionofhumanrightsandtoaddresssituationsofviolationsofhumanrights,includinggrossandsystematicviolations,andmake recommendations thereon. The Human RightsCouncil(HRC)wasestablishedin2006and consists of 47 UN Member-States. A numberofUNprocessesdealingspecificallywithindigenouspeoplesfallundertheHRC.Among these are the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous people and the Expert

Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (EMRIP).The EMRIP was established in December 2007,inordertoprovidetheHRCwithstudies and research-based advice on the bestmeanstodevelopandmainstreaminternationalstandardsthatpromoteandprotectthehumanrightsofindigenouspeoples.TheExpertswillpointoutmeasurestoensureimplementationoftherightsofindigenouspeoples,amongotherthingsbyreviewingandevaluatingbestpracticesandobstaclesforthepromotionandprotectionofindigenouspeoples’rights.EMRIPreportsannually to the Human Rights Council on its work.

TheUNSpecialRapporteurhasamandateto,amongothers:

Examine ways and means of overcoming •existing obstacles to the full and effective protectionofthehumanrightsandfundamental freedoms of indigenous peoples;Gather,request,receiveandexchange•information and communications from all relevant sources on alleged violations of indigenouspeoples´humanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms;Formulate recommendations and •proposalsonappropriatemeasuresandactivitiestopreventandremedyviolationsof the human rights and fundamental freedomsofindigenouspeople.Inthefulfillmentofhismandate,the•SpecialRapporteur:Presentsannualreportsonparticular•topicsorsituationsofspecialimportanceregardingthepromotionandprotectionoftherightsofindigenouspeoples;Undertakescountryvisits;•Exchanges information with Governments •concerning alleged violations of the rights ofindigenouspeoples;Undertakesactivitiestofollow-uponthe•recommendationsincludedinhisreports.

Seemoreinformationat:http://www.ohchr.org


3.3. SPECIAL mEASURES

Incaseswhereindigenouspeoplesareinadisadvantagedposition,duetolackofrecognitionandprotectionoftheirrightaswellasinequalitiesgeneratedthroughhistoricalprocessesofdiscriminationandmarginalization,theremaybea need for special measures to overcome this situation.ThisisreflectedinArticle4ofConventionNo.169:

ConventionNo.169,Article4:1. Specialmeasuresshallbeadoptedasappropriateforsafeguardingthepersons,institutions,property,labour,culturesandenvironmentofthepeoplesconcerned.2. Suchspecialmeasuresshallnotbecontrarytothefreely-expressedwishesofthepeoplesconcerned.3. Enjoyment of the general rights of citizenship,withoutdiscrimination,shallnotbeprejudicedinanywaybysuchspecialmeasures.

InadditiontothegeneralprovisionforspecialmeasuresinArticle4,anumberofspecificprovisionsrefertothedevelopmentofspecialmeasures,forexamplerelatedtoprotectionoflands(Article14.2)andtheenvironment(Article7.4),employment(Article20),health(Article25s)andeducation(Article28).

Ratherthanamountingto“additional”rightsorprivileges,specialmeasurestoprotecttheinstitutions,property,labour,culturesandenvironmentofindigenouspeoplesarelegitimateand called for under the Convention because their ultimate objective is to ensure that indigenous peoplesenjoyallhumanrights,inlinewitheveryoneelse.Specialmeasuresarenotdeemedtobediscriminatoryvis-à-visthenon-indigenouspartofthepopulation.1)

1) ILO Convention No. 111, which addresses discrimination in employment and occupation, provides that “Special measures of protection or assistance provided in other Conventions or Recommendations adopted by the International Labour Conference shall not be deemed to be discrimination” (Article 5.1).

Internationalhumanrightslawimposesobligationsonstatestorespectprotectandfulfillinternationallyrecognizedhumanrights.ThespecialmeasuresenvisagedintheConventionareofparticularimportanceinthiscontext.

Specialmeasuresaimingattheachievementofeffective equality - e.g. a quota system to ensure equalaccessofindigenousandtribalpeoplestocivilserviceemploymentwouldhavetobeendedonce their objective has been achieved. On the otherhand,positivemeasuresmaybenecessaryonacontinuingbasis,e.g.measurestoprotectindigenouscultures,environmentorlandsrights.

Article 27 of the InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRightsstipulatesthatpersonsbelongingtoethnicreligiousorlinguistic minorities shall not be denied the right,incommunitywiththeothermembersoftheirgroup,toenjoytheirownculture,toprofessandpractisetheirownreligion,or to use their own language. In its General CommentNo.23(1994)onarticle27,theHumanRightsCommitteestated:“[A] State party is under an obligation to ensure that the existence and the exercise of this right are protected against their denial or violation. Positive measures of protection are, therefore, required not only against the acts of the State party itself, whether through its legislative, judicial or administrative authorities, but also against the acts of other persons within the State party.

The Human Rights Committee also observed that “as long as those measures are aimed at correcting conditions which prevent or impair the enjoyment of the rights guaranteed under article 27, they may constitute a legitimate differentiation under the Covenant, provided that they are based on reasonable and objective criteria”(UNdoc.CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5).


3.4. kEy PROVISIONS fOR ImPLEmENTATION

Insummary,thekeyprovisionsofConventionNo.169withregardstoimplementationpointtothedualityoftheoverallpurpose:

To overcome discrimination and ensure that •indigenouspeoplesbenefitonanequalfootinginthenationalsociety(seealsosection3.2.onfundamentalrights);Toensurethatindigenouspeoplescan•developtheirsocialandculturalidentity,customs,traditionsandinstitutions,inaccordancewiththeirownaspirations(seealsosection4onrespectforindigenousinstitutions).

Consequently,theConventionreflectsthisdualityinthesuggestedimplementationmechanisms,whichaimat:

Ensuringthatindigenouspeopleshave•equal access to rights and services within the national society and that the concern forindigenouspeoplesisconsideredinallsectors(mainstreaming);Overcoming the marginalization and •discriminationofindigenouspeoplesandrespondingtotheirspecialneeds,rightsandaspirations.

The key elements for ensuring adequate implementationare:

Coordinatedandsystematicaction,ensuring•coherence among the various government institutionsthatholdresponsibilitiesvis-à-visindigenouspeoples;Establishment of adequate institutions and •mechanisms with the necessary resources thatenablethemtofulfilltheirfunction;Developmentofspecialmeasuresto•safeguardthepersons,institutions,property,labour,culturesandenvironmentofindigenouspeoples;Establishment of institutionalized mechanisms •that ensure adequate consultation and

participationofindigenouspeoplesinallstagesofimplementation,includingplanning,co-ordination,executionandevaluation(seealsosection5).

Inmostcases,coordinatedandsystematicactionisalonger-termprocessthatwillrequireanumberofsimultaneousandcomplementarysteps:

Careful analysis and amendment of existing •laws,policiesandprogramsinallsectors,inconsultationwiththepeoplesconcerned,to ensure that these are in line with the Convention;Enactment of new legislation or regulations •wherenecessary,andfollowingconsultationtomaketheprovisionsoftheConventionoperational;Establishmentofspecificinstitutionsto•promoteandimplementindigenouspeoples’rights,or-particularlyincountrieswithalargeindigenouspopulation-institutionstocoordinatetheimplementation,acrosssectorsandlevelsofgovernance;Establishmentofpermanentmechanisms•at all levels of governance for indigenous peoples’participationindecision-making,includingfortheplanning,implementation,monitoring,evaluationandreportingonimplementationmeasures;Establishmentofclearprioritiesand•timeframesforimplementation,inordertogenerate collaboration and minimize risk of conflict;Assignment of necessary budgetary •resources,bothforspecificactionsandformainstreamingeffortsacrosssectors;Awareness-raising,trainingandcapacity-•buildingofindigenousrepresentativesandcommunities,decision-makers,governmentofficials,judges,mediaaswellasthepublicingeneral.

(Seealsosection14onimplementationandsupervisionoftheConvention).


3.5. COmmENTS By THE ILO SUPERVISORy BODIES: COORDINATED AND SySTEmATIC ACTION

Mexico:CoordinatedandsystematicactionatalllevelsofgovernanceIn2004-5,theILO’ssupervisorybodiesdealtwith a set of extensive allegations regarding non- implementationofConventionNo.169,includingin the context of constitutional reforms at both the federal and state levels in Mexico. Considering thatsomeprovisionsofthereformsdelegatedtheresponsibilityforregulatingmatterssuchasthecriteriaforrecognitionofindigenouspeoplesandcommunitiestofederatedentities,theCommitteeofExpertsunderlinedtheimportanceofArticle2of the Convention and requested the Government to“takethenecessarymeasurestoensure,withtheparticipationofthepeoplesconcerned,coordinatedandsystematicactiontoprotecttherightsofindigenouspeoplesandtoguaranteethat,whenadoptingtherelevantlegislativeandadministrativemeasures,bothatthelevelofthefederalGovernmentandofstateassemblies,the

rights set forth in the Convention are guaranteed as aminimumcommondenominator”(Committeeofexperts,75thSession,2004,Observation,Mexico,published2005).

Furthermore,makingreferencetothegeneralframework of discrimination existing in Mexico and noting that in effect the socio-economic situation ofindigenouspopulationsisinferiortothatofthepopulationingeneral,theCommitteestressedtheneedforaparticulareffortbytheGovernmenttoendthissituationandemphasizedthatthisisthetaskthat the Government itself undertook when ratifying Convention No. 169.

TheCommitteealsonotedtheprogrammesformulated by the Government to achieve equality forindigenouspeoplesandunderlinedthat“increasingthenumberofisolatedplansisnotsufficienttoachieveaneffectiveinclusionpolicy.ItisnotentirelyclearwherethecomplementarynatureandcoordinationbetweentheprogrammesdescribedbytheGovernmentlies”.


The Committee stressed that full and effective applicationofArticle2oncoordinatedandsystematicaction“iskeytoovercomingthedeep-seatedandenduringinequalitythataffectsindigenouspeoples”.Therefore,itrequestedtheGovernmentthat,“whenestablishingthevariousdevelopmentplansandprogrammesforthepeoplesconcerned,itensuresthatthesefallwithinaframeworkofcoordinatedandsystematicaction,withthefullparticipationoftheindigenouspeoples”.Governing Body, 289th Session, March 2004, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Mexico, GB.289/17/3.

Bolivia:Coordinatedandsystematicaction.In2004,theBolivianGovernmentreportedtotheCommitteeofExpertsthat,“inacontextofgreatdispersionofthesupportprovidedforindigenousdevelopment,astructuredapproachhasbeendevelopedfocusingonfundamentalaspectsandtheethnicdemocratizationofthecountry”.In2003,aMinistryhadbeencreatedwithresponsibilityforIndigenousAffairsandAboriginalPeoples(MAIPO)astheleadingstatebodyforindigenousmatters,“responsibleforensuringthepreparationandimplementationofstandards,policies,programmesandprojectsrelatingtoindigenouspeoples,eventhoughotherministries,suchastheMinistryofMiningandHydrocarbons,alsomanageprojectsrelatingtoindigenousmattersintheirfieldsofcompetence”.

TheGovernmentindicatedthat,inordertofacilitatetheparticipationofindigenouspeoples,anAdvisoryCouncilhadbeenestablished,composedofsixgovernmentrepresentativesandsixrepresentativesof indigenous organizations. The Council has operatedonanirregularbasis,particularlyduetotheconstantrotationofthepersonnelofboththestatebodiesandindigenousorganizations,buttheGovernmentindicatedthatpriorityistobegiventoits reactivation and consolidation.

TheCommitteeofExpertsexpressedconcernat the irregular functioning of the machinery for participationandconsultationandemphasizedthat“theachievementofpermanentdialogueatalllevels,asrequiredbytheConvention,wouldcontributetopreventingconflictandbuildinganinclusivemodelofdevelopment”.Furthermore,theCommitteenoted

that“thefundamentalproblemfortheapplicationof the Convention is not so much the absence of legislation,asthedifficultiesinitsimplementation”and urged the Government to redouble its efforts to achievethecoordinationofexistingprogrammes,withtheparticipationofindigenouspeoplesatallstagesoftheirimplementation,fromplanningthrough to evaluation.

Furthermore,theGovernmentindicatedthatpracticesofexclusionanddiscriminationcontinuedtoaffectpublicpolicies(lackofclarityandprecision,particularlyinthepromotionofequitableeconomicdevelopment)andtheformulationandimplementationoflaws.The1995changestotheConstitutionopenedupnewandsubstantialpossibilitiestoreversethesituationofexclusionwhichhadhistoricallyaffectedindigenouspeoples.ThespecialmeasuresdevelopedinthisregardincludedthecreationofIndigenousMunicipalDistricts(DMI).However,theimplementationencountereddifficulties,duetothediscontinuousnatureofindigenouslands;thedualfrontiersbetweenthepoliticaldivisionoftheStateandindigenouslands,whichhadgivenrisetotheoverlappingofterritories;thegrantingoftitletocommunitylands,whichhadnotalwaysfollowedmunicipallimitsandgivenrisetoincompatibilitiesbetweenpublicownership,privatepropertyandcommunalproperty;andtheestablishmentofmunicipalitieswithoutconsideringtheirviability,combined with a centralized distribution of resources. Committee of Experts, 76th Session, 2005, Individual Direct Request, Bolivia, submitted 2006.

Guatemala:TheneedforcontinuousdialogueonapplicationIn2007,theCommitteeofExpertsnotedthatacoordinatingbody(theIndigenousInterinstitutionalCoordinationoftheState)hadbeensetupinGuatemala,comprising29stateinstitutionsinvolvedinindigenousissueswiththepurposeofcoordinatingandadvisingonpublicpolicyrelatingtoindigenouspeoples.TheCommitteeofExpertsrecalled that Articles 2 and 33 of Convention No. 169provideforcoordinatedandsystematicactionwiththeparticipationofindigenouspeoplesfromtheconceptionthroughtotheevaluationstagesofthemeasuresprovidedforintheConvention.


Itemphasizedthatconsultation“extendsbeyondconsultationonspecificcases:itmeansthatapplicationoftheprovisionsoftheConventionmustbe systematic and coordinated and undertaken in cooperationwiththeindigenouspeoplesaspartofagradualprocessinwhichsuitablebodiesandmachineryareestablishedforthepurpose”.Committee of Experts, 77th Session, 2006, Observation, Guatemala, published 2007.

Argentina:Developmentofadequatemechanisms,atfederalandprovinciallevelsInArgentina,severalinitiativesweretakenin2006-7 to strengthen the institutional basis for betterimplementationofConventionNo.169,particularlythebodiesresponsibleforcoordinatedandsystematicaction(Articles2and33oftheConvention),andthoseresponsibleforconsultation,participationandrepresentativenessissues.

Inthiscontext,anIndigenousParticipationCouncil(CPI)wasestablished,withamandatethatincludedensuringindigenouspeoples’participationinthealignment of domestic legislation with Convention No.169.Also,theCPIsetupabureauforthecoordinationofrepresentativesatregionallevel.Inasecondstage,aCoordinatingCouncilwillbeestablished,consistingofrepresentativesoftheMinistriesoftheInterior,theEconomy,Labour,EducationandJustice,theprovincesandtheindigenouspeoplestooverseetheNationalRegisterofIndigenousCommunities,identifyproblemsandestablishprioritiesforsolvingthem,andsettinguptheprogrammeofactivitiesoftheNationalInstituteforIndigenousAffairs(INAI)forthelong-andmedium-term.

TheCommitteeofExpertsnotedwithinterestthatthe Government is laying the institutional bases forcoordinatedandsystematicapplicationoftheConvention,andexpressedthehopethattheGovernmentwouldpursueitseffortstostrengthenthese bodies in order to broaden the institutional basisforfurtherparticipationofindigenouspeoplesinpublicpoliciesaffectingthem,inaccordancewithArticles 2 and 33 of the Convention.

Withregardstofederalism,theCommitteeofExpertsnoted“thattheGovernmentreferstodifficultiesinapplyingsomekeyprovisionsofthe

Convention,suchasthosepertainingtolandandnaturalresources,becauseofthedeepeningoffederalism that occurred following the constitutional reformof1994whichplacedresponsibilityforthesemattersinthehandsoftheprovinces”.TheCommitteenotedtheprioritygiventoestablishingfederalcompetenceformattersinvolvingindigenouscommunitiesandpeoples.TheConstitutionoftheArgentineRepublicprovidesforinvolvementoftheprovincesintheissuingoflegislation,whichmeansthattheprovincescantakepartindevelopingtherightsofindigenouspeoplesandcommunitiesinlaw,providedtheyrecognizetheminimumfundamentalrights laid down in the national Constitution. In this context,itisimportanttonotethatinArgentinelawinternationaltreaties(suchasConventionNo.169)takeprecedenceovernationallaw(Constitution,Arts.31and75,para.22).

TheCommitteeexpressedthehopethatthenationalGovernmentwouldtakethenecessarystepstodisseminate the rights laid down in the Convention amongprovincialgovernmentsandparliaments,and that it would make use of the abovementioned participationtoensurethattheprovincialparliamentsdeveloplegislationthatmeetstherequirementsofthe Convention.Committee of Experts, 77th Session, 2006, Observation, Argentina, published 2007; 79th Session, 2008, Argentina, published 2009; Governing Body representation, 2008, GB. 303/19/7.

3.6. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: GOVERNmENT RESPONSIBILITIES

3.6.1Coordinatedandsystematicaction

Nepal’sTaskForcefortheimplementationofConventionNo.169NepalratifiedILOConventionNo.169in2007andestablished a high-level government Task Force toreviewexistinggovernmentprogrammesandpoliciesandprepareacomprehensiveplanfortheimplementationoftheConvention.TheTaskForcewascomprisedofrepresentativesfrom15relevantministriesaswellasindigenousrepresentativesfromtheNationalFoundationfortheDevelopmentofIndigenousNationalities(NFDIN)andtheNepal


FederationforIndigenousNationalities(NEFIN).

The main objectives of the Task Force were as follows:

(a)Clearly identify the government responsibilitiesonthebasisoftheprovisionsoftheConvention;(b)ClearlyidentifythoseprovisionsoftheConventionthathavebeenimplementedbythegovernment;(c)DevelopandpresentadetailedActionPlanthatidentifiesactivitiestobeimplementedwithaviewtoreformoflegal,administrativeandpolicymattersandwhileformulatingthisplan,considerationwillbegiventoprioritiesdeterminedbyindigenousnationalitiesandthecapacityoftheGovernment;(d)Provide recommendations on establishment of necessary mechanism to coordinateimplementationactivitiesatthecentral and local level.

TheTaskForceestablishedfocalpointsineach of the ministries and carried out a series

ofconsultationswithindigenouspeoples’representativesandotherstakeholders.Withinatenmonthperiod,theTaskForceproducedalegalandpolicyreviewidentifyinggapsbetweentheprovisionoftheConventionandexistingNepalilaw.Basedonthis,theTaskForcedevelopedaNationalActionPlanforImplementationoftheConvention.NationalconsultationsonthedraftplanwerecarriedoutinNovember2008withrepresentativesfromthe59recognizedindigenousnationalities,aswellasotherindigenousrepresentatives.AsofMarch2009,however,theplanhadnotbeenfinallyendorsedbythe Government.

TheapproachtakentoimplementationinNepalisnoteworthyparticularlyforitscoordinatednature,bothinbringingallofthemaingovernmentstakeholders together in a high-level Task Force andinproposingcomprehensivereviewandreformofexistinglegislationandprogrammesto ensure integration of the Convention into all relevant government sectors. The Task Force itself isnolongeractive,followingthesubmissionoftheActionPlanandthecompletionofitsmandate,butitisexpectedthatanotherhigh-levelcoordination


mechanismwilltakeitsplace.Programme to Promote ILO Convention No. 169, project reports Nepal, 2008-9.

Bolivia:Mainstreamingindigenouspeoples’rightsinthestateapparatusInBolivia,theStatehistoricallyhaspursuedagoalof“integrating”indigenouspeoples,inordertobuildahomogenousnation.However,inthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,itbecameincreasinglyclearthat these efforts had failed and that indigenous peoplesmaintainedtheiridentityasdistinctpeoples.Recognitionofindigenouspeoplesasdistinctpeopleswasreflectedintheinstitutionalstructureestablished to address indigenous issues.

ThefirstinstitutionestablishedwastheBolivianIndigenistInstitute,whichwasestablishedalreadyinthe1940s,butwasessentiallyanignoredagency until the emergence of a strong indigenous movementinthe1990s.In1993,theagencywasreplacedbytheNationalSecretariatforEthnic,GenderandGenerationalIssues.In1994,theVice-MinistryofIndigenousIssuesandAboriginalPeopleswasestablished,followedin2000bytheMinistryof Peasant Issues and Indigenous and Aboriginal Peoples.UnderthisMinistry,aVice-MinistryforIndigenousAffairswascreated.In2003,theGovernment established the Ministry of Indigenous AffairsandAboriginalPeoples.

Throughoutthisprocess,themainchallengewastodefineanewrelationshipbetweenindigenouspeoplesandtheState,theGovernmentandsocietyatlarge.Inthiscontext,oneofthekeyproblemswastheinvisibilityoftheindigenouspopulation,asindigenouspeopleswerenotrecognizedingovernmentpolicies,structuresandinstitutionsasdistinctpeopleswithspecificrights.Someofthefactorsleadingtothisinvisibilitywere:

Weakimplementationofexistingstandards•as well as slow elaboration of new standards torecognizeindigenouspeoples’rightsintheConstitutionsandwithinspecificsectors;Fragmentationofpoliciesandsectoral•programmesrelatedtoindigenouspeoples;Weakreflectionofindigenouspeoples’•rightsinsectoralpoliciesandprogrammesas well as lack of administrative regulations andprocedures,includingformonitoring

andevaluatingtheimpactofprogrammestoeradicatepovertyandreachtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals;Lackofmechanismstogatherperiodic•information from key administrative registers such as health and education.

Theseproblemsalsocontributedtothedifficultiesencounteredindevelopinganadequateinstitutionalstructuretoimplementindigenouspeoples’rights.The successive institutions were all characterized by limitedinstitutionalcapacityandpoliticalinfluence,limitedfinancialresourcesandstaff,non-qualifiedstaff,limitedscopeofactivitiesandmeagerresults.

The change of government in Bolivia in 2006 impliedaradicalshiftinpoliciesvis-à-visindigenouspeoples.TheNationalDevelopmentPlan2006-10doesnothaveaspecificfocusonindigenouspeoplesbutincludestherightsofindigenouspeoplesasacross-cuttingtheme,asthebasisforallgovernmentpoliciesthroughoutthePlan.

ThePlanisorientedtowardsthe“decolonisation”oftheState,implying“intheareaofpolitics,toacceptthepoliticalpracticesofthedominatedandexcludedpeoples;intheareaofeconomy,torecognizetheeconomiesoftheagriculturalandnomadicpeoplesaswellasthoseoftheurbancommunities”(PlanNacionaldeDesarrollodeBolivia2006-10).

Similarly,thecurrentinstitutionalstructureoftheStatedoesnotcontemplateaspecificinstitutionwithresponsibilityforindigenouspeoples’rights.TheGovernmenthaspubliclystatedthatinacountrylikeBolivia,withamajorityindigenouspopulation,theserights cannot be addressed by a single Ministry but mustbeaddressedbytheentireStateapparatus.Consequently,allgovernmentpoliciesandprogrammesmustcontributetotheimplementationofindigenouspeoples’rightsasrecognizedintheConstitutionandinlegislation,withthefullparticipationofindigenouspeoples’organizations.

Inthiscontext,theGovernmenthasprioritizedafewspecificprogrammesintheMinistryofDevelopmentPlanningandtheMinistryofthePresidency,aimedatmainstreamingindigenouspeoplesindevelopmentstrategies,policiesandprogrammesatnationalandprovinciallevelsaswellasintheexecutive,legislative


and judicial branches. The mainstreaming efforts includeactionatnationalandprovinciallevelstoraiseawarenessandsensitizethegeneralpopulationonindigenouspeoples’rights.

Inaddition,theMinistryforRuralDevelopment,AgricultureandEnvironmenthasaspecialvice-Ministry on Lands and Territories to address issues relatedtoCommunalLandsofOrigin(CLO).Ramiro Molinas Barrios: Los Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas en un Proceso de Cambio de la Naturaleza de la Nación y del Estado, ILO, 2009.

Ecuador:DevelopmentCouncilThereare14officiallyrecognizedindigenouspeoplesinEcuador. Inlate2006,theUNSpecialRapporteuronindigenousissuespointedoutthat“[w]hilethe1998EcuadorianConstitutionembodiesspecificcollectiverightsforindigenouspeoplesandnationalitiesinvariousfields,thesehaveyettobeincorporatedintothecorrespondingsecondarylegislation,makingtheirfullimplementationdifficult”.It was furthermore noted that the Government had established a number of state institutions to addressthesituationofindigenouspeoples,creatingopportunitiesforindigenouspeopletoparticipateintheimplementationofgovernmentpolicies.

The 2007 Law on Public Institutions of the IndigenousPeoplesofEcuador,2) regulates the compositionandmandateoftheCouncilfortheDevelopmentoftheNationsandPeoplesofEcuador.UndertheLaw,theCouncilischargedwithdefiningpublicpoliciesandstrategiestopromotethesustainabledevelopmentandtheimprovementofsocial,economicandspiritualconditionsoftheindigenouspeoplesofEcuador.TheCouncilisgovernedbytwodifferentexecutiveboards,namely the Council of Indigenous Nationalities and PeoplesandtheNationalExecutiveCouncil.Whilethe former is constituted exclusively by indigenous representatives,theNationalExecutiveCouncilincludesarepresentativeofthePresidentoftheRepublic,whochairstheCommittee.http://www.codenpe.gov.ec;R. Stavenhagen, Report of the mission to Ecuador, UN Doc. A/HRC/4/32/Add.2, 28 December 2006.

2) Ley Orgánica de las Instituciones Públicas de Pueblos Indígenas del Ecuador que se Autodefinen como Nacionalidades de Raíces Ancestrales.

Philippines:TheNationalCommissiononIndigenousPeoples.InthePhilippines,indigenouspeoplesrepresentapproximately15-20%ofthetotalpopulation.ThelegalframeworkfortheprotectionoftheirrightsisprovidedbytheIndigenousPeoplesRightsAct(IPRA)of1997.PursuanttothisAct,theNationalCommissiononIndigenousPeoples(NCIP)wasestablished as anindependentagencyundertheOfficeofthePresident.

NCIPis“theprimarygovernmentagencyresponsiblefortheformulationandimplementationofpolicies,plansandprogramstopromoteandprotecttherights and well-being of the Indigenous Cultural Communities/IndigenousPeoples(ICC/IPs)andtherecognitionoftheirancestraldomains”(IPRA,section38).TheNCIPiscomposedofsevenCommissionersbelongingtoICCs/IPs.TheCommissionersareappointedbythePresidentofthePhilippinesfromalistofrecommendedcandidatessubmittedbyindigenouspeoples.Additionally,itshouldbenotedthatsection16oftheIndigenousPeoplesRightActstipulatesthat“theStateshallensurethattheICCs/IPsshallbegivenmandatoryrepresentationinpolicy-makingbodiesandotherlocallegislativecouncils.”http://www.ncip.gov.ph; R. Stavenhagen, Report of the mission to the Philippines, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2003/90/Add.3, 5 March 2003.

Venezuela:RecognitioninConstitutionandlegislation.Venezuelaishometoapproximately27differentindigenousgroups.In1999,anewConstitutionwaspassedwhich,forthefirsttime,recognizedindigenouspeoples’rights.ItwasdraftedbyaConstituentAssembly,composedof131members,threeofwhichwereelectedexclusivelybyindigenouspeoples.Thisrepresentedanimportantwatershedinthepoliticalparticipationofindigenouspeoplesinthepoliticallifeofthenation.Indigenouspeoples’righttopoliticalparticipationisnowenshrinedinarticle125oftheConstitution,whichaffirmstheState’sobligationtoensuretheirrepresentationintheNationalAssembly.Inthisconnection,the2005OrganicActonIndigenousPeoplesandCommunitiesestablishes that indigenouspeoplesmustberepresentedinthe


National Assembly by at least by three delegates. The Organic Act also recognizes indigenous peoples’righttomaintainanddeveloptheirownsocialandpoliticalorganization,asgroundedintheircustomsandtraditions,andprovidesforthecreationofindigenousmunicipalities,whichwillbegovernedaccording to the customary law of the various indigenouscommunitiesinvolved.Furthermore,theActrecognizesspecialindigenousjurisdiction.Itwill be exercised within indigenous territories by the legitimate traditional authorities on the condition that it is in conformity with human rights as enshrined in the Constitution and in the international agreements ratifiedbyVenezuela.

The Constitution establishes Venezuela as a democratic,multiethnicandmulticulturalsociety,andrecognisesindigenouslanguagesasofficiallanguagesforitsindigenouspeoples.Itestablishesrespectforinterculturality(Art.100);recognitionofindigenouspeoplesandcommunities,includingtheirorganisation,culture,habitsandcustoms,languageandhabitat;inalienableandnon-prescriptiblenativerightstoland;andtherighttoethnicidentity,includingsacredplaces,andinterculturalandbilingual education.

In accordance with the mandate set out in Article 119oftheConstitution,Venezuelainitiatedalanddemarcationandtitlingprocessforthe35indigenouspeopleslivingintheterritory.Thisprovidestheconditionsthatensurethattheindigenouscommunitiesandpeoplescanactivelyparticipateinthecountry’slife,preservetheircultureand exercise self-determination in internal matters.The Constitution of Venezuela: http://www.tsj.gov.ve/legislacion/constitucion1999.htm;Ley Orgánica de Pueblos y Comunidades Indígenas: http://www.asembleanacional.gov.ve

Africa:Non-discriminationanddevelopmentofinstitutionsTheConstitutionsofBurundi,CongoandtheDRChavetakenstepstowardstheinclusionofindigenouspeoplesbyemphasisingminorityprotectionandthevalueoftolerance.InitsPreamble,the2005ConstitutionofBurundideclaresthatminoritypoliticalpartiesandtheprotectionofethnic and cultural minorities are integral to good

governance. The Constitution further requires that all Burundians live in harmony and tolerance with each other. Every Burundian further has the duty to promotetoleranceinhisorherrelationswithothers.The 2002 Congolese Constitution criminalises incitementtoethnichatredandalsoplacesadutyonindividualstopromotemutualtolerance.The2006DRCConstitutiongoesonestepfurtherbyincludingmembershipofa“culturalorlinguisticminority”asabasisfornon-discriminationalongside“race”and“ethnicity”.Inaddition,theStatehasthedutytopromotetheharmoniouscoexistenceofallethnicgroupsinthecountryandtoprotectall“vulnerableandminoritygroups”.

UgandahasrecognizedthattheNorthernpartofitsterritory,Karamoja,occupiedmostlybypastoralistcommunities,hasspecialproblemsthatrequirespecialactiononthepartofgovernment.It is this recognition which has led to the creation of the Ministry in Charge of Karamoja Affairs. The implementationofspecialprogrammesaimedat addressing the human rights issues of the indigenous Karamojong3)pastoralistshasnotbeenverysuccessfulbutitprovidesaframeworkthatsuccessivegovernmentscanbuilduponandpossiblycreatebetterconditionsfortheareaanditspeople.

TheCentralAfricanRepublichasalsocreatedterritorialentitieswhichhavethepotentialofevolvingintoself-managingunits.Sincethe1960s,sevencommunes have been created with autonomous municipalcouncils.Despitethefacttheywerecreated to settle nomadic communities such as theMbororo,thefactthatthesecommunitieshavetheirownautonomous,electedcouncilscouldbeanentrypointforreinforcingtheirparticipationinthe day-to-day management of their own affairs. PastoralistshavealsoputinplaceaNationalFederationofPastoralists,whichhascertaindecision-makingpowersonpastoralistissues.Inasimilarvein,theGovernmentofEthiopiahasadoptedanewstrategyonpastoraldevelopment,whichhasincreasedthelevelofcooperationbetweenthepastoralistsandregionalgovernments.Followingthefederalgovernment’slead,theOromiya,Afar3) Karamojong are the people of Karamoja. It is common among indigenous communities in Africa to have the name of the territory to be one and the same as the name of the people occupying it. This links people to their place of origin as an inalienable right.


andSouthernPeoples’regionalgovernmentshaveformedpastoralcommissions.

InBurkinaFaso,theStateandterritorialcollectivesaremandatedwiththeidentification,protectionandconservationofareaswherepastoralismtakeplace.2005 Constitution of Burundi; 2002 Congolese Constitution;2006 DRC Constitution;Reports of the Working Group of the ACHPR on indigenous populations/communities, concerning Ethiopia and Burkina Faso.Case prepared by Naomi Kipuri

Australia:AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderSocialJusticeCommissionerIn1992,thepositionoftheAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderSocialJusticeCommissionerwascreated under the Australian Human Rights Commission,inresponsetotheextremesocialand economic disadvantages faced by indigenous AustraliansaswellasthefindingsoftheRoyalCommission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody and the National Inquiry into Racist Violence. The Commissioner’s role includes reviewing theimpactoflawsandpoliciesandmonitoringthe enjoyment and exercise of human rights for indigenous Australians. The Commissioner producesanannualSocialJusticeandaNativeTitleReport,whicharetabledinParliamentandhepromotesunderstandingandrespectfortherightsof indigenous Australians. He does this by reviewing legislation,providingpolicyadviceandundertakingresearch on human rights issues including health,family violence,children’srights,cognitive disabilities and the ‘stolengeneration’. http://www.hreoc.gov.au/social_justice/index.html

3.6.2.Combatingdiscriminationandclosingthesocio-economicgaps

Australia: Closing the gapOur challenge for the future is to embrace a new partnership between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians… [T]he core of this partnership for the future is closing the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians on life expectancy, educational achievement and employment opportunities. This new partnership on closing the gap will set concrete targets for the future: within a decade to halve the widening gap in literacy, numeracy and employment outcomes and opportunities for Indigenous children, within a decade to halve the appalling gap in infant mortality rates between Indigenous and non-Indigenous children and, within a generation, to close the equally appalling 17-year life gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous when it comes to overall life expectancy. (Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, Apology to Australia’s Indigenous Peoples, 13 February 2008)

ThelifeexpectancyofindigenousAustraliansis17yearslowerthanotherAustralians.WhilemostAustralianwomencanexpecttolivetoanaverageageof82years,indigenouswomencanexpecttoliveonly64.8yearsandthelifeexpectancyof indigenous men is lower still at 59.4 years. In responsetothisalarmingsituation,theCouncilofAustralianGovernments(COAG)4) in December 2007agreedtoapartnershipbetweenalllevelsofgovernment to work with indigenous communities to achievethetargetof“closingthegap”.

InMarch2008,a“ClosetheGapStatementofIntent”onindigenoushealthwassignedbetweentheGovernmentandtheindigenouspeoples(seesection11.2.).Sincethetargetswereset,allAustraliangovernmentshavebeenworkingtogethertodevelopfundamentalreformstoaddressthesetargets,andhave

4) COAG comprises the Prime Minister, State Premiers, Territory Chief Ministers and the President of the Australian Local Government Association.


alsoacknowledgedthatitis“anextremelysignificantundertakingthatwillrequiresubstantialinvestment”.In2008,COAGagreedtoinitiativesfor indigenous Australians to the sum of $4.6 billionacrossearlychildhooddevelopment,health,housing,economicdevelopmentandremoteservice delivery.

COAGnotesthat“thesenewagreementsrepresentafundamentalresponsetoCOAG’scommitmenttoclosingthegap.SustainedimprovementinoutcomesforIndigenouspeoplecanonlybeachieved by systemic change. Through these agreements,allgovernmentswillbeheldpubliclyaccountablefortheirperformanceinimprovingoutcomesinthesekeyareas.”http://www.coag.gov.au/coag_meeting_outcomes/2008-11-29/index.cfm#indigenous;http://www.humanrights.gov.au/social_justice/health/targets/closethegap/part2_1.html

India:Affirmativeactionforschedulestribes.The“ScheduledTribes”(seesection1.4.)belongtothe most socially and economically disadvantaged communitiesinIndia.Manylawsandprogrammeshavebeenframedwithaviewtoimprovingtheconditionsofdisadvantagedgroups,includingtheScheduledTribes.TherearecertainprovisionsintheIndianConstitutionregardingfundamentalrights,whichareframedspecificallytoprotecttheirrights.5) Someoftheprovisionsonaffirmativeactionsare:

Article15(4),whichstipulatesthatthe•Governmentshouldmake“specialprovisionfor the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for…theScheduledTribes”.Article16(4)and(4A)empowerstheState•todevelopmechanismsorschemesor regulations for the reservation of appointmentsorpostsandpromotionswithconsequential seniority in favour of Scheduled Tribes.

Articles15and16provideforspecialmeasures,includingaffirmativeactiontoreservejobsandseatsineducationalinstitutionsformarginalisedpeoples.Thereservationpolicyhascreatedopportunitiesfor the indigenous community to have access to

5) These are in addition to the general provisions, which are applicable to all the Indian citizens

bettereducationandjobs.However,thereservationpolicyonlycoversthepublicsectoranddoesnotextendtotheprivatesector.Moreover,thebenefitsareoftenmonopolisedbythebetter-offsectionsof the communities rather than reaching those whoaremostinneed.Further,therearemanyindigenouspeopleswhohavenotbeencategorisedas“ScheduledTribes”andthusaredeniedthesebenefits.

Article29oftheConstitutionempowers“any•section of the citizens residing in the territory ofIndiaoranypartthereofhavingadistinctlanguage,scriptorcultureofitsown”withtheright to conserve them.

Article29,alongwithvariousotherconstitutionalprovisions-includingthespecificprovisionsfordifferentstates(Articles371Aand371G)andthefifthandsixthschedulesoftheConstitution-giveawidescopeandarepowerfultoolsfortheindigenouscommunitiestoestablishinstitutions,whichwouldincludetheestablishment,preservationandperpetuationofcultureandcustomarypracticesover the generations.

There are also other fundamental rights along with thejudicialinterpretationsgivenbytheSupremeCourt through which recourse can be sought to protectthebasicrightsoftheindigenouspeoples.6) Suchrightsincludeequalitybeforelaw,righttolife,right to education for all children between the ages ofsixandfourteen,freedomofexpressionandassociation,prohibitionofhumantraffickingandchild labour.

TheDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicyundertheConstitution also ask states to ensure welfare of the indigenouspeoplewhileimplementingmeasuresofgovernance;thusaddingweighttojudicialinterpretationsinfavourofindigenouspeoples.7) Theseprovisions,ifusedeffectively,canbevaluableinprotectingtherightsandinterestsofindigenouspeoples.Case prepared by: Chonchuirinmayo Luithui.

6) According to Article 141 the law declared by the Supreme Court is binding to all the courts of the land which basically means that it becomes the law of the land.

7) Article 46 specifically provides that the State shall promote the educational and economic interest of schedule castes and schedule tribes and other weaker sections of the society.



Iv. IndIgenous InstItutIons

49IV. INDIGENOUS INSTITUTIONS

4.1. RETAINING AND DEVELOPING INDIGENOUS CUSTOmS, TRADITIONS AND INSTITUTIONS

Indigenouspeoples’righttoretainanddeveloptheirownsocial,economic,culturalandpoliticalinstitutions is a fundamental right under international human rights law. The existence of such institutions isalsoacoreelementinthedescriptionofindigenouspeoples.Article1(1)ofConventionNo.169identifiesindigenouspeoplesasthosewhohaveretainedsomeoralloftheirownsocial,economic,culturalandpoliticalinstitutions,irrespectiveoftheirlegalstatus(seesection1.1).Theexistenceofdistinctsocial,economic,culturalandpoliticalinstitutionsisanintegralpartofwhatitmeanstobeanindigenouspeopleandislargelywhatdistinguishesindigenouspeoplesfromothersectionsofthenationalpopulation.Internationalhumanrightsprovisionsonindigenouspeoples’rightsthusencompassthepromotionandprotectionofindigenouspeoples’collectiverighttomaintain,controlanddeveloptheirownsocial,economic,culturalandpoliticalinstitutions–includingtheirpractices,customs,customarylawandlegalsystems. Such institutions are also vital to ensuring consultationwithandparticipationofindigenouspeoplesindecision-makingprocessesthataffectthem(seesection5).

Respectforindigenouspeoples’institutionsisintegral to ConventionNo.169,asstipulatedinaseriesofprovisions:Article 2(1). [Government action shall include measuresfor]:(b)promotingthefullrealisationofthesocial,economicandculturalrightsofthesepeopleswithrespectfortheirsocialandculturalidentity,theircustomsandtraditionsandtheirinstitutionsArticle 4(1). Specialmeasuresshallbeadoptedasappropriateforsafeguardingthepersons,institutions,property,labour,culturesandenvironmentofthepeoplesconcerned.Article 5. InapplyingtheprovisionsofthisConvention:(a)thesocial,cultural,religiousandspiritualvaluesandpracticesofthesepeoplesshallberecognisedandprotected,anddueaccountshallbetakenofthenatureoftheproblemswhich facethembothasgroupsandasindividuals;(b)theintegrityofthevalues,practicesandinstitutionsofthesepeoplesshallberespected;Article 6(1). InapplyingtheprovisionsofthisConvention,governmentsshall:(a)consultthepeoplesconcerned,throughappropriateproceduresandinparticularthroughtheirrepresentativeinstitutions,whenever consideration is being given to legislative or administrative measures which mayaffectthemdirectly;(c)establishmeansforthefulldevelopmentofthesepeoples’owninstitutionsandinitiatives,andinappropriatecasesprovidetheresourcesnecessaryforthispurpose.Article 8(2). Thesepeoplesshallhavetherightto retain their own customs and institutions wherethesearenotincompatiblewithfundamental rights […]


Insomeinstances,theterm“institutions”isusedtorefertophysicalinstitutionsororganizations,whilein other instances it may have a broader meaning thatincludesindigenouspeoples’practices,customs,andculturalpatterns.Thepreambleofthe UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoplesrecognizestheinherentinter-connectivitybetweenindigenouspeoples’institutions,traditionsorcustoms.TheDeclarationrecognizes“theurgentneedtorespectandpromotetheinherentrightsofindigenouspeopleswhichderivefromtheirpolitical,economic,andsocialstructuresandfromtheircultures,spiritualtraditions,historiesandphilosophies,especiallytheirrightstotheirlands,territoriesandresources”(UNDeclarationPreamble:para.7)

Specifically,withregardstoindigenousinstitutions,theUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoplesstipulatesthat:Article 5:Indigenouspeopleshavetherightto maintain and strengthen their distinct political,legal,economic,socialandculturalinstitutions …Article 18:Indigenouspeopleshavetherightto[…]maintainanddeveloptheirownindigenous decision-making institutions.Article 20:Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttomaintainanddeveloptheirpolitical,economic and social systems or institutions.Article 34:Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttopromote,developandmaintaintheirinstitutional structures and their distinctive customs,spirituality,traditions,procedures,practicesand,inthecaseswheretheyexist,juridicalsystemsorcustoms,inaccordancewith international human rights standards.

Indigenouspeoples’culturesandtraditionsaredynamicandresponsivetotherealitiesandneedsoftheirtime.Theypresentavastspectrumof differentiated institutions and organizational forms.Somehaveretainedtraditionallegal,social,administrativeandgovernancesystems,whileothershaveadoptedorbeenforcedtoadoptnewinstitutions and organizational forms.

Sometimes,indigenoussocietiesareperceivedas

beingstaticandhomogenous,therebywronglyimplyingthatiftheychangedoradoptedneworganizational forms they would become less “indigenous”.However,inrealityindigenoussocietiesare multifaceted and dynamic.

TheprovisionsofConventionNo.169shouldnotbe understood as being restricted only to traditional institutions,butratheralsoapplytocurrentpracticesofindigenouspeoples’economic,culturalandsocialdevelopment.Inotherwords,indigenouspeoples’culturaladaptationsandtechnologicaldevelopmentshouldnotreduceorimpairtheapplicabilityoftheseprovisions.Thisalsoimpliesthatindigenouspeoplesareentitledtoestablishcontemporaryinstitutions,if traditional institutions are no longer adequate to meet their needs and interests.

4.2. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: RESPECT fOR INDIGENOUS INSTITUTIONS

Bangladesh:TraditionalgovernanceinstitutionsThereareelevenindigenouspeoplesintheChittagongHillTracts(CHT)areaofBangladesh,eachwiththeirownlanguage,customsandcultures.1) Those not regarded as being indigenous arepredominantlymembersoftheBengalipeople.TheindigenouspeoplesoftheCHTarerecognizedas“indigenous”totheCHTregionbytheCHTRegulation of 1900 and Act No. 12 of 1995.

Although Bangladesh has a unitary system of government,thelegalandadministrativesystemintheChittagongHillTracts(CHT)isseparateanddistinctfromthoseinotherpartsofthecountry.A series of traditional indigenous institutions and contemporaryelectedcouncilsatthedistrictandregional levels share the administrative authority in theCHTregionwiththecentralgovernment,throughitsdistrictandsub-districtofficers.

There are three main levels of traditional governance intheCHT:

The • karbari,normallyanelderlyman,isthetraditional head or chief of a hamlet or village. Inpracticalterms,thekarbaripositionis,inmostcases, de factohereditary;

1) These are the Bawn, Chak, Chakma, Khumi, Khyang, Lushai, Marma, Mru, Pankhua, Tanchangya, and Tripura.


The • headman, who is in charge of a mauza. The mauza is a unit of land revenue administrationinBangladeshthathasfixedanddemarcatedgeographicalboundaries.IntheCHT,themauza is also a unit of civil and judicial administration under the charge of the traditional headman,inadditiontobeingaunit of revenue administration. The headman isresponsibleforresourcemanagement,landandrevenueadministration,maintenanceoflawandorder,andtheadministrationofcustomaryindigenousjustice,includingasanappellateauthorityoverthekarbari’s judicial functions;The three • chiefs or rajas, who are in charge of the three administrative and revenue “circles”,of which the 369 mauza in the CHT arepart.Theraja’sjurisdiction–atonetimebasedupontribalandclandivisions–wasterritorialized during British rule through the demarcationoffixedgeographicalareas.

Although,traditionalindigenousinstitutionsplayanimportantroleinthepoliticsandadministrationoftheCHT,themostpowerfulinstitutionswithregard to day-to-day administrative functions are the elected district councils. These district councils areinchargeofmatterssuchasprimaryeducation,publichealth,fisheries,livestock,smallandcottageindustries.Accordingtothe1997CHTAccord,landadministration,lawandorder,andsecondaryeducation are also to be transferred to thesecouncils,whicharedirectlysubordinated to the CHT Regional Council.

However,indigenousleadersoftheCHTarelargelydissatisfiedwiththestatusofindigenouspeoples’rightsintheCHT,andcallfor,amongotherthings,ameaningfulrevivalofautonomyfortheindigenouspeoplesoftheCHTandeffortstoreducediscriminationagainstindigenouspeoplesonthepartofnon-indigenouspoliticians,civilservants,andmainstream society. Raja Devasish Roy (2004) Challenges for Juridical Pluralism and Customary Laws of Indigenous Peoples: The Case of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.

Greenland:Self-GovernmentGreenland is the world’s largest island with an area ofaround2.2millionsq.km,ofwhichsome410,000sq.kmarenotcoveredbyice.ThetotalpopulationofGreenlandis56,462(StatisticsGreenland,2008).

ThejourneyofthepeopleofGreenlandtowardsself-government has been long. From the colonization of Greenland in 1721 it was administered by the Danish Government.From1945to1954,Greenlandfiguredonthelistofnon-selfgoverningterritoriesunderChapterXIoftheUnitedNationsCharter.This status changed in 1954 when Greenland was integrated into the Danish Realm.

In1979,theGreenlandHomeRuleArrangementcame into force. The Arrangement made


itpossibleforGreenlandtoassumelegislativeandexecutivepowerregardingGreenland’sinternaladministration,directandindirecttaxes,fishingwithintheExclusiveEconomicZone(EEZ;i.e.within200nauticalmilesoftheGreenlandcoastline),hunting,agricultureandreindeerbreeding,socialwelfare,labourmarketaffairs,educationandculturalaffairs,vocationaleducation,othermattersrelatingtotrade,healthservices,thehousingarea,andprotectionoftheenvironment. After20yearsofhomerule,practicallyallfieldsofresponsibilitythatmaybetransferredundertheHome Rule Act had been taken over by the Home Rule Government. Recognising that there was a needforrevisingGreenland’spositionwithintheunityoftheDanishRealm,aGreenlandHomeRuleCommissionwassetupattheturnoftheyear1999-2000,laterfollowedbyaGreenland-DanishSelf-Government Commission in 2004.

Inaccordancewiththetermsofreference,theCommissionwastaskedto“onthebasisofGreenland’spresentconstitutionalpositionandin accordance with the right of self-determination ofthepeopleofGreenlandunderinternationallaw,deliberateandmakeproposalsforhowthe

Greenlandauthoritiescanassumefurtherpowers,wherethisisconstitutionallypossible”. Thus, thenewarrangementistobeplaced“withintheframeworkoftheexistingunityoftheRealm”andtakeits“pointofdepartureinGreenland’spresentconstitutionalposition”,i.e.theexistingDanishConstitution.

The Self-Government Commission concluded itsworkinApril2008,withthepresentationofaDraft Act on Greenland Self-Government. The Act providesfortheSelf-GovernmentauthoritiestoassumeresponsibilityformorefieldsthanthosealreadytakenoverundertheHomeRule,withtheexceptionoftheconstitution,foreignaffairs,defenceandsecuritypolicy,theSupremeCourt,nationality,andexchangerateandmonetarypolicy.

GreenlandSelf-Governmentauthoritieswill,accordingly,havethelegislativeandexecutivepowerwithinthefieldsofresponsibilitytakenover,andjudicialpowerwillliewiththecourtsoflaw,includingwithcourtstobesetupbytheSelf-Governmentauthorities.

AnothersignificantelementoftheActisthatitrestsontheprincipleofbalancingrightsand


obligations.Consequently,Greenlandmusttoagreater extent than today be able to generate the necessaryrevenueinordertofinanceincreasedSelf-Governmentand,thus,inthiswaybecomelessdependentonthesubsidyfromtheDanishGovernment.

Themainideaoftheproposedeconomicmodelis that revenue from mineral resource activities in Greenland should accrue equally to the Self-GovernmentauthoritiesandtheDanishGovernment,but that revenue accrued to the Danish Government should be used to reduce the Danish Government subsidytoGreenland,andthatGreenlanditselffinancesfieldsofresponsibilitythataretakenoverin the future. This guarantees the Self-Government authoritiesastablefoundationforeconomicplanningas it is the Self-Government authorities themselves thatdecidewhichfieldsofresponsibilityaretobetakenoverandwhen.WhentheDanishGovernmentsubsidy to the Self-Government authorities has been reducedtozero,negotiationsaretobeinitiatedbetween the Self-Government authorities and the Government on economic relations in the future.

The Act also recognises that Greenlandic is a key partoftheGreenlandicpeople’sculturalidentity,andthat the language therefore should be the country’s officiallanguage.

Finally,theActstipulatesthatindependenceforGreenlandrestsonthewishofthepeopleofGreenlandandthatifthepeoplesowish,negotiations between the Danish government and the Greenland Self-Governance authorities should commence.AfinalAgreementonSelf-Governanceshould be endorsed by a referendum in Greenland and be concluded with the consent of the Danish Parliament.

OnTuesday25November2008,thedraftActonSelf-Government was submitted for a referendum in Greenland.Ofthe39,611peopleentitledtovoteinGreenland,75.5percentoftheelectoratevoted“yes”.The results of the referendum on Self-Governance inGreenlandthusmadeitclearthatthepeopleofGreenlandhavevoicedaresounding“yes”toSelf-Governance. Following the referendum and the consentoftheDanishParliament,theActonSelf-Governancewillcomeintoforceon21June2009.

For more information see: http://www.nanoq.gl;Draft Act on Greenland Self-Government; Abbreviated version of the Executive Summary of the Greenland-Danish Self- Government Commission’s Report on Self-Government in Greenland (E/C.19/2009/4/Add.4 ).

Norway:ThetraditionalsiidainstitutionsThe legal re-introduction of the traditional Sami reindeer husbandry siidasystem/institutionwastoalargeextentinfluencedandjustifiedbyinternationallegalprovisions,includingarticle5(b)ofConventionNo. 169.

Traditionally,theSamilivedingroups,siida,varyinginsize,asdeterminedbytheresourcesavailableinthearea.Withinthesiida there was no social stratification.Theformofgovernancewasastateless local democracy with a leader. The leader presidedatmeetings,wasresponsiblefordividinghuntingspoils,assertedtherightsofthesiida to neighboringgroups,mediatedininternalconflictsandwasthespokespersonforthesiida.

WithinSamireindeerherdingcommunities,thesiida systemwasfunctionaluntilthe1970s,whennewreindeerhusbandrylegislationnullifiedtheroleofthesiida as a legal and social entity. A new system was introduced,throughwhichthetraditional collective siidasystemwasreplacedbyasystemofindividual reindeer-herding license or operational units. Individualsnowhadtoapplyforareindeer-herdinglicense(“driftsenhet”)fromstatereindeerauthorities,and reindeer herding was re-organized into reindeer herdingdistricts(“reinbeitedistrikt”).Theboundariesbetween such areas where often arbitrarily drawn andinconflictwithtraditionalsiida boundaries. This resultedininternalconflictsandover-grazing,asthetraditional system for managing grazing resources anddisputeswasnolongerfunctional,andindividualreindeerownerswereforcedtocompeteforscarceresources.

The reindeer husbandry Act of 2007 (“reindriftsloven”),whichreplacesthereindeerhusbandryActof1978,re-introducesthesiida as asignificantlegalentity.Theamendmentisbasedon the recognition that the system of individual reindeer-herding licenses and the organization into reindeer-herding districts do not work well with the


traditional Sami reindeer husbandry economic and socialsystem.Although,thesystemoflicensinganddistrictshasbeenmaintained,thesiida has beengivenaprominentroleintheorganizationandmanagementofSamireindeerhusbandryinNorway,asof1July2007.Case cited in: John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008;Hætta, Odd Mathis Hætta: The Sami– Indigenous People of the Arctic, Davvi Girji OS, 2003.

NewCaledonia:TheCustomarySenateThe status of the Kanak people, i.e. the indigenous peopleofNew Caledonia, is regulated in accordance with the 1998 Noumea Agreement signed between the French government and the Kanakindependencemovement(FrontdeLibérationNationaleKanaketSocialiste)andtheconservativeparty(RassemblementPourLaCalédoniedanslaRépublique).Inparticular,theNoumeaAgreementprovidesfortheestablishmentoftheCustomary Senate.Itiscomposedof16Kanakcustomarychiefs,whomustbeconsultedonanyissuesaffecting Kanak identity.Noumea Accord, in Australian Indigenous Law Reporter 17, 2002, p. 88 ff.

Colombia:TraditionalIndigenousAuthoritiesTheConstitutionofColombiarecognizesthespecialjurisdictionofindigenoustraditionalauthorities,exercised in accordance with their customs withinindigenoustraditionalterritories,provided

that it does not contradict the Constitution and legislation of the State. The Constitution also recognizesindigenousterritoriesasentitiesofpublicadministration at local level and establishes that suchterritorialentitieswillbegovernedby“theirownauthorities”,whoseconstitutionandfunctionsareregulated by the customary law of each indigenous community.

ComplexsocialphenomenaareatplayintheCaucaregionofColombia.Suchphenomenaincludethepresenceoflandownerswithstrongsocialandpoliticalclout;zeroindustrialdevelopmentandorganisationofworkers;ahighpercentageofpoorindigenouspeoplesandpeasants;andseriousissueswithpublicorder,characterisedbythedisplacementanddisappearanceofpeopleandarmed confrontations.

Facedwiththissituation,thesevenindigenousgroupsintheCauca(Nasa,Guamiano,Totoró,Yanacona,Inga,KokonukosandEperaráSiapidara)formed the Cauca Regional Indigenous Council (CRIC)in1971.Oneofitsinitialprioritieswastorecoverandgaincontroloftheterritory,maintainingthestructureof“reservationsandcouncils”which,althoughitoriginatedinSpanishcolonialtimes,has become an institution for the recognition of all indigenous ancestral territories. Indigenous councils are autonomous governance bodies in theterritory.Theycarryoutpolitical,legal,health,education,productionandgendertrainingand


otherprograms.Amongothermatters,theCouncilsissuelegislativedocumentscalled“Resolutions”,manyofwhicharerelatedtothearmedconflict,thepresenceofreligiousgroupsanddrugtraffickers,andgovernmentpolicyasitrelatestotheirterritory.Theyalsohavepeacecorpsthatworktounifytheterritoryandrecuperatethosewhohavebeenkidnappedorrecruitedbythevariousarmedgroups.Politicalparticipationhasallowedthemtowinofficesinmayoraltiesandmunicipalcouncils.Indigenouscouncilsactivelyparticipatedindiscussionsonthereform of the Political Constitution during the 1991 NationalConstituentAssemblyand,in1999,anagreement was signed with the government for the comprehensivedevelopmentofanindigenouspolicy.Constitution of Colombia: http://www.secretariasenado.gov.co/leyes Case prepared by Myrna Cunningham.

Nicaragua:TheCommunitiesoftheAtlanticCoast.UnderArticle89oftheConstitutionofNicaragua,thecommunitiesoftheAtlanticCoast,organized

in the two autonomous regions of RAAN and RAAS(AutonomousRegionsoftheNorthandSouthAtlantic),encompassingrespectivelythenorthernandsouthernpartsoftheAtlanticarea,are conferred the right to retain their own models of social organization and to manage local matters in accordance with their own customs and traditions. TheprinciplesonwhichtheAutonomyLawwasbasedwereencapsulatedintheAutonomyCommission’sproposals.Itstatedthat:

OurpoliticalConstitutionholdsthatNicaraguaisa multi-ethnic nation and recognises the right of theAtlanticCoastCommunitiestopreservetheirculturalidentity,theirlanguages,artandculture,aswellastherighttouseandenjoythewaters,forestsandcommunallandsfortheirownbenefit.It also recognises their rights to the creation of specialprogramsdesignedtocontributetotheirdevelopmentwhilerespectingtheirrighttoliveandorganise themselves according to their legitimate cultural and historical conditions.


Themainprovisionsinthelawareoutlinedasfollows:thesettingupofautonomousregimefortheregionsoftheAtlanticCoast,withintheunitaryNicaraguanstate.Thelawspecificallyprovidesfortwo autonomous regions to exercise jurisdiction overtheindigenouspeoples.(Articles1-6);althoughSpanishistheofficiallanguageoftheNicaraguanstate,thelanguagesofthecommunitiesoftheAtlanticCoastwillbeofficialwithintheautonomousregions.(Art.7)

TheAutonomyLawestablishesthatpeoplewholive in the autonomous regions have the right to developformsofsocialandproductiveorganisationthat adhere to their values and it establishes the followingorganisationalstructure,whichrespectsindigenouspeoples’traditionalformsoforganisation,whichhavebeenexpressedtootherformsofgovernmentthroughouthistory:

Regional Autonomous Council •Regional Autonomous Government•Territorial Assembly•Community Assembly•

Other traditional forms of organisation include the CouncilofElders(AlmukNani),acommunity-basedorganisationdatingbacktopre-Colombiantimes.TheCounciliscomprisedofeldersorrespectedmembers of the community who are highly regarded and honoured in the indigenous society. Their roles include:

politicalrepresentationininternalgovernance•and recognition of the chief of each community;guiding communities towards absolute •respectforspiritsorreligiousbeliefs,landtenure and the rational use of natural resources;defending the indigenous identity through •respectfortraditions,socialandlegalnormsandrejectingacculturationandethnocide;promotingfurtherregionalautonomyby•pushingforeffectiveparticipationatvariouslevelsofgovernment;encouraginginitiativesfocusedonrespect•for and recognition of the indigenous communities’traditionalandhistoricallands;providingconditionsconducivetothe•


integration and consolidation of customary law into the administrative legal system of the AutonomousRegion;developingrelationswithinternational•agencies that foster indigenous solidarity in theeconomic,politicalandculturalspheres.

Article 4 of Law 445 on communal lands states that“thecommunalassemblyisthemaximumauthority in indigenous and ethnic communities. Thiscommunalauthorityisresponsibleforlegalrepresentationofthecommunities…”.Thesamearticleestablishesthat“theterritorialauthorityisthemaximum authority in the territory and is convened accordingtotheproceduresestablishedbythegroupofcommunitiesintheterritory”.

Article 5 of Law 445 refers to communal authorities as traditional administrative governance institutions thatrepresentsthecommunity.Articles11and15ofthesamelawestablishthatthemunicipality,regional government and regional council must each respecttherightofindigenouspeoplesandethniccommunities to communal tenure of land and natural

resources within their jurisdiction.Case prepared by Myrna Cunningham.http://www.manfut.org/RAAN/ley445.html

Guatemala:IndigenousauthoritiesInGuatemala,thereareauthoritiesoftheMayanWorld,suchastheAjqi’jorMayanpriests,healersandmidwifes,whoseservicesaredeterminedbythe Maya calendar. These are not recognised by theState.TheMunicipalLawof2002recognisesindigenouspeoples’communitiesaslegalentities(Article20)andindigenousmunicipalities,wherethesestillexist(Article55).Evenmoreimportantistherecognitionofauxiliarymayors,alsocalledcommunalmayors,asrepresentativesofthecommunities(Article56)andnotasdelegatesoftheGovernment.Therefore,andasstipulatedinthePeaceAccords,thecommunalmayorscanbe elected by the communities instead of being designatedbythemunicipalmayor.Thecommunalmayorsareintermediariesbetweenthemunicipalityand the communities.Case prepared by Myrna Cunningham http://www.ops.org.gt/docbas

v. partIcIpatIon, consultatIon and consent

59V. PARTICIPATION, CONSULTATION AND CONSENT

5.1. CONSULTATION AND PARTICIPATION: THE CORNERSTONE Of THE CONVENTION

Theestablishmentofappropriateandeffectivemechanisms for the consultation of indigenous andtribalpeoplesregardingmattersthatconcernthemisthecornerstoneofConventionNo.169,yetremainsoneofthemainchallengesinfullyimple-menting the Convention in a number of countries.1) TheConventionrequiresthatindigenouspeoplesareabletoeffectivelyparticipateindecision-makingprocesseswhichmayaffecttheirrightsorinterests.Theestablishmentofprocessesofconsultationisan essential means of ensuring effective indigenous peoples’participationindecision-making.Thus,Ar-ticles6and7onconsultationandparticipationarekeyprovisionsofConventionNo.169andthe“basisforapplyingalltheothers”,thougha number of other Articles also make reference to consultationandparticipation.2)Theprinciplesofconsultationandparticipationshouldbereadinconjunctionwiththeprovisionsoncoordinatedandsystematicactiontoimplementindigenouspeoples’rights(seesection3.1).

1) Committee of Experts, General Observation on Convention Nol. 169, 79th Session, 2008, published 2009.

2) See, for example, Committee of Experts, 76th Session, 2005, Observation, Guatemala, published 2006, para.6

ILOConventionNo.169,Articles6&7:Article 6.(1)InapplyingtheprovisionsofthisConvention,governmentsshall:(a)consultthepeoplesconcerned,throughappropriateproceduresandinparticularthroughtheirrepresentativeinstitutions,whenever consideration is being given to legislative or administrative measures which mayaffectthemdirectly;(b)establish means by which these peoplescanfreelyparticipate,toatleastthe same extent as other sectors of the population,atalllevelsofdecision-makingin elective institutions and administrative and otherbodiesresponsibleforpoliciesandprogrammeswhichconcernthem;(c)establishmeansforthefulldevelopmentofthesepeoples’owninstitutionsandinitiatives,andinappropriatecasesprovidetheresourcesnecessaryforthispurpose.Article 6(2)TheconsultationscarriedoutinapplicationofthisConventionshallbeundertaken,ingoodfaithandinaformappropriatetothecircumstances,withtheobjectiveofachievingagreementorconsenttotheproposedmeasures.Article 7(1).Thepeoplesconcernedshallhavetherighttodecidetheirownprioritiesfortheprocessofdevelopmentasitaffectstheirlives,beliefs,institutionsandspiritualwell-beingandthelandstheyoccupyorotherwiseuse,andtoexercisecontrol,totheextentpossible,overtheirowneconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.Inaddition,theyshallparticipateintheformulation,implementationandevaluationofplansandprogrammesfornationalandregionaldevelopmentwhichmayaffect them directly.


Themainobjectiveoftheseprovisionsistoensurethatindigenouspeoplescaneffectivelyparticipateatalllevelsofdecision-makinginpolitical,legislativeandadministrativebodiesandprocesseswhichmayaffectthemdirectly.UndertheConvention,consultation is viewed as a crucial means of dialoguetoreconcileconflictinginterestsandpreventaswellassettledisputes.Throughtheinterrelatednessoftheprinciplesofconsultationandparticipation,consultationisnotmerelytherighttoreactbutindeedalsoarighttopropose;indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodecidetheirownprioritiesfortheprocessofdevelopmentandthusexercisecontrolovertheirowneconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.

Thecoreareaofapplicationfortheconceptsofconsultationandparticipationisinthecontextofrelationshipsbetweenindigenouspeoplesandstates.

CommitteeofExperts,GeneralObservation,2008Given the enormous challenges facing indigenousandtribalpeoplestoday,includingtheregularizationoflandtitles,healthandeducation,andtheincreasingexploitationofnaturalresources,theinvolvementoftheindigenousandtribalpeoplesintheseandotherareaswhichaffectthemdirectly,is an essential element in ensuring equity andguaranteeingsocialpeacethroughinclusion and dialogue… Consultation canbeaninstrumentofgenuinedialogue,social cohesion and be instrumental in the preventionandresolutionofconflict.CommitteeofExperts,GeneralObservationonConventionNol.169,79thSession,2008,published2009.


TheobligationtoconsultindigenouspeoplesarisesonagenerallevelinconnectionwiththeapplicationofalltheprovisionsoftheConvention.Inparticular,itisrequiredthatindigenouspeoplesareenabledto participatefreelyatalllevelsintheformulation,implementationandevaluationofmeasuresandprogrammesthataffectthemdirectly.Inaddition,the obligation of governments to consult indigenous peoplesisfurtheremphasisedinthefollowingcases:

Whenconsideringlegislativeoradministrative•measures(Article6(1)(a));Priortoexplorationorexploitationofsub-•surfaceresources(Article15(2));Whenconsiderationisgiventoalienating•indigenouspeoples’landsortransmittingthemoutsidetheirowncommunities(Article17);Priortorelocation,whichshouldtakeplace•only with the free and informed consent of indigenouspeoples(Article16);Ontheorganizationandoperationofspecial•vocationaltrainingprogrammes(Article22);On measures aimed at children being taught •to read and write in their own indigenous language(Article28).

Inaddition,ConventionNo.169containsnumerousreferencestotheconceptofparticipation,coveringawiderangeofareas(Articles2,6,7,15,22,23).OthertermsarealsousedintheConventionindicatingparticipation:

Obligationto“cooperate”withindigenous•peoples(Articles7,20,22,25,27,33);Obligation • not to take measures contrary to thefreely-expressedwishesofindigenouspeoples(Article4);Obligationtoseek“freeandinformed•consent”fromindigenouspeoples(article16);Righttobeconsultedthrough“representative•institutions”(Article16).

IntheContextofConventionNo.169,theobligationtoensureappropriateconsultationfallsongovernmentsandnotonprivatepersonsorcompanies.EnsuringconsultationandparticipationistheresponsibilityoftheState.

JamesAnaya(2004:pp153-154))isoftheviewthatthisrequirementofconsultationandparticipationappliesnotonlytodecision-makingwithinthe

frameworkofdomesticormunicipalprocessesbut also to decision-making within the international realm. Mr. Anaya asserts that UN bodies and other international institutions have already increasingly allowedfor,andevensolicited,theparticipationofindigenouspeoples’representativesintheirpolicy-making and standards-setting work in areas of concerntoindigenouspeoples.3)

Withregardstotheconsultationprocess,theConventionprovidesaseriesofqualitativeelements.Consultationswithindigenouspeoplesshallbecarriedout:

Throughrepresentativeinstitutions• Priortoundertakinganyconsultations,theconcerned communities have to identify the institutionsthatmeettheserequirements(seealsosection4ontherespectforindigenousinstitutions).Withregardstodeterminingrepresentativeness,theILOsupervisorybodieshaveunderlinedthat“theimportantthing is that they should be the result of a processcarriedoutbytheindigenouspeoplesthemselves”.4) Whileacknowledgingthatthiscanbeadifficulttaskinmanycircumstances,theILOsupervisorybodiesfurtherstressedthat“ifanappropriateconsultationprocessisnotdevelopedwiththeindigenousandtribal institutions or organizations that are truly representativeofthecommunitiesaffected,theresultingconsultationswillnotcomplywiththerequirementsoftheConvention”.5)

Bysupportingthedevelopmentof•indigenouspeoples’owninstitutionsandinitiativesandalso,whereappropriate,providingthesewiththenecessaryresources Thisisparticularlyimportantgiventhefactthatthelegitimacy,capacityandresourcebaseofmostindigenouspeoples’governance

3) For example, indigenous peoples’ representatives participated actively throughout the negotiations on the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples; The UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues was created to give indigenous peoples more voice within the UN system – and half of its members are indigenous peoples’ representatives; The UN Expert Mechanism on Indigenous Peoples’ Rights has been established, and all of its members are of indigenous origin.

4) See Governing Body, 289th Session, March 2004, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Mexico, GB.289/17/3

5) See Governing Body, 282nd Session, November 2001, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Ecuador, GB.282/14/2, para.44.


institutions have been undermined in discriminatoryhistoricalprocessesandthereisthusanasymmetryintherelationshipbetweenindigenouspeoplesandthestates.

Ingoodfaithandinaformappropriateto•thecircumstances This means that consultations should takeplaceinaclimateofmutualtrust.Ingeneral,Governmentsneedtorecognizerepresentativeorganizations,endeavortoreachanagreement,conductgenuineandconstructivenegotiations,avoidunjustifieddelays,complywiththeagreementswhichareconcludedandapplythemingoodfaith.Governments also need to ensure indigenous peopleshaveallrelevantinformationandthatitcanbefullyunderstoodbythem.Sufficienttime must be given to allow indigenous peoplestoengagetheirowndecision-makingprocessesandparticipateeffectivelyindecisions taken in a manner consistent with their cultural and social traditions.6)

Throughappropriateprocedures• Proceduresareconsideredappropriateif they create favourable conditions for achieving agreement or consent to the proposedmeasures,independentoftheresultobtained.7)Generalpublichearingprocesses

6) Gernigon, Bernard, Alberto Odero and Horacio Guido “ILO principles concerning collective bargaining” in International Labour Review, Vol. 139 (2000), No. 1 [See also Mexico Article 24 noted below re: mutual trust.]

7) See Governing Body, 289th Session, March 2004,

wouldnotnormallybesufficient.“Theformandcontentoftheconsultationproceduresand mechanisms need to allow the full expressionoftheviewpointsofthepeoplesconcerned,inatimelymannerandbasedontheirfullunderstandingoftheissuesinvolved,so they may be able to affect the outcome andaconsensuscouldbeachieved,andbeundertakeninamannerthatisacceptabletoallparties.”8)

Withaviewtoachievingagreementor•consent In accordance with Article 6 of Convention No.169,theobjectiveoftheconsultationisto achieve agreement or consent. In other words,agreementorconsentneedstobeagoaloftheparties,andgenuineeffortsneedto be made to reach an agreement or achieve consent.

Periodicevaluationoftheoperationof•theconsultationmechanisms Thereshouldbeaperiodicevaluationoftheoperationoftheconsultationmechanisms,withtheparticipationofthepeoplesconcerned,withaviewtocontinuetoimprovetheir effectiveness.9)

Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Mexico, GB.289/17/3, para.89

8) Committee of Experts, General Observation, 2008, published 2009.

9) Committee of Experts, General Observation, 2008, published 2009.


The UNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples, also focuses on consultationandparticipationandestablishesthatthepurposeoftheconsultationistoachieve free, prior and informed consent. Moreover,theDeclarationrecognizesthatindigenouspeoples,inexercisingtheirrighttoself-determination,havetherighttoautonomyor self-government in matters relating to their internalandlocalaffairs(article4).Article 5Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttomaintainandstrengthentheirdistinctpolitical,legal,economic,socialandculturalinstitutions,while retaining their right to participate fully,iftheysochoose,in the political, economic, social and cultural life of the State.Article 18Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoparticipate in decision-making in matters which would affect their rights,throughrepresentativeschosenbythemselvesinaccordancewiththeirownprocedures,aswellastomaintainanddeveloptheirownindigenous decision-making institutions.Article 19Statesshallconsultandcooperateingoodfaithwiththeindigenouspeoplesconcernedthroughtheirownrepresentativeinstitutionsinorder to obtain their free, prior and informed consentbeforeadoptingandimplementinglegislative or administrative measures that may affect them.Article 23Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodetermineanddevelopprioritiesandstrategies for exercising their right to development.Inparticular,indigenouspeopleshavetherighttobeactivelyinvolvedindevelopinganddetermininghealth,housingandothereconomicandsocialprogrammesaffectingthemand,asfaraspossible,toadministersuchprogrammesthroughtheirown institutions.

TheUNDevelopmentGroup(UNDG)Guidelinesonindigenouspeoples’issuesprovidesthefollowing “ElementsofFree,PriorandInformedConsent”(UNDG2008:p.28):Freeshouldimplynocoercion,intimidationormanipulation;

Prior• shouldimplyconsenthasbeensoughtsufficientlyinadvanceofanyauthorizationorcommencementofactivitiesandrespecttimerequirementsofindigenousconsultation/consensusprocesses;Informed• –shouldimplythatinformationisprovidedthatcovers(atleast)thefollowingaspects:

a.Thenature,size,pace,reversibilityandscopeofanyproposedprojectoractivity;b.Thereason/sorpurposeoftheprojectand/oractivity;c.Thedurationoftheabove;d. Thelocalityofareasthatwillbeaffected;e. Apreliminaryassessmentofthelikelyeconomic,social,culturalandenvironmentalimpact,includingpotentialrisksandfairandequitablebenefitsharinginacontextthatrespectstheprecautionaryprinciple;f.Personnel likely to be involved in the executionoftheproposedproject(includingindigenouspeoples,privatesectorstaff,researchinstitutions,governmentemployeesandothers)g.Proceduresthattheprojectmayentail.


Consent• Consultationandparticipationarecrucialcomponentsofaconsentprocess.Consultation should be undertaken in good faith.Thepartiesshouldestablishadialogueallowingthemtofindappropriatesolutionsinanatmosphereof mutualrespectingoodfaith,andfullandequitableparticipation.Consultation requires time and an effective system for communicating among interest holders.Indigenouspeoplesshouldbeabletoparticipatethroughtheirownfreelychosenrepresentativesandcustomaryor other institutions. The inclusion of a genderperspectiveandtheparticipationofindigenouswomenisessential,aswellasparticipationofchildrenandyouthasappropriate.Thisprocessmayincludetheoptionofwithholdingconsent.Consenttoanyagreementshouldbeinterpretedasindigenouspeopleshavereasonablyunderstood it.

5.2. COmmENTS By THE ILO SUPERVISORy BODIES: CONSULTATION AND PARTICIPATION

ManyofthecasesaddressedbytheILOsupervisorybodies concern alleged failure by governments to undertakeappropriateprocessesofconsultationwithindigenouspeoplesasstipulatedbyArticle6of Convention No. 169. A number of these cases particularlyaddressthesituationofconsultationregardingtheexploitationofnaturalresources(seesection8).

CommitteeofExperts,GeneralObservationonConventionNo.169,2008“Withregardtoconsultation,theCommitteenotestwomainchallenges:(i)ensuringthatappropriateconsultationsareheldpriortotheadoptionofalllegislativeandadministrativemeasures which are likely to affect indigenous andtribalpeoplesdirectly;and(ii)includingprovisionsinlegislationrequiringpriorconsultationaspartoftheprocessofdeterminingifconcessionsfortheexploitationandexplorationofnaturalresourcesaretobegranted.”

Mexico:ConsultationsonconstitutionalreformIn2001,acomplaintwasbroughttotheILO,alleging that Mexico had violated Article 6 of the ConventioninthelegislativeprocedureleadingtotheapprovaloftheDecreeonConstitutionalReforminthe Areas of Indigenous Rights and Culture. In this context,anILOtripartitecommittee(seesection14.6.)wasestablishedtoexaminetheprocessthatledtotheadoptionoftheconstitutionalreforms.

TheCommitteeobservedthat,“from1992untilthepresenttime,relationsbetweentheGovernmentandindigenouspeopleshavebeenextremelycomplex,withanundercurrentofconflictattimesmanifest,attimeslatent,andonsomeoccasionsevenviolent.”

TheCommitteenotedthe“effortsmadebythe Government and the organizations which participatedinthisprocesstohaveadialogueandarriveatsatisfactorysolutions,butitcannotignorethedifficultiesarisingfromthisprocessandthevariousinterruptionstocommunicationbetweentheparties,whichdidnothelptocreateanatmosphereof trust. It has also noted the breakdown in dialogue priortothecontestedlegislativeprocess.”

Accordingtothecomplainants,theconstitutionalreformprocessdidnottakeaccountoftheconsultationprocesslaiddowninConventionNo.169andtheystatedthat;“attheriskofdistortingtherightofindigenouspeoplestoconsultation,aconceptualdistinctionmustbemadebetweenan act of consultation which conforms to the Conventionandanyactofnominalconsultation,informationorpublichearingcarriedoutbythepublicauthorities”.


TheGoverningBodynotedthat,[I]n view of the diversity of the indigenous peoples, the Convention does not impose a model of what a representative institution should involve, the important thing is that they should be the result of a process carried out by the indigenous peoples themselves. But it is essential to ensure that the consultations are held with the institutions that are truly representative of the peoples concerned. As the Governing Body has already established in a previous case, “... the principle of representativity is a vital component of the obligation of consultation. (...) it could be difficult in many circumstances to determine who represents any given community. However, if an appropriate consultation process is not developed with the indigenous and tribal institutions or organizations that are truly representative of the communities affected, the resulting consultations will not comply with the requirements of the Convention.

Inthiscontext,theCommitteenotedthe difficulty represented by consultations of general scope, as is the case for a constitutional reform, and of national application, which in this case also affect approximately 10 million indigenous peoples. Likewise, it notes that the consultations carried out before Congress and the states led to feelings of frustration and exclusion on the part of the indigenous peoples. It is also aware that the differences in values, ideas, times, reference systems, and even in ways of conceiving consultation between the interlocutors add to the complexity of the task. In that connection, the establishment in Mexico of clear criteria as to the form of consultations and as to representativity could have made it possible to obtain more satisfactory results for both parties. Furthermore, it acknowledges that both the National Congress and the state legislatures were not unaware of the opinions of the indigenous peoples with respect to the reforms, but were not obliged to accept them. It would have been helpful if they had established a mechanism to try to achieve agreement or consent concerning the measures proposed.

The Committee added that it wasclear throughout the process of the adoption of the Convention, and it has been reaffirmed by the supervisory bodies, that consultation does

not necessarily imply that an agreement will be reached in the way the indigenous peoples prefer. Everything appears to indicate that the views of the complainants as to what would constitute full consultation would, to all appearances, have given rise to a more complete set of consultations, which is why it is appropriate to recall them here as pertinent proposals as to how consultations should be carried out in other similar situations. Nevertheless, the Committee cannot conclude that such a list of “best practices” is actually required by the Convention, even though they would have constituted an excellent way of applying fully the principles established in Article 6.

Finally,theCommitteeconsideredthat“theclimateofconfrontation,violenceandlackofmutualtruststoppedtheconsultationsfrombeingconductedmoreproductively.Itisimperativeinallconsultationstoestablishaclimateofmutualtrust,butallthemoresowithrespecttoindigenouspeoples,giventheir lack of trust in state institutions and their feeling ofmarginalization,bothofwhichhavetheiroriginsinextremelyoldandcomplexhistoricevents,andbothofwhichhaveyettobeovercome.”Governing Body, 289th Session, March 2004, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Mexico, GB.289/17/3

Guatemala:ConsultationastheinstitutionalbasisfordialogueIn2005,areportsubmittedtotheCommitteeofExpertsbyanindigenousorganizationstatedthatalthougheffortshadbeenmadesporadicallytowardsprovidinganinstitutionalbasisforparticipationofindigenouspeoples,therewasnocoherentpolicyoninstitutionsthatcombinedpolitical,administrativeandfinancialmeasurestoattain the objectives of the Convention.

Thereportindicatedthat“participationcontinuestobesymbolicandthepoliticalandelectoralsystemremainsaninstrumentofexclusion”andfurtherthat“thereisnospecificinstitutionalmachineryforconsultationandthat,duringthepreviousadministration,31concessionsweregrantedfortheexploitationofmineralresourcesand135forexploration,withnopriorconsultationwiththeindigenouspeoplesastotheviabilityofsuchactivitiesortheirenvironmentalimpact”.


TheCommitteeofExpertsemphasizedthat“theprovisionsonconsultation,particularlyArticle6,arethecoreprovisionsoftheConventionandthebasisforapplyingalltheothers.ConsultationistheinstrumentthattheConventionprescribesasaninstitutionalbasisfordialogue,withaviewtoensuringinclusivedevelopmentprocessesandpreventingandsettlingdisputes.TheaimofconsultationasprescribedbytheConventionistoreconcileoftenconflictinginterestsbymeansofsuitableprocedures”.CEACR, 76th Session, 2005, Observation, Guatemala, published 2006.

Colombia:ConsultationonlegislativemeasuresconcerningconsultationIn1999,acomplainantallegedthattheprocessofpromulgationaswellasthecontentofDecreeNo.1320,whichestablishesprovisionsfortheprocessofconsultationwiththeindigenousandblackcommunitiespriortoexploitationofrenewablenaturalresourcesfoundwithintheirterritories,wasnot in conformity with the obligation to undertake consultationswithindigenouspeoplesunderConvention No. 169.

Initsresponse,theILOGoverningBodyunderlinedthattheconceptofpriorconsultationestablishedinArticle 6 must be understood within the context of thegeneralpolicysetoutinArticle2(1)and(2)(b)oftheConvention,whichstipulatethatGovernmentsshalldevelopcoordinatedandsystematicactiontoprotecttherightsofindigenouspeoplesandguaranteerespectfortheirintegrity,includingthefullrealizationoftheirsocial,economicandculturalrights,theirsocialandculturalidentity,theircustomsand traditions and their institutions.

The Governing Body noted that the right of indigenouspeoplestobeconsultedwheneverconsideration is given to legislative or administrative measureswhichmayaffectthemdirectly,aswellastheobligationoftheGovernmenttocarryoutpriorconsultationwiththepeoplesaffected,is“deriveddirectlyfromConventionNo.169,notfromtherecognitionofthatrightbynationallegislation”.

ConsideringthatthepurposeofDecreeNo.1320wastoregulatepriorconsultationbeforeexploitation

of resources within the territory of indigenous and black communities and thus constituted a legislative measure that is likely to affect the communities directly,theCommitteenotedthatthereisaclear“obligationtoconsultthecountry’sindigenouspeoplesbeforetheadoptionandpromulgationoftheDecreeinquestion”andfurtherthat“issuingDecreeNo.1320withoutpriorconsultationwasnotcompatiblewiththeConvention”.

TheCommitteefurtheremphasizedthat:The adoption of rapid decisions should not be to the detriment of effective consultation for which sufficient time must be given to allow the country’s indigenous peoples to engage their own decision-making processes and participate effectively in decisions taken in a manner consistent with their cultural and social traditions. Although the Committee does not claim that these traditions are the only ones that can serve as a basis for consultations in accordance with the Convention, it does consider that if they are not taken into consideration, it will be impossible to meet the fundamental requirements of prior consultation and participation.

Governing Body, 282nd Session, November 2001, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Colombia, GB.282/14/3.

5.3. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: CONSULTATION AND PARTICIPATION

5.3.1.Proceduresforconsultation

Norway:ProceduresforConsultationInMay2005,theGovernmentofNorwayandtheSamiParliamentagreedonproceduresforconsultation,whichweresubsequentlyapprovedinCabinet.Theconsultationproceduresareregardedasnormativeguidelines.NorwayratifiedILOConvention No. 169 in 1990.

TheagreementrecognizesthattheSami,asanindigenouspeople,havetherighttobeconsultedin matters that may affect them directly. The agreement’sobjectiveismanifold:

1. TocontributetotheimplementationinpracticeoftheState’sobligationstoconsultindigenouspeoplesunderinternationallaw;


2. To achieve agreement between State authorities and the Sami Parliament whenever consideration is being given to legislative or administrative measures that may directly affectSamiinterests;3.TofacilitatethedevelopmentofapartnershipperspectivebetweenStateauthorities and the Sami Parliament that contributes to the strengthening of Sami cultureandsociety;4.TodevelopacommonunderstandingofthesituationanddevelopmentalneedsoftheSami society.

TheagreementestablishesthattheproceduresapplytotheGovernmentanditsministries,directorates and other subordinate State agencies or activities in matters that may affect Sami interests directly,includinglegislation,regulations,specificorindividualadministrativedecisions,guidelines,measures and decisions. The obligation to consult the Sami Parliament includes all material and immaterialformsofSamiculture,includingmusic,theatre,literature,art,media,language,religion,

culturalheritage,immaterialpropertyrightsandtraditionalknowledge,placenames,healthandsocialwelfare,daycarefacilitiesforchildren,education,research,landownershiprightsandrightstouselands,mattersconcerninglandadministrationandcompetinglandutilization,businessdevelopment,reindeerhusbandry,fisheries,agriculture,mineralexplorationandextractionactivities,windpower,hydroelectricpower,sustainabledevelopment,preservationofculturalheritage,biodiversityandnatureconservation.

Matterswhichareofageneralnature,andareassumed to affect the society as a whole are in principlenotcoveredbytheagreement,andsuchmatters shall not be subject to consultations. GeographicallytheProceduresforConsultationsareapplicabletotraditionalSamiareas.

Initscommentaryonindividualprovisionscontainedintheagreement,theGovernmentinformsitsentities that consultations shall take place in good faith, with the objective of achieving agreement to the proposed


measures. This means the process of consultations with the Sami parliament is something more than an ordinary public process through which appropriate bodies are invited to consider various proposals (process of hearing), as the parties must sincerely and genuinely seek to reach an agreement to the proposed measures. This also means that State authorities are under an obligation to initiate consultations with Sami Parliament and make all necessary efforts to achieve an agreement even though the State authority concerned may believe that the likelihood of achieving an agreement is limited. However, the agreed procedures for consultations do not dictate that an agreement or consent to the proposed measures must always be reached. The required extent of the consultations may vary in specific situations. The most important requirement is that necessary consultation processes and procedures are established in order to enable the Sami Parliament to exert real influence on the process and the final result. A simple information meeting will thus normally not fulfill State authorities obligation to consult indigenous peoples under ILO Convention No. 169.

Theexplanatorycommentaryprovidesfurtherexplanationaboutthecontentsoftheconsultationobligation:Fulfillment of the consultation obligation requires that both parties are informed about the counterpart’s position and assessments. The State party shall ensure that its interests and views are communicated to and understood by the Sami Parliament, and that the State party has understood the position of the Sami Parliament. The Sami Parliament has a corresponding responsibility to communicate its points of view on the matter concerned. If the parties do not reach an agreement, they are expected to consider compromises and possible changes in the original proposal with the aim to narrow the gap between their positions. When necessary, provisions shall be made for further consultations.John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.Prosedyrer for konsultasjoner mellom statlige myndigheter og Sametinget, 2005.

Morocco:theestablishmentoftheIRCAM.On17October2001,anadvisorybodycalled

IRCAM(RoyalInstitutefortheAmazighCulture)was established in Morocco with the mandate to provideadvisoryopinionsonthemeasuresdesignedtosafeguardandpromoteAmazighlanguageandculture,inallitsformsandexpressions.Thisbodyisintendedtosupporttheworkofotherinstitutions,whicharechargedwithimplementingpoliciesaimedat introducing the teaching of the Amazigh language in the education system and ensuring its visibility in the social and cultural life of the country as well as in themedia,atnational,regionalandlocallevel.

TheAmazighisanindigenouspeople,whichrepresentmorethan60percentofthepopulationofMorocco.OntheassumptionthattheircultureisanintegralpartoftheMoroccanidentityandrepresentsitsundeniablesubstratum,KingMohamedVIdecided to create an institution that should address issuespertainingtotheidentityandtheculturalheritageoftheAmazighpeople.Broadconsultationswere carried out with various associations and expertsfromtheAmazighpopulationofMoroccowith a view to obtaining a broad consensus on the membershipoftheRoyalInstitute,inaccordancewitharticle6(consultationandparticipation)ofILOConvention No. 169.

TheInstituteengagedwithrelevantAmazighactors,throughanopenapproachtoconsultationandparticipationinthedevelopmentofpoliciesandactionslikelytoprotecttheculturalandlinguisticheritage of the Amazigh. This led to a national reflectionaboutthevoiceandmeansneededtosafeguardtheidentityofAmazighpeopleaswellastotheplanningofactionsaimedatrevitalizingthecultural and artistic life of the Amazigh communities.

Theassessmentoftheworkperformedduringthese years by the IRCAM that ILO Convention No.169,throughitsprovisions,canbeaninstrument of cultural consolidation and cohesion. Thus,theprovisionsofarticles6(consultationandparticipation),27and28(education)havebeen translated into tangible reality through this institutioninwhichtheessentialpartoftheAmazighcommunityofMoroccoseeitselfreflected.

Tamaynut association: The policy to address the Amazigh case in Morocco in light of ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.


5.3.2.Establishmentofconsultativebodies

Bolivia:indigenousandpeasantorganizationsandtheirinteractionwiththegovernment.Geographically,Boliviahastwomainregions;thehighlandsdenselypopulatedbyindigenousagriculturalcommunitiesandthelowlands,characterized by more diverse but numerically smallerindigenouspeoples,traditionallylivingfromagriculture,huntingandgathering.

Sincethenationalrevolutionin1952,theterm“peasant”wasaconceptthatcoveredallruralinhabitantsofthehighlands,includingtheindigenouscommunities.Sincethen,mostoftheindigenous communities in the highlands were organizedinpeasantunions,whichaddressedtheirneeds from a class-based - rather than from an ethnic-perspective.Themainumbrellaorganizationof these unions is the Unique Confederation of Trade UnionsofPeasantWorkers(CSUTCB),establishedin 1979.

Inthe1980s,theindigenouspeoplesofthelowlandsstartedtoorganize,claimingcollectiverightsbasedontheiridentityaspeoples.Themainindigenous umbrella organization of the lowlands is theConfederationofIndigenousPeoplesofBolivia(CIDOB),establishedin1982.CIDOBcurrentlyrepresent34differentpeoples.

In1997,theNationalCouncilofMarkasandAyllus10) ofQollasuyo(CONAMAQ)wasestablished,rejectingthe unions as an adequate organizational form in the highlands and aiming at revitalizing the traditional Markas and Ayllus.

Inparallel,theunionsstartedtoaddresstheculturalaspectsofthemarginalizationoftheindigenouspeasantsandgraduallycombinedclass-basedclaimswithclaimsforcollectiverights,basedonethnicityandculture.Thisprocessculminatedin2005,withthelandslideelectoralvictoryofPresidentEvoMorales,knownasthe“firstindigenouspresident”.However,hispoliticalparty,theMovementTowardsSocialism(MAS),isnotspecificallyanindigenousbutratherapeasant

10) Markas and Ayllus are the traditional organizational forms and governance institutions of the Quechua and Ayamara peoples of the highland.

movement,whichcombinessocialistideologywithethnic-cultural elements.

Together,CONAMAQ,CIDOBandCSUTCBconstitutethelegitimaterepresentationofalmostalltheindigenouspeoplesandcommunitiesofboththehighlandsandthelowlandsofBolivia,includingtheindigenouspeasants.InthecontextoftheConstituentAssembly,whichledtotheadoptionofthenewBolivianConstitutioninJanuary2009,thethreeorganizationsagreedona“UnityPact”,whichimpliedtheelaborationofjointproposalsfortheestablishmentofapluri-nationalState.

Thethreeorganizationsalsoparticipateinvariousconsultativemechanismsatdifferentlevels,establishedbypreviousgovernments.Theseinclude:

The Educational Councils of the Aboriginal •Peoples(CEPOS).Thesearenotboundtoaspecificterritorybutareorganizedalongethnic lines with Councils for each of the most numerousindigenouspeoples(Ayamara,Quechua,Guaraní)aswellasamulti-ethnicCouncil for the Amazon region. The Councils participateintheformulationofeducationalpoliciesandmonitortheiradequateimplementation.The National Council for Decentralization •(CONADES),whichisaconsultativebodybetweenthenationaladministration,thelegislativepower,departmentaladministrations,municipalities,civilsocietyand academic and research institutions. CONAMAQ,CIDOBandCSUTCBallparticipateinCONADES.TheNationalCouncilforDialogue,established•in 2006 by the UN-system agencies in Bolivia. TheCouncilcomprisesUNagencies,CIDOB,CONAMAQandCSUTCB,withanaimofestablishing a mechanism for consultation and participation,alongthelinesstipulatedinILOConvention No. 169 and the UN Declaration ontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples.

Case cited in: Ramiro Molinas Barrios; Los Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas en un Proceso de Cambio de la Naturaleza de la Nación y del Estado, ILO, 2009.


Australia:EstablishmentofaNationalIndigenousRepresentativeBodyIn2008,theAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderSocialJusticeCommissioner,Mr.TomCalma,releasedapaper,outliningkeyconsiderationsinthedevelopmentofanewNationalIndigenousRepresentativeBodyinAustralia.Thepaperidentifiesthemanyandvariedissuesthatneedto be considered in the establishment of a new representativebodybutdoesnotproposeamodelforthebodyitself,asthedecisionsshouldbetakenthroughconsultationswiththeindigenouspeoplesofAustralia.ConsideringthegeneralapplicabilityofMr.Calma’sconsiderations,acomprehensivesummaryispresentedbelow:

PrinciplesthatshouldunderpinaNationalIndigenousRepresentativeBody:

Legitimacy and credibility with both •governmentandIndigenouspeoples.“Two-way”accountability–toGovernment•andtoindigenouspeoples.Transparencyandaccountabilityin•itsoperations,inthemechanismsfordeterminingmembershiporelection;inpolicymakingprocesses;andfinancialprocesses.Truerepresentativenessofadiverse•indigenouspolity(ensuringparticipationofdifferentgroupsofindigenouspeoples,traditionalowners,youthandwomenforexample).Aconsistentand“connected”structure,with•aclearrelationshipbetweenthenationalbodyandindigenouspeakbodies,servicedeliveryorganisationsandotherrepresentativemechanisms.

Independenceandrobustnessinitsadvocacy•and analysis.

Possible roles and functions of a National Indigenous RepresentativeBody:

Government Programme Delivery; • e.g. determiningprioritiesforthefederalbudget,contributingtoplanningprocesses,ormonitoring government service delivery.Advocacy;• itseffectivenesswilldependonanumberofissues,includingwhetheritis located within or outside of government andwhetherthereisarobustrepresentativestructure.Policy formulation and critique;• respectfortheprincipleoffree,priorandinformedconsentrequiresanew,moreopenandcollaborativeapproachtopolicydevelopmentbygovernmentdepartments,whereconsultations are carried out to reach consensus,notsimplytoprovideinput.Contributing to Law Reform;• it could activelypursuelawreformandbeinvolvedincoordinatingandsupportingtestcasesincooperationwithindigenouslegalorganisations and movements.Review and Evaluation;• ifequippedwithinvestigative authority and a robust regional structure,itcouldbewell-placedtoreceive“fieldreports”ongovernmentperformance,whichcouldfeedintoadvocacyandpolicyformulation.Clearing House;• itcouldactasa“clearinghouse”toshareinformationbetweenindigenousrepresentativeorganisationsandservice delivery organisations.


International Role;• it could have an overall coordinating role for international engagement to ensure strategic and well-targeted participation,supplementedbycapacitybuildingprogrammes.Research;• it could have its own research coordination arm and could commission expertandcommunity-basedresearchorcoordinate with existing research centres. Facilitation and Mediation;• itcouldsupportmediationtrainingandpossiblyaccreditprofessionalsandorganisationsformediationbetweenindigenouspeoplesandnon-indigenous interests.

StructureofaNationalIndigenousRepresentativeBody:Twokeyissuestoconsiderarehowthe“narrow”nationalleadershipwillremainconnectedwiththebroaderbaseofindigenouspeoplesandcommunities at the local and regional level through totheState/Territoryandnationallevel;andwhatthenational structure itself should look like.

SomeoptionstoengageattheregionalandState/Territorylevelinclude:

Formal mechanisms whereby the National •

Bodyhascomponentsthatexistatdifferentlevels.Amixtureofprocessestoengagedifferent•sectorsoftheindigenouscommunity(suchasforumsatdifferentlevelsormembershipprocessesforindividualsandorganisations);orRelativelyinformalprocesseswhereby•indigenouspeoplescanhavetheirsayatanationalcongressorthroughotherprocessesthatdrawpeopletogetheronanexpertorissuespecificbasis.

Someoptionsforthenationalstructureinclude:The national structure could be made of •delegates nominated by the regional and State/Territorylevelsofthebody,orthiscouldbe based on a direct election model at the nationallevel;It could be a • membership based organisation,wherebycommunities,organisationsorindividualscanjointheorganisation;Itcouldinvolveindigenouspeakbodies,•regionallyorState/Territory-basedindigenousbodiesand/orindigenousservicedeliveryorganisationsinitsactivities;Itcouldallocatepositionstoanationalboard•


orexecutiveofrepresentativesforparticularsectorsoftheindigenouscommunity;Itcouldbethroughaprocessofmerit•selectionpresidedoverbyapanelofeminentindigenouspeers;orA combination of these methods.•

Considerationalsoneedstobegivento:How the National Body can maintain a gender •balanceandensureequalparticipationandrepresentationforwomenandyouth;andWhetherthereoughttobeprocessesto•enablethebroad-basedparticipationofindigenouspeoplesinthenationaldecision-makingprocess–suchasthroughtheconveningofanannualpolicyCongressopentoallindigenouspeoples

RelationshipoftheNationalIndigenousRepresentativeBodywithfederalgovernmentandParliament:The National Body could be established as a government authority or as a non-government organisation.Inanycase,atightrelationshipwithgovernmentisparticularlyimportantfortwoof

thenationalbody’sproposedfunctions:policyadvice to government and review of government performance.TherearearangeofoptionsforhowtheRepresentativeBodymightoperate:

It could have• ex-officio membershipofthe Ministerial Taskforce on Indigenous AffairsaswellastheSecretariesGrouponIndigenousAffairs,andthereforehavea“seatatthetable”wherethemajordecisionsonIndigenous affairs are made at the federal governmentlevel.Alternatively,itcouldoperateasanadvisortothesebodies.Itcouldbeinvitedtoparticipateindiscussions•of the Council of Australian Government (COAG),aswellasthevariouscommitteesofCOAG.It could have a role in the committee systems •of the Parliament. Alternatively,anexclusivelyindigenous•committee,withdemocraticallychosenrepresentatives,andallthepowersofParliamentarians,couldbeestablished.Thiscouldevolve,effectively,intoanindigenouschamber of Parliament.


ResourcingtheNationalIndigenousRepresentativeBody:A critical issue will be deciding how the National Body is to be funded for its regular activities. Governmentfundsmaybeuseful,buttheymaycomeatacostoftheindependenceoftheorganisation.ItisalsopossiblefortheBodyto be funded through grants or fundraising. A furtheroptionisthroughtheestablishmentofan“Indigenousfuturefund”thatcouldbefundedthroughadirectgrantfromgovernment(s)orthroughtheallocationofapercentageofminingtaxreceiptsannuallyforafixedperiod.Summary of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner: Building a sustainable National Indigenous Representative Body – Issues for consideration, 2008.Documents related to the establishment of a national representative body are available at the website of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner: http://www.hreoc.gov.au/social_justice/repbody/index.html

Norway,SwedenandFinland:TheSámiParliamentsTheSámiaretheindigenouspeopleofSápmi,i.e.thenorthernmostpartofEurope,encompassingthenorthernpartsofpresent-dayNorway,SwedenandFinlanduptotheKolaPeninsulainRussia.EstimatesindicatethatSámipeoplenumberaround60,000–70,000,themajorityofwhomliveinNorway.

The Sámi ParliamentisarepresentativeadvisorybodythatwasestablishedinNorway,SwedenandFinlandrespectivelyin1987,1992and1995bytheso-calledSámiActwithaviewtoallowingtheconsultationofSámipeopleonmattersaffectingthem. The mandate and regulation of this body may change considerably from one country to another. Inparticular,itisworthnotingthe“obligationtonegotiate” contemplatedatsection9oftheFinnishSámiParliamentAct,sinceitmarksasignificantdifferencebetweenthisActandthecorrespondentActs enacted in Norway and Sweden. Finnish authoritiesare,infact,obligedtonegotiatewiththeSámiParliament“inallfar-reachingandimportantmeasureswhichmaydirectlyandinaspecificwayaffectthestatusoftheSámiasanindigenouspeople”.Conversely,NorwegianauthoritiesaremerelycalledtogivetheSámiParliamentan

opportunitytoexpressitsviews,whileSwedishlegislationissilentonthepoint.Inpractice,concernshavebeenexpressedaboutthefactthattheParliaments,althoughconsulted,haveoftenhadonlylimitedinfluenceonfinaldecisions,astheirviews are not given adequate weight.Inthisregard,itshouldbenotedthattheProcedures for ConsultationsadoptedinNorwayhave contributed to strengthening the role of theNorwegianSámiParliament,whichhassubsequently been engaged in consultation processesregarding,amongotherthings,thenewmineralsact,themarineresourcesactandthebiological diversity act.S. Errico, B. A. Hocking, “Reparations for Indigenous Peoples in Europe: the Case of the Sámi People”, in Lenzerini F. (ed.), Reparations for Indigenous Peoples. International and Comparative Perspectives (Oxford, 2008), p. 379;IWGIA, The Indigenous World 2008, p. 27;UN Human Rights Committee, Concluding Observations on Norway, UN Doc CCPR/C/NOR/CO/5, 25 April 2006.

Philippines:TheIndigenousPeoplesConsultativeBodySection 50 of the 1997 Indigenous Peoples Rights Act providesfortheestablishmentofaConsultative Body consistingofthetraditionalleaders,eldersandrepresentativesfromthewomenandyouthsectorsofthedifferentindigenouspeoples,whichwill advise the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples(NCIP)onmattersrelatingtotheproblems,aspirationsandinterestsofindigenouspeoples.In2003,NCIPadoptedGuidelines for the Constitution and Operationalization of the Consultative Body. These Guidelines recognize the constitution of ConsultativeBodiesatnational,regionalandprovinciallevelsand,further,atcommunitylevelwhentheneedarises,toholdmorefocusedconsultations(Sec12).Amongotherthings,theConsultativeBodyiscalledto“deliberateonimportantIPissuesandconcernsandgiveinputsormakerecommendationsofpoliciesforadoptionbytheCommission”.TheBodywasestablishedin2006.NCIP Administrative Order No. 1, Series of 2003, 17 October 2003;Stavenhagen, Report on the Mission to Philippines, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2003/90/Add.3, 5 March 2003.


TheAdvisoryCouncilofIndigenousPeoplesoftheAndeanCommunityThe Andean Community is a regional organisation establishedforthepurposeofpromotingtradecooperationandintegrationamongitsmembers,i.e.Bolivia,Colombia,EcuadorandPeru.On26September2007,theAndeanCouncilonForeignAffairs – a body of the Andean Community made upoftheMinistersofForeignAffairsofBolivia,Colombia,EcuadorandPeru–establishedtheAdvisoryCouncilofIndigenousPeoplesoftheAndean Community. The Advisory Council is designedtobeaconsultativebody,providingadviceonpolitical,cultural,socialandeconomicaspectsofthesub-regionalintegration,asitaffectsindigenouspeoples.ThebodyisconstitutedbyoneindigenousdelegatefromeachState,tobechosen among the highest ranks of the indigenous nationalorganizationsaccordingtoprocedureswhich will be established at national level. It is not clear what is the value attached to the advisory opinionprovidedbythisCouncilandhowitcanthusinfluenceinpracticethefinaldecisionsmadebytheAndean Community on matters affecting indigenous peoples.http://www.comunidadandina.org/normativa/dec/d674.htm

India:TribesAdvisoryCouncilTheConstitutionofIndiaempowersthePresidenttodeclare any area as a Scheduled Area to be listed underitsFifthandSixthSchedule(Article244(i)).TheFifthScheduleisapplicabletostatesotherthantheNorthEasternStatesofAssam,Meghalaya,TripuraandMizoram,whicharegovernedbytheSixth Schedule11).

TheFifthScheduleprovidesfortheestablishmentof a Tribes Advisory Council in each State that has a Scheduled Area. The Councils must consist of about20members,ofwhomthree-fourthsmustberepresentativesoftheScheduledTribeselectedinthe Legislative Assembly of the State. Its mandate istoadvisetheGovernor,uponhisrequest,onmattersconcerning“thewelfareandadvancementoftheScheduledTribesintheState”.Furthermore,itisprovidedthat,amongotherissues,regulations

11) Nagaland, Manipur , Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh are also excluded from the purview of the Fifth Schedule as they are governed by special provisions under the Constitution.


concerning the transfer of land by and among Scheduled Tribes and the allotment of land to members of the Scheduled Tribes cannot be made without consulting the Tribes Advisory Council. The Constitution of India: http://india.gov.in/govt/constitutions_india.php

Guatemala:JointCommissiononIndigenousLandRightsIndigenouspeoplesrepresentapproximatelyhalfofthepopulationofGuatemala.Therecognitionoftheir rights is rooted in the Agreement on Identity andRightsofIndigenousPeoplessignedin1995aftermorethan30yearsofdomesticarmedconflict.ThisAgreementprovidesfortheestablishmentoftheBipartisanCommissiononIndigenousLandRights,chargedwiththetaskofcarryingoutstudieson,aswellasdraftingandproposingadequatemeasurestoaddress,theissueofindigenouspeoples’land.Itisconstitutedofbothgovernmentaland indigenous members. One of the achievements of this Commission was the creation of the Land Fund(Fondo de Tierras) in 1999. The Land Fund hasthemandatetodevelopandimplementthenationalpolicyconcerningaccesstoland,includingthroughtherealizationofaprogrammeto regularize land titles. Its Executive Board is composedofgovernmentalrepresentativesaswellasarepresentativeofindigenousorganizationsandarepresentativeoftheorganizationsofpeasants/agricultural workers. The functioning of this Fund anditsachievementswithrespecttoindigenouspeoplesarehowevercontroversial.http://www.congreso.gob.gt/Docs/PAZ Guatemala: Leyes y Regulaciones en Materia Indígena (1944-2001), Tomo II, OIT, Costa Rica, 2002.Land Fund: http://www.fontierras.gob.gt See also R. Stavenhagen, Report of the mission to Guatemala, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2003/90/Add.2, 24 February 2003.

5.3.3Participationinelectivebodies

Statesensureindigenouspeoples’participationin decision-making in various ways. Some States have introduced a quota system to guarantee the participationofacertainnumberofindigenousrepresentatives in the national legislative assemblies. Tothesamepurpose,someStateshaveredefined

orcreatedspecialelectoraldistrictstofacilitatetheparticipationofindigenouspeoplesinelectivebodies.Insomecases,electorallawsandrelatedregulations have been reviewed with a view to providingindigenouspeopleswithdirectchannelsofparticipationinpublicelectionsthatbypassthestructureofpoliticalparties.

NewZealand:MaoriparticipationinelectivebodiesHistoricalcircumstances,politicalwillandMaoristruggleshaveresultedinsubstantialMaoripoliticalrepresentationintheNewZealandParliament.Theguaranteed Maori seats in Parliament have existed forthelast140years,andtheirnumbervariesdependingonthenumberofMaoriregisteringfortheMaoriroll.TheMixedMemberProportionalRepresentationsystem(MMP)allowscandidatestoenter into Parliament either via the 69 electorates (whichinclude7Maorielectorates)orthroughpre-determinedPartylists.MaorivotershavetheopportunitytoregistereitherfortheMaorirollthatdecides on the 7 Maori MPs or the General roll. TheMaoriguaranteedseatsconfirmtheMaoris’uniquepositioninNewZealandsociety,givethemcontroloverwhowillrepresenttheminParliamentandcontributetotheirfairnumericalrepresentation.Atthesametime,theoptionofMaorienrolmentinthegeneralrollpreventsmarginalisationandpushespoliticalpartiestotakeMaoriviewpointsintoaccountwhendesigningtheirpolicies.

New Zealand introduced the MMP system in 1993. Sincethen,theMaoripercentageinParliamenthasincreased(17.3%,whichtranslatesto21MaoriMPsoutof121)tothepointthatitisnowslightlyabovethepercentageofMaoriinNewZealandsociety(15.1%).MMPhasallowedtheelectionofsome Maori MPs who would not otherwise have beenelected,buthasalsoallowedtheMaoriParty,formedin2004,toenterParliament.PartiesrankMaoricandidateshighlyonpartylistsinanefforttosecurethesupportofMaorivoters;25%ofpartylistMPsareMaori.Also,sincetheintroductionofMMP,MaoriparticipationinelectionshasincreasedandsohasMaoriengagementwithnationalpolitics.Recentmeasures in favour of Maori and the most recent additionalfundsinthe2007budgetcouldbepartlyattributedtotheMaoris’increasedrepresentationandvisibilityinthepoliticalscene.Inaddition,the


MaoriPartyhasinitiatedpositivestepsforMaori,includingthereviewoftheStateOwnedEnterpriseLandcropoperationsonMaorilands,andhasrepeatedlyopposed–albeitsofarunsuccessfully–theadoptionofrestrictivebillsforMaori.

The combination of the guaranteed Maori seats and theMMPrepresentsisanexampleofparticipationofindigenouspeoplesinelectivebodiestothesameatleastextentastheothersectionsofthepopulation.

MaorirepresentationinParliamenthasnotbeenreplicatedatlocalgovernmentlevel:lessthan5%of members elected to local councils are Maori. The Plenty Regional Council (Maori Constituency Empowering) Act 2001 and the Local Government Act providedlocalauthoritieswiththechoicetoestablishMaoriconstituencies,butveryfewCouncilsoptedforthis.Ingeneral,Maoridisengagementwithlocalpoliticsandlackofpoliticalwillstillact

asimportantobstaclestothefairrepresentationofMaoriinlocalgovernment.Fortunately,consultationwith Maori in decisions that affect them at the local level has increased. Dr. Alexandra Xanthaki: Good Practices of Indigenous Political Participation: Maori Participation in New Zealand Elective Bodies, ILO, 2008.

Nepal:ParticipationintheconstitutionalreformprocessInApril2008,NepalheldelectionsforaConstituentAssembly(CA)thatisgoingtowriteanewconstitution for the country. The elections came aspartofapeaceprocessthatended10yearsofarmedconflictinthecountry.Theelectionswerepostponedthreetimes,aspoliticalpartiesandpopulationgroupsarguedandcreatedpressurefora form of elections that could result in an assembly representativeofthecountry’shighlydiversepopulation.Intheend,thecountrysettledona


systembywhicheachcitizenvotedtwice:onceinan“open”electionforanindividualcandidateandonceina“proportional”electionforapoliticalparty.Thevotesontheproportionallistwerethendistributedbyeachpartyoverpre-createdlists,sothattheyprovidedasetofcandidatesthatmatchedtheethnicmake-upofthecountryproportionally.Thus 120 indigenous candidates were elected throughtheproportionalelection,correspondingroughlytoindigenouspeoples’proportionofthetotalpopulationofthecountry.Inaddition,therewere 82 indigenous candidates elected directly throughtheopenelectionand16candidatesnominatedseparately.Intotal,therearenow218indigenousmembersoftheCAoutofatotalof601,byfarthehighestproportionofindigenousmemberseverelectedtoanationalpoliticalbodyinNepal.

DespiteprogressinachievingindigenousrepresentationintheCA,manyindigenousactivistsargue that meaningful indigenous consultation andparticipationhasnotbeenestablished.Thecriticismcoversaseriesofdifferentpoints.Tobeginwith,theindigenousrepresentativeshavealmostexclusivelybeenelectedthroughpoliticalparties,whichretaintherighttoexpelthem.Bearinginmind that many of the indigenous CA members arelesseducatedandexperiencedinnationalpolitics,itisarguedthattheirabilitytotakestrongstandsonindigenousissuesislimited.Withinthepartiestheindigenouspoliticiansonlyhavealimitedpresenceinthedecision-makingbodies,despitetheirproportionalnumbersintheCA.Someactivistshavealsoopposedthewayinwhichthecandidateshavebeenselected,arguingthatthepoliticalpartieshavecontrolledtheprocessratherthanallowing

indigenous communities to choose their own representatives.

Theissueofindigenouspeoples’participationintheCAprocessconcernsnotonlytheirrepresentation,but also the mechanism for consultation. During his visittoNepalinNovember2008,Prof.JamesAnaya,theUNSpecialRapporteuronthesituationofhumanrightsandfundamentalindigenouspeoples,raisedtheissueofconsultationintheCAprocesswiththeGovernment.Heemphasized“theneedtodevelopadditionalmechanismsintheconstitution-makingprocesstoconsultdirectlywithindigenouspeoples,throughtheirownchosenrepresentativesand in accordance with their own methods of decision-making,asrequiredbytheinternationalstandardstowhichNepalhascommitted.”

Thequestionofindigenouspeoples’participationintheCAprocesshasnowbeentakenupbythecourtsinNepal,as20indigenousorganizationshavefiledacaseintheSupremeCourt.TheyareallegingthatthecurrentCAprocessviolatestheirrightstoconsultationandparticipationunderNepal’sInterimConstitution,ILOConventionNo.169,ICERD,andtheUNDeclarationonIndigenousPeoples.OnMarch 1st,theSupremeCourthasissuedashowcause order to the government on this issue and the case is ongoing.Lama, Mukta S: Nepal, IWGIA Year Book 2009 Copenhagen, Denmark (Forthcoming);OHCHR Press Release, “UN expert urges action on Nepal’s commitment to indigenous peoples rights”, 02/12/08.


Kenya:RepresentationinelectivebodiesTraditionalleadershipisnotformallyrecognizedinKenya.Thereareonly210parliamentaryconstituenciesinthecountry,whoseboundariesare determined by the electoral commission of Kenya without taking into consideration the need toensurerepresentationofallcommunitiesatthenational level. Elections to the national assembly and local councils are based on universal suffrage andrepresentatives,iftheyconstituteaminorityinagivenarea.Intheabsenceofexpressprovisionsandspecialmeasuresofrepresentation,indigenouspeoplesandminoritiescontinuetobeexcluded.This situation has been acknowledged by the High Court in the case of Rangal Lemeiguran & others vs. Attorney General & Others(IlchamusCase).TheIlchamus community sought a declaration in the ConstitutionalCourt(HighCourt)thatthestatisticalchance of an Ilchamus candidate being elected as amemberofparliamentinthepresentconstituencyisinpracticesominimalastoeffectivelydenythemanychanceofeverbeingrepresentedintheNationalHouseofAssembly(ashasbeenthesituationforthepastfortyyears).This,theyclaimed,contravenedtheirfundamentalrightsandfreedomofexpressionandfreedomofconscienceasprotectedundersection 70 of the Constitution of Kenya. They therefore asked for an electoral constituency to be createdthatwouldcatertoandreflecttheirneedsandaspirationsandthenominationofoneoftheirrepresentativesinparliamenttoarticulatetheirissues.

Inalandmarkdecision,theHighCourtheldthatminorities,suchasIlchamus,havetherighttoparticipateandinfluencetheformulationandimplementationofpublicpolicy,andtoberepresentedbypeoplebelongingtothesamesocial,cultural and economic context as themselves. For a politicalsystemtobetrulydemocratic,ithastoallowminoritiesavoiceoftheirown,toarticulatetheirdistinct concerns and seek redress and thereby lay a sure base for deliberative democracy. This decision hasbeenheraldedasmarkingapositiveturnintheKenyan judiciary for recognition of indigenous right. See: http://www.kenyalaw.orgCase prepared by Naomi Kipuri.

5.3.4.Participationinlocalgovernance

Asregardstheparticipationatlocallevel,theissue is being addressed in the context of recent developmentstowardsthedecentralizationofStatesanddevolutionofpowerstoregionalandlocalauthorities.Insomecases,thisprocesshasbeenaccompaniedbytherecognitionofsomespheresofautonomyinfavourofindigenouspeoples.Inothercases,indigenouscommunitiesarerecognizedasterritorialdivisionsforthepurposeofStates’administrativeorganization.Inthiscontext,theStatemayacknowledgethesocialandpoliticalorganization of indigenous communities.


Panama:SpecialterritorialunitsArticle 5 of Panama’s Magna Carta states that politicaldivisionsmaybeestablishedbylaw,governedbyspecialregimes.Inthisregard,PanamahasfivespecialterritorialunitsthatenjoyadministrativeautonomythroughGeneral,Traditional,RegionalandLocalCouncils.Theyareallgovernedbytheirtraditionsandcustoms,andmaketheirowndecisionswithintheframeworkstipulatedby the Constitution and the country’s legislation. As fortheState,itrecognisestheuniquecharacteristicsoftheindigenoussocietyascomparedtonationalsociety,andtheindigenouscommunitiesadjusttocertainStateinterestsonsovereignty,securityanduse of resources in order to gain their own native land.Theindigenouspeoplesmakethemajorityofdecisionsincultural,economicandpoliticalmattersthataffecttheirpopulations,andkeepwatchtoensureindigenousrightsarefulfilled.

TheKunaYalaComarca,anareaof5.500Km²,islocatedinnorth-easternPanamaandincludes both land and coastline. The Comarca isgovernedbytheKunaGeneralCouncil(CGK)(OnmakedSummakaled),whichisthehighestauthority,comprisedofthelocalcouncilsofthe49communities,eachonerepresentedbyaSaila.Theregionisrunbythreegeneralchiefs(Caciques)elected by the CGK. The CGK meets for 4 days every 6 months. In addition to the 49 Sailas that

representtheircommunities,participationonthese councils is mandatory for National Assembly representatives,theregionalGovernor,the4district(corregimiento)representativesandtheregional directors of each institution established intheComarca.Furthermore,eachcommunityisobligated to include one woman on its delegation. TheparticipationofwomenwasapprovedbytheSailasinasessionoftheCGK,yetthisagreementhasstillnotbeencarriedout,forthemostpart,bythe communities.

Concurrently,theKunaCouncilofCulture(OnmakedNamakaled)wascreatedin1971.Thiscouncil,runbytheSailasDummaganofKunatradition,isresponsibleforupholdinganddisseminatingKunaculture,andcannotgetinvolvedinpoliticalmatters.

The Kuna Council of Culture and CGK rank above allotherKunaorganisations,aswellasgovernmentandprivateinstitutions,butactinconsultationandcoordination with them. Any institution wishing to negotiateorcarryoutagreementsorprojectsintheKunaYalaRegionmustdosowiththeacceptoftheseauthoritiesintheappropriatejurisdiction.

http://www.oas.org/Juridico/MLA/sp/pan/sp_pan-int-text-const.pdfCase prepared by Myrna Cunningham

vI. customary law, penal systems and access to justIce

81VI . CUSTOmARy LAw, PENAL SySTEmS AND ACCESS TO jUSTICE

6.1. CUSTOmS AND CUSTOmARy LAw

Manyindigenousandtribalpeopleshavetheirowncustomsandpractices,whichformtheircustomarylaw.Thishasevolvedthroughtheyears,helpingtomaintain a harmonious society.Often,inordertoapplythesecustomsandpractices,indigenouspeopleshavetheirowninstitutional structures such as judicial and administrative bodies or councils. These bodies have rules and regulations to make sure customary lawsarefollowed.Failuretodosoisoftenpunished,andindividuallapsesoftenhavetheirownspecificpunishment.

Aneffectiveimplementationofinternationallyrecognizedindigenouspeoples’rights-includinglandandresourcerights,andcultural,socialandeconomicrights-requiresthatcustoms,customarylawandlegalsystemsofindigenouspeoplesarerecognizedandacknowledged,inparticularin relation to collective rights of fundamental importancetoindigenouspeoples.

Convention No. 169 recognises the right of indigenouspeoplestotheirowncustomsandcustomarylaw.Itstatesthatwhenapplyingnationallaws,thesecustomsandcustomarylawsshouldbetaken into account.

ConventionNo.169,Article81. Inapplyingnationallawsandregulationstothepeoplesconcerned,dueregardshallbehad to their customs or customary laws.2. Thesepeoplesshallhavetherighttoretaintheirowncustomsandinstitutions,wherethesearenotincompatiblewithfundamentalrightsdefinedbythenationallegalsystemandwith internationally recognised human rights. Proceduresshallbeestablished,whenevernecessary,toresolveconflictswhichmayariseintheapplicationofthisprinciple.


AccordingtoArticle8(2)oftheConvention,onlythosecustomsandinstitutionsthatareincompatiblewithfundamentalrightsdefinedbythenationallegal system and with internationally recognized humanrightsareexemptfromtheprincipleenshrinedinArticle8(1).Thisprovisionestablishescumulativeexemptioncriteria:thecustomsmustbeincompatiblewithboth(a)nationallegislationaswellas(b)internationalhumanrightsprovisions.Thus,nationallegalprovisionsthatareincompatiblewith rights recognized under international human rights law cannot be used to justify ignorance of indigenouspeoples’customsintheapplicationofnationallegislation.Ontheotherhand,indigenouscustomscannotbejustifiediftheseareinviolationoffundamentalhumanrights.Thisis,forexample,thecasewithfemalegenitalmutilation,1) whichisperformedinsomeindigenouscommunitiesasacustomarypractice,ortheritualofburyingdisabledchildrenorchildrenofunwedmothersalive,prescribedbyculturalnorms.2) Article 34 of the UN Declaration on the Rights ofIndigenousPeoplesreaffirmstheprinciplecontainedinArticle8(2)oftheConvention,thatitis international human rights law which establishes standards to determine which customs are unacceptable;internationalhumanrightslawestablishes minimum universal standards for human rights and freedoms – derived from the inherent dignityofthehumanperson. Article 34 of the Declarationstatesthatindigenouspeopleshavetherighttopromote,developandmaintaintheirinstitutionalstructuresandtheirdistinctivecustoms,spirituality,traditions,procedures,practicesand,inthecaseswheretheyexist,juridicalsystemsorcustoms,inaccordancewithinternationalhumanrightsstandards.Moreover,Article35oftheDeclarationstatesthatindigenouspeopleshavetherighttodeterminetheresponsibilitiesofindividualsoftheircommunities.Thisprovisioniscloselylinkedtotheissuesofcustomarylaw,assuchlawsareimportantsourcesforthedescriptionoftherightsandresponsibilitiesofindigenousindividualsresidinginindigenouscommunities(Henriksen2008).

1) Commonly practiced by some indigenous peoples, for instance in Kenya and Tanzania.

2) (a) Hugo Marques (2008) The Indian Child who was Buried Alive http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2008/feb/08022604.html;(b) O’Brien, Elisabeth (2007) Anthropology Professor says Tribal Killings of Disabled Babies should be Respected http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2007/jul/07070403.html

UnitedNation’sDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoplesArticle 34Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttopromote,developandmaintaintheirinstitutionalstructuresandtheirdistinctivecustoms,spirituality,traditions,procedures,practicesand,inthecaseswheretheyexist,juridicalsystemsorcustoms,inaccordancewithinternational human rights standards.Article 35Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodeterminetheresponsibilitiesofindividualstotheir communities.

Constitutionalrecognitionofindigenouspeoples’legalcustomsandsystemsisanimportantmeasureforthedevelopmentofalegalregime,which effectively accommodates indigenous customarylawandpracticesandenablesthemtoco-existwiththenationallegalsystem.Whethercustoms and customary laws are recognized and takenintoaccountbynationalauthoritiesinpolicydecisionsandintheapplicationofnationallawsandregulationsseemstodependsontwomainfactors:

1. Thelevelofgeneralacceptanceoflegalpluralismwithinthenationaljuridicalsystem;2. The issue which the custom or customary lawissoughttobemadeapplicablefor.

The general tendency is that indigenous customs andcustomarylawaremoreacceptedwhentheyareappliedinrelationtoindividualswithinindigenouscommunities.Thisappliestocustomarypersonallaw,andvariousreligious,culturalorsocialcustomsandritualswithincommunities.Incontrast,thecollectiveaspectsofindigenouscustomarylawoftenseemtoberegardedasa“threat”tonationallegalsystems rather than as an additional and valuable contributiontothedevelopmentoflegalpluralism–whichisaprerequisiteformulti-culturalism.Indigenous customs and customary laws are more reluctantly,ifatall,takenintoaccountinrelationto matters which affect economic interests of the stateorthirdparties,especiallywhenconcerningcustomaryrightsoverlands,territoriesandresources(Roy2004:pp.305-312).


Still,thelevelofacceptanceoflegalpluralism,throughstateacceptanceandapplicationofindigenouspeoples’customsandcustomarylawappearsselectiveandpragmatic,andlargelydetermined by the economic interests of the majoritypopulationorcertainsectorsofthenationalcommunity(Henriksen2008).

6.2. OffENCES AND PENAL SySTEmS

Convention No. 169 establishes that indigenous peoples’traditionalmethodsofpunishmentshallberespectedandalsotakenintoaccountintheadministration of general law.

ConventionNo.169Article 91. Totheextentcompatiblewiththenationallegal system and internationally recognised humanrights,themethodscustomarilypractisedbythepeoplesconcernedfordealingwithoffences committed by their members shall berespected.2. Thecustomsofthesepeoplesinregardtopenalmattersshallbetakenintoconsideration by theauthorities and courts dealing with such cases.Article 101. Inimposingpenaltieslaiddownbygenerallawonmembersofthesepeoplesaccountshall betakenoftheireconomic,socialandculturalcharacteristics.2. Preference shall be given to methods of punishmentotherthanconfinementinprison.


UnderArticle9(1),Statesareobligedtorespectindigenouspeoples’customarymethodsfordealingwithcriminalandotheroffences,totheextentsuchmethodsarecompatiblewiththenationallegal system and international human rights law. Customarypunishmentmethodsthatviolateindividual human rights are thus not legitimized underthisprovision.TheothercriterioninArticle9(1)–compatibilitywiththenationallegalsystem– is not limited to the question of substantive legalcompatibility,asitisalsoaquestionaboutwhetherthisiscompatiblewiththeoverallsystemofadministration of justice in the country concerned. Manyindigenouspeoplesstillpracticetheirtraditional methods for dealing with minor offences committedbytheirmembers,withoutstateinterference – whereas more serious offences normallyaredealtwithundertheapplicablenationallegalprocedures.However,alsoincaseswheregenerallegalproceduresareappliedinresponsetooffencescommittedbyindigenousindividuals,thecustomsoftheindigenouspeopleconcernedshallbe taken into account by authorities and courts dealingwithsuchissues(Article9(2);cf.Henriksen2008).

Membersofindigenouspeoplesareoftenoverrepresentedamongprisonersandamongdeathsincustody.InAustralia,between1980and1997,atleast220Aboriginesdiedincustody.WhileAboriginesrepresentonly1.4%oftheadultpopulation,theyaccountedformorethan25%ofallcustodialdeathsdue,forexample,topoorprisonconditions,healthproblemsandsuicide.Thishighlightstheneedforeffortsbyjudges,courtsandnationaladministratorstofindalternativeformsofpunishmentwhendealingwithindigenousortribal offenders.3)

3) ILO Convention No. 169: A Manual, ILO, 2003.

6.3. ACCESS TO jUSTICE

Indigenouspeoples’marginalizedpositionisoftenreflectedintheirlimitedaccesstojustice.Notonlydotheyhaveaspecialriskofbecomingvictimsofcorruption,sexualandeconomicexploitation,violationsoffundamentallabourrights,violenceetc.buttheyalsohavelimitedpossibilitiesforseekingredress.Inmanycases,indigenouspeoplesarenot familiar with national laws or the national legal system and do not have the educational background or the economic means to ensure their access to justice.Often,theydonotspeakorreadtheofficiallanguageusedinlegalproceedings,andtheymayfindcourts,hearingsortribunalsconfusing.Toaddressthissituation,Article12oftheConventionstipulatesthatindigenouspeoplesshouldhaveaccess to using the legal system to ensure the applicabilityoftheirguaranteedrightsandthat,wherenecessary,indigenouspeoplesshouldhaveinterpretationincourtsandotherlegalproceedings.This is to make sure that they can understand what isgoingon,andalso,thattheycanbeunderstoodthemselves.

ILOConventionNo.169:Article 12Thepeoplesconcernedshallbesafeguardedagainst the abuse of their rights and shall beabletotakelegalproceedings,eitherindividuallyorthroughtheirrepresentativebodies,fortheeffectiveprotectionoftheserights. Measures shall be taken to ensure that membersofthesepeoplescanunderstandandbeunderstoodinlegalproceedings,wherenecessarythroughtheprovisionofinterpretationorbyothereffectivemeans.


AnoperationalapproachtoimprovingaccesstojusticeTheUNDPdefines“accesstojustice”as:“Theabilityofpeopletoseekandobtainaremedythroughformalorinformalinstitutionsofjustice,andinconformitywithhumanrightsstandards”.In linking access to justice to the broader humanrightsanddevelopmentframework,theUNDPfocusesonpeople’scapacitytodemandaccountabilityintwoways:byusinghumanrightstodefinetheminimumscopeoflegitimateclaims;and by enhancing the accountability mechanisms andprocessesthroughwhichtheyprotecttheseclaims.Suchaccountabilitymechanismscomprisenotonlytheformalandcustomaryjusticesystems,butalsoarangeofothermechanisms,includingthemedia,parliamentarycommissionsetc.Accesstojusticeisthusunderstoodasaprocess,whichmustbecontextualizedtothespecificcircumstancesandwhichrequirescapacity-buildingofallactors.TheUNDPidentifiesthefollowingkeyelementsinthisregard:

Legalprotection(recognitionofrightswithin•thejusticesystems,thusgivingentitlementtoremedies either through formal or traditional mechanisms).Legalawareness(people’sknowledgeofthe•possibilityofseekingredressthroughtheformalortraditionaljusticesystems).Legalaidandcounsel(accesstothe•expertiseneededtoinitiateandpursuejusticeprocedures.-Adjudication(theprocessofdetermining•themostadequatetypeofredressorcompensation,eitherregulatedbyformallawas in the case of courts or by traditional legal systems).Enforcement(theimplementationoforders,•decisions,andsettlementsemergingfromformal or traditional adjudication. Civilsocietyandparliamentaryoversight•(watchdogandmonitoringfunctionswithregardstothejusticesystems).4)

4) UNDP: Programming for Justice - Access for All. A Practitioner’s Guide to a Human-Rights –Based Approach to Access to Justice, 2005.


6.4. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: CUSTOmARy LAw

LatinAmerica:RecognitionofindigenouscustomarylawInLatinAmerica,theincorporationofindigenouscustomary law into the national legal systems hasbeendevelopingsincethe1990sinordertoaddressthegapsofinefficientanddeplorablejusticeadministrations;asstates’responsetointensepressurefromindigenousorganization;andtofulfiltherequirementsderivedfromtheratificationofILOConvention No. 169.

Bolivia,Colombia,Ecuador,México,Nicaragua,Paraguay,PerúandVenezuelarecogniselegalpluralismthroughtheirconstitutionsbyrecognizingthe multicultural or multiethnic nature of their societies.Donna Lee Van Cott: Legal Pluralism and Informal Community Justice Administration in Latin America. http://www.nd.edu/~cmendoz1/datos/papers/vancott.pdf

Ecuador:RecognitionoflegalpluralismRecognitionoflegalpluralismhasbeendevelopinginEcuadorsince1998,theyearwhenEcuadorratifiedConventionNo.169.The1998NationalConstitution,establishedthat“theauthoritiesoftheindigenouspeopleswillexercisejudicialfunctions,applyingnormsandproceduresforthesolutionofinternalconflictsinaccordancewiththeircustomsorcustomarylaw,whenevertheyarenotcontradictoryto the Constitution and the laws. The law will make thosefunctionscompatiblewiththoseofthejudicialnationalsystem.”

Thisconstitutionalrecognitionreaffirmstheheterogeneity of the cultures and the existence of legalpluralisminthecountry.Itimpliesthatinthesameterritory,twoormorelegalsystemscoexist.

DespitetheratificationofConventionNo.169andtheconstitutionalchanges,EcuadorhasnotfullydevelopedintoamulticulturalandpluralisticState.Inpractice,indigenouslegalsystemsarebeingunderminedbyjudgesandotherslegalauthorities,


whoregardtheindigenoussystemsas“static”,“archaic”and“savage”andthuscontinuetoactwithin the frame of a society characterized by only oneculture,onelanguageandonejudicialsystem.Hence,theyareignoringtheflexibleanddynamicnatureofcontemporaryindigenoussystems,whichtend to adjust to changing relations with outside actors as well as changes within their communities.

Toremedythissituation,theCouncilfortheDevelopmentofEcuadorianNationalitiesandPeoples(CODENPE),establishedanagreementwiththeDistrictAttorney’sOfficetocreateaUnitofIndigenousJustice.Indigenousprosecutorsmonitortherespectfor,andtheapplicationofindigenouslawsinnationallegalproceedingsinvolvingindigenouspeoples.CODENPEandtheSupremeCourt are coordinating efforts in order to nominate indigenous judges to rule over criminal cases in the provinceswhereindigenousprosecutorswork.Lourdes Tiban: El derecho indígena y su relación con la justicia ordinaria http://www.latinoamerica-online.info/2008/indigeni08_derecho.htm;http://www.ecuanex.net.ec/constitucion.Case prepared by Brenda Gonzales Mena.

Bangladesh:RecognitionofcustomaryfamilylawsThesituationinBangladeshisanexampleofthefactthat state recognition of indigenous legal frameworks variesdependingonthenatureofthecases.

ThepersonallawsoftheindigenouspeoplesoftheChittagongHillTracts(CHT)inBangladeshonmarriage,inheritance,andrelatedmattersareregulatedbyunwrittencustoms,practicesandusages.TheStateacceptsthissituation,ascustomary family laws of the different indigenous peoplesoftheCHTnormallydonotcomeintoconflictwithotherlawsandsystems,sincetheregionhasitsownpartiallyautonomousself-government system that acknowledges indigenous lawandjurisprudence.CustomarypersonallawsoftheindigenouspeoplesoftheCHTareregulatedsubstantively by the traditional institutions of the CHT;villageleaders,headmen,andtraditionalchiefsor rajas.

However,thelegalstatusoftheircustomarylaws

with regard to lands and natural resources in the CHT is far more contested. Customary land and forestrightsareenjoyedusuallyonlywhere,andtotheextent,theydonotconflictwithstatelaw.Raja Devasish Roy (2004), Challenges for Juridical Pluralism and Customary Law of Indigenous Peoples: The Case of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh;Defending Diversity: Case Studies (Ed. Chandra Roy), the Saami Council, pages 89-158;Case cited in John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.

Kenya:SelectiveacceptanceofcustomarylawThere is limited recognition of customary law in KenyaandinmanyformerEnglishcolonies,wherethe constitutions allow the statutory recognition ofcustomarylawovermatterssuchasadoption,marriage,divorce,burialandthedevolutionofpropertyondeath.Customarylawisalsoappliedtoalimitedextentintherecognitionoflocalleadership,suchaschiefs,althoughparallelstructureshavebeen created to subvert and undermine existing ones.Atthesametime,theauthorityandvalidityof these laws are seriously eroded through the repugnancyclauseinheritedfromcoloniallawsandtraditions,requiringconsistencybetweencustomarylaw,allwrittenlawsandtheconstitution.Theclausemakescustomarylawsacceptableonlyaslongastheyarenotrepugnanttowrittenlaw.

Femalegenitalmutilation(FGM)iscommonanddeeplyentrenchedamongmanyAfricancommunities,indigenousandnon-indigenous.FGMisasocialriteofpassageinthesessocieties,andgirlswhohavenotgonethroughFGMareperceivedasincompleteandfacestigmatization.FGMislikelytoresultinseriousandlong-lastingphysicalcomplicationsandisconsideredanactofviolenceagainstwomen,orratherfemalechildren,andasahuman rights violation.

AlthoughnogovernmentalinstitutionperformcircumcisionsongirlsinKenyaanymore,andtheChildren’sActof2001/No.8prohibitscircumcisionofgirls,thepracticeofFGMisstillwidespreadinMaasaiandothercommunities.Thisispartlyduetoinadequatepreventivemeasuresfromauthoritiestoprotectgirlsfrombeingforciblymutilated.Fromahumanrightslawperspective,thisisan


unacceptablecustom–andtheStateisobligedtoensurethatitisnotpracticed,despitethefactthatthisphenomenoninsomecasesmaybedefinedasan indigenous custom.

Incontrast,therepugnancyclausehasoftenbeenusedtonegatepositivecustomarylaws.Forexample,theMaasaicustomsregulatingrightsto lands and resources are to a limited degree recognized or taken into account. G. Nasieku Tarayia (2004) Legal Perspectives of Maasai Culture, Customs and Traditions;Defending Diversity: Case Studies (Ed. Chandra Roy), the Saami Council.Case prepared by Naomi Kipuri and John Henriksen.

Finland,NorwayandSweden:RecognitionofSamicustomsandcustomarylawAlthough,inprinciple,Samicustomsandcustomarypracticesareapplicablesourcesundertherespectivenationallegalsystems,theyaretoanextremelylimiteddegreetakenintoaccountinpolicydecisionsorinthedevelopmentandapplicationofnational legislation. Article9ofthedraftNordicSamiConvention,addressestheissueofSamilegalcustoms,andreadsasfollows:The states shall show due respect for the Saami

people’s conceptions of law, legal traditions and customs. Pursuant to the provisions in the first paragraph, the states shall, when elaborating legislation in areas where there might exist relevant Saami legal customs, particularly investigate whether such customs exist, and if so, consider whether these customs should be afforded protection or in other manners be reflected in the national legislation. Due consideration shall also be paid to Saami legal customs in the application of law.Case cited in John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.

Namibia:RecognitionofTraditionalAuthoritiesThe Namibia Constitution recognises customary lawandtraditionalauthoritiesaspartofitslegalsystem. The Traditional Authorities Act No. 25 of 2000providesfortheestablishmentoftraditionalauthorities consisting of chiefs or heads of traditional communities and traditional councillors. These areresponsibleforimplementingcustomarylawandsettlingdisputes.Toberecognised,theymustsubmitanapplicationtotheState,andtheauthority to confer recognition or withhold it from traditional leaders is thus vested in government. However,theCERDCommittee,amongothers,has questioned the lack of clear criteria for the recognitionoftraditionalleaders,andthefactthatnoinstitutionexiststoassessapplicationsfor


recognitionindependentlyofgovernment.However,some NGOs see the Traditional Authorities Act as anopportunityforindigenouspeoplestoparticipatemoreeffectivelyindecision-making,althoughsomechallengesremain,includingtherequiredtraininginadministrativeandleadershipskillsthatthefullimplementationoftheActforindigenouspeopleswouldimply.CERD, Concluding Observations: Namibia, August 2008, UN Doc. No.: CERD/C/NAM/CO/12 Namibian Constitution, Traditional Authorities Act;R Kappleca & WIMSA ‘Civil Rights in Legislation and Practice: A Case Study from Tsunkwe District West, Namibia’ in Hitchcock and D Vinding (eds) Indigenous Peoples Rights in Southern Africa (2004) 91.Case prepared by Naomi Kipuri

Greenland(Denmark):CriminalcodebasedoncustomarylawTheCriminalCodeinGreenlandispartlybasedonthe customary law of the Greenland Inuit. This is particularlythecaseinsofarassanctionsforcriminaloffencesareconcerned,whereasguiltisdeterminedas in Danish criminal law.

Imprisonmentasasanctionisonlyapplicableinrelationtoextremelyseriousoffences,orwhenitisotherwise deemed necessary. Individual sanctions normallyconsistofmeasuressuchascaution,fine,suspendedimprisonment,andcommunityservicesentence.Hence,thereisnoclosedprisonfacilityinGreenland,onlynighttimecorrectionalinstitutions.Duringtheday,inmatescanleavethecorrectionalinstitutiontowork,study,andperformotheractivities,includingfishingandhunting.

The judicial system of Greenland also differs markedly from judicial systems of other countries in otherways.Forinstance,districtsjudges,assessorsand defense counsels are lay locals and not trained lawyers. Only when a case is brought before the appealcourt,theHighCourtofGreenland,dolegallytrainedprosecutors,judgesandattorneysbecomeinvolved.Commission on Greenland’s Judicial System, Report No. 1442/2004;John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.

Philippines:ConflictresolutioninstitutionsTheIndigenousPeoples’RightsActrecognizesindigenouspeoples’right“tousetheirowncommonlyacceptedjusticesystems,conflictresolutioninstitutions,peacebuildingprocessesor mechanisms and other customary laws and practiceswithintheirrespectivecommunitiesandasmaybecompatiblewiththenationallegalsystemandinternationallyrecognizedhumanrights”(sec.15).http://www.ncip.gov.ph/mandatedetail.php?mod=ipra

vII. land and terrItorIes

91VI I . LAND AND TERRITORIES

7.1. THE CONCEPT Of LAND

Mostindigenouspeopleshaveaspecialrelationshipto the land and territories they inhabit. It is where theirancestorshavelivedandwheretheirhistory,knowledge,livelihoodpracticesandbelievesaredeveloped.Tomostindigenouspeoplestheterritoryhasasacredorspiritualmeaning,whichreachesfarbeyondtheproductiveandeconomicaspectoftheland.InthewordsofUNSpecialRapporteurMartinezCobo;

“It is essential to know and understand the deeply spiritual special relationship between indigenous peoples and their land as basic to their existence as such and to all their beliefs, customs, traditions and culture... for such people, the land is not merely a possession and a means of production... Their land is not a commodity which can be acquired, but a material element to be enjoyed freely.” 1)

ThecentralityoftheconceptoflandandterritoriesisstronglyreflectedinConventionNo.169,whichhasaseriesofprovisionstoexplaintheconceptoflandandterritories;therightsofindigenouspeoplestopossessionandownership;aswellastherequirementsforidentifyingthelands;protectingtheirrights,and;resolvinglandclaims.

Asthecentralstartingpoint,ILOConventionNo.169stipulatesthat:Article 13 1. InapplyingtheprovisionsofthisPartoftheConventiongovernmentsshallrespectthespecialimportancefortheculturesandspiritualvaluesofthepeoplesconcernedoftheirrelationshipwiththelandsorterritories,orbothasapplicable,whichtheyoccupyorotherwiseuse,andinparticularthecollectiveaspectsofthisrelationship.2. The use of the term lands in Articles 15 and16shallincludetheconceptofterritories,which covers the total environment of the areaswhichthepeoplesconcernedoccupyor otherwise use.

1) Jose R. Martinez Cobo, Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities: Study on the Problem of Discrimination Against Indigenous Populations. UN Document No.E/CN.4/Sub.2/1986/7/Add.1, paras. 196 and 197.

ThisisreaffirmedinArticle25oftheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,whichstipulatesthatindigenouspeopleshavetheright to maintain and strengthen their distinctive spiritualrelationshipwiththeirtraditionally-ownedorotherwiseoccupiedandusedlands,territories,waters and coastal seas and other resources and to upholdtheirresponsibilitiestofuturegenerationsinthis regard.

The territory is the basis for most indigenous peoples’economiesandlivelihoodstrategies,traditionalinstitutions,spiritualwell-beinganddistinctculturalidentity.Consequently,lossofancestral lands threatens their very survival as distinctcommunitiesandpeoples.Itmustthusbeunderstood that when the Convention talks about “lands”,theconceptembracesthewholeterritorytheyuse,includingforests,rivers,mountainsandcoastalsea,thesurfaceaswellasthesub-surface.

7.2. PROTECTING THE RIGHT TO OwNERSHIP AND POSSESSION

Consideringthecrucialimportanceoflandsandterritoriesforindigenouspeoples,theConventioncontainsaseriesofprovisionstoprotecttheirrighttoownershipandpossession


ILOConventionNo.169:Article 14: 1. Therightsofownershipandpossessionofthepeoplesconcernedoverthelandswhichtheytraditionallyoccupyshallberecognised.Inaddition,measuresshallbetakeninappropriatecasestosafeguardtherightofthepeoplesconcernedtouselandsnotexclusivelyoccupiedbythem,buttowhich they have traditionally had access for their subsistence and traditional activities. Particularattentionshallbepaidtothesituationofnomadicpeoplesandshiftingcultivatorsinthisrespect.2. Governmentsshalltakestepsasnecessarytoidentifythelandswhichthepeoplesconcernedtraditionallyoccupy,andtoguaranteeeffectiveprotectionoftheirrightsofownershipandpossession.3. Adequateproceduresshallbeestablishedwithin the national legal system to resolve land claimsbythepeoplesconcerned.Article 17:1. Proceduresestablishedbythepeoplesconcerned for the transmission of land rights

amongmembersofthesepeoplesshallberespected.3. Personsnotbelongingtothesepeoplesshallbepreventedfromtakingadvantageof their customs or of lack of understanding ofthelawsonthepartoftheirmemberstosecuretheownership,possessionoruseofland belonging to them. Article 18: Adequatepenaltiesshallbeestablishedbylawforunauthorisedintrusionupon,oruseof,thelandsofthepeoplesconcerned,andgovernmentsshalltakemeasurestopreventsuch offences. Article 19: Nationalagrarianprogrammesshallsecuretothepeoplesconcernedtreatmentequivalentto that accorded to other sectors of the populationwithregardto:(a)theprovisionofmorelandforthesepeopleswhentheyhavenottheareanecessaryforprovidingtheessentialsofanormalexistence,orforanypossibleincreasein their numbers.


AlsotheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoplesaddressesthecrucialthemeoflandandterritories:

TheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples:Article 26:1.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttothelands,territoriesandresourceswhichtheyhavetraditionallyowned,occupiedorotherwise used or acquired.2. Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoown,use,developandcontrolthelands,territoriesandresourcesthattheypossessbyreasonoftraditionalownershiporothertraditionaloccupationoruse,aswellasthosewhichthey have otherwise acquired.3. States shall give legal recognition and protectiontotheselands,territoriesandresources. Such recognition shall be

conductedwithduerespecttothecustoms,traditions and land tenure systems of the indigenouspeoplesconcerned.Article 27:Statesshallestablishandimplement,inconjunctionwithindigenouspeoplesconcerned,afair,independent,impartial,openandtransparentprocess,givingduerecognitiontoindigenouspeoples’laws,traditions,customsandlandtenuresystems,to recognize and adjudicate the rights of indigenouspeoplespertainingtotheirlands,territoriesandresources,includingthosewhich were traditionally owned or otherwise occupiedorused.Indigenouspeoplesshallhavetherighttoparticipateinthisprocess.


Based on the recognition of the historical displacementofindigenouspeoplesfromtheirlandsandterritories;thedependencyoftheirtraditionalwayoflifeonland;theirvulnerabilitytothelossoflandandthelongoccupancythattheyoftenhavepracticed,theConventioncallsformeasuresofprotectionoftheirlandrights.Asstipulatedinarticles14,17,18and19,suchmeasuresincludethefollowingelements:

Recognitionoftherighttoownershipandpossessionoflandstraditionallyoccupiedbyindigenouspeoples,Article14(1).Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoownershipandpossessionofthelandsthattheyhavetraditionallyoccupied.Thesearelandswhereindigenouspeopleshavelivedovertime,andwhichtheywanttopassontofuturegenerations.Theestablishmentofindigenouspeoples’landrightsisthusbasedonthetraditionaloccupationanduseandnotontheeventualofficiallegalrecognitionorregistrationofthatownershipbytheStates,asthetraditionaloccupationconfers“arighttotheland,whetherornotsucharightwasrecognized[bytheState]”.2)

Article7(1)ofConventionNo.169,furtherexplainsthatindigenouspeopleshave“therighttodecidetheirownprioritiesfortheprocessofdevelopmentasitaffectstheirlives,beliefs,institutionsandspiritualwell-beingandthelandstheyoccupyorotherwiseuse,andtoexercisecontrol,totheextentpossible,overtheirowneconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment”.

Thus,asemphasizedbytheILOsupervisorybodies,the“Conventiondoesnotcovermerelytheareasoccupiedbyindigenouspeoples,butalso“theprocessofdevelopmentasitaffectstheirlives...andthelandsthattheyoccupyorotherwiseuse”.3)

2) Committee of Experts, 73rd Session, 2002, Observation, Peru, published 2003, para. 7

3) Governing Body, 282nd Session, November 2001, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Colombia, GB.282/14/3

Similarly,Article26(3)oftheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,stipulatesthatstates,ingivinglegalrecognitionandprotectiontoindigenouspeoples’lands,territoriesandresources,shalldosowithduerespecttothecustoms,traditions and land tenure systems of the indigenouspeoplesconcerned.Consequently,theidentificationofsuchlands,territoriesandresources,andtheidentificationofthescopeoftherightspertainingtosuchlandsandresources,cannotonlybebasedonstate-adheredlegalconceptsandtraditions–whicharefrequentlyindirectconflictwiththoseofindigenouspeoples.TheSupremeCourtof Belize is of the view that Article 26 of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoplesreflectsageneralprincipleofinternationallawonindigenouspeoples’rightsto lands and resources.4)

Indigenouspeoples’landsmightinsomecasesinclude lands which have been recently lost or lands thathavebeenoccupiedbyindigenouspeoplesinmorerecenttime(oftenfollowingtheirdisplacementfromlandstheypreviousoccupied).AsexpressedbytheILOsupervisorybodies:“Thefactthatlandrights have originated more recently than colonial times is not a determining factor. The Convention was drafted to recognize situations in which there are rights to lands which have been traditionally occupied,butalsomaycoverothersituationsinwhichindigenouspeopleshaverightstolandstheyoccupyorotherwiseuseunderotherconditions”.5)

Therighttoownershipandpossessioncomprisebothindividualandcollectiveaspects.Theconceptoflandencompassesthelandwhichacommunityorpeopleusesandcaresforasawhole.Italsoincludeslandwhichisusedandpossessedindividually,e.g.forahomeordwelling.

4) Supreme Court of Belize, Claim No. 171 of 2007 and Claim No. 172 of 2007; Case cited in John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008

5) Governing Body, 276th Session, November 1999, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Mexico, GB.276/16/3, para. 37.


Inmanycases,individualrightsareestablishedwithinacollectivelyownedterritory.However,thesupervisorybodieshaveraisedconcernsincaseswhere collective lands are converted into individual properties,statingthat: “The ILO’s experience with indigenous and tribal peoples has shown that when communally owned indigenous lands are divided and assigned to individuals or third parties, the exercise of their rights by indigenous communities tends to be weakened and generally end up losing all or most of the lands, resulting in a general reduction of the resources that are available to indigenous peoples when they keep their lands in common”.6)

Righttolandsnotexclusivelyoccupiedbyanindigenouspeople(Article14.1)Land can also be shared among different communitiesorevendifferentpeoples,withcomplementaryrightswithinagivenarea.Thisisespeciallythecasewithgrazinglands,hunting,fishingandgatheringareasandforests,which,maybeusedbynomadicpastoralists,huntersorshiftingcultivators on a rotational or seasonal basis. In other 6) Governing Body, 273rd Session, November 1998, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Peru, GB.273/14/4, para. 26. See also comments relating to the claim for land rights of the Thule community (section 1.4).

cases,certaincommunitiesmayhaverightstocertaintypesofresourceswithinasharedterritory,astheyhavedevelopedcomplementarylivelihoodstrategies. Also such non-exclusive land rights are establishedonthebasisoftraditionaloccupation.

Identificationandprotectionoftheareasbelongingtoindigenouspeoples(Article14.2.)Inordertoeffectivelyprotectindigenouspeoples’landrights,governmentsmustestablishproceduresforidentifyingthelandsofindigenouspeoplesandestablishwaystoprotecttheirrightstoownershipandpossession.Theseprocedurescantakeavarietyofforms;insomecasestheywillincludingdemarcationandtitlingwhileinothertheymayimplythe recognition of self-governance arrangements orco-managementregimes(seetheexamplesofGreenlandself-governanceandtheFinnmarkAct,sections4.2.and7.5.).

Whatisimportantisthattheprocessofidentifyingandprotectinglandsformspartofthegovernment’scoordinated and systematic action to guarantee the respectfortheintegrityofindigenouspeoplesandensure adequate consultation with regards to the proposedmeasures.


Inmostcases,theregularizationoflandownershipisacomplextaskthatinvolvesavarietyofstakeholdersandsteps,includingtheadoptionoflegislation,thedefinitionofadequateproceduresand the establishment of institutional mechanisms forimplementationandresolutionofcompetingclaims.Whileacknowledgingthattheregularisationoflandownershipisacomplexprocessthatrequirestime,thesupervisorybodiesoftheILOhavealsorecommended that transitional measures may be adoptedduringthecourseoftheprocessinordertoprotectthelandrightsoftheindigenouspeopleswhileawaitingthefinalresolution.7)

EstablishmentofmechanismstoresolvelandclaimsItisalmostinevitablethattheprocessofregularisinglandownershipandpossessionwillgiverisetocompetinglandclaims.Inmostcases,these

7) Governing Body, 299th Session, June 2007, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Guatemala, GB.299/6/1, para. 45.

arise between indigenous and non-indigenous communitiesorindividualsbutalso,insomecases,betweendifferentindigenouscommunities.Therefore,theestablishmentofappropriateproceduresforresolvinglandclaimsisabsolutelyessential,takingintoaccountthegeneralprinciplesofensuringconsultationandparticipationofindigenouspeoplesindecision-makingontheestablishmentof“appropriateprocedures”.AsunderlinedbytheILOsupervisorybodies,theestablishment of such mechanisms for resolving land claimsisalsoawaytopreventviolentincidents.8)

Inthisregard,theUNDeclaration,inArticle27,obliges states to recognize and adjudicate the rights ofindigenouspeoplestotheirlands,territoriesandresources.Moreover,Article26(3)oftheDeclarationobliges states to give legal recognition and protectiontoindigenouspeoples’lands,territories

8) Governing Body, 289th Session, March 2004, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Mexico, GB.289/17/3, para. 134.


andresources,takingintoaccountindigenouspeoplescustoms,traditionsandlandtenuresystems.

RecognitionofcustomaryproceduresfortransmissionoflandswithincommunitiesTheConventionstatesthatindigenouspeopleshavetherighttopasslandsonfromonegenerationtoanother,accordingtothecustomsoftheirowncommunity.

ProtectionagainstabuseandintrusionBasedonpastnegativeexperienceswhereindigenouspeopleshavebeentrickedorforcedtogiveuptheirlands,theConventionprovidesprotection from others coming into these lands for theirownpersonalgainwithoutpermissionfromtherelevant authorities and from outsiders trying to take thelandsofindigenouspeoplesawayfromthemthrough fraud or other dishonest means.

ProvisionofmorelandswherenecessaryDuetopopulationgrowth,environmentaldegradation,etc.,therearemanycases,whereindigenouspeoplesneedadditionallandinordertosustain their livelihoods.

7.3. DISPLACEmENT

Consideringthecrucialimportanceoflandsandterritoriesforindigenouspeoples,itisobviousthatanynon-voluntaryorforceddisplacementhavesevereimpacts,notonlyontheireconomiesandlivelihood strategies but also on their very survival as distinctcultureswithdistinctlanguages,institutions,beliefs,etc.

Article16ofConventionNo.169dealsexplicitwithdisplacementofindigenouspeoples.


ILOConventionNo.169,Article 16:1. SubjecttothefollowingparagraphsofthisArticle,thepeoplesconcernedshallnotberemovedfromthelandswhichtheyoccupy.2. Wheretherelocationofthesepeoplesisconsiderednecessaryasanexceptionalmeasure,suchrelocationshalltakeplaceonly with their free and informed consent. Wheretheirconsentcannotbeobtained,suchrelocationshalltakeplaceonlyfollowingappropriateproceduresestablishedbynationallawsandregulations,includingpublicinquirieswhereappropriate,whichprovidetheopportunityforeffectiverepresentationofthepeoplesconcerned.3. Wheneverpossible,thesepeoplesshallhave the right to return to their traditional lands,assoonasthegroundsforrelocationcease to exist. 4. Whensuchreturnisnotpossible,asdeterminedbyagreementor,intheabsenceofsuchagreement,throughappropriateprocedures,thesepeoplesshallbeprovidedinallpossiblecaseswithlandsofqualityand legal status at least equal to that of the landspreviouslyoccupiedbythem,suitabletoprovidefortheirpresentneedsandfuturedevelopment.Wherethepeoplesconcernedexpressapreferenceforcompensationinmoneyorinkind,theyshallbesocompensatedunderappropriateguarantees.5. Persons thus relocated shall be fully compensatedforanyresultinglossorinjury.

Thefirstbasicprinciple,establishedinArticle•16(1)oftheConvention,isthatindigenouspeoplesshallnotberemovedfromtheirlands.Thisisthebasicprinciplethatshouldbeappliedunderallnormalcircumstances.However,acknowledgingthattheremay•be circumstances where this becomes unavoidable,Article16(2)establishesthatthisshould be only as an exceptionalmeasure. Thiscould,forexample,inthenearfuturebethecaseforsomepastoralistandsmallislandcommunities that are severely affected by changes in the global climate.

To ensure that such situations are handled in •anadequatewaythatrespectsindigenouspeoples’rightsandintegrity,Article16(2)furtherstipulatesthatrelocationshouldonlytakeplacewiththeirfreeandpriorinformedconsent. Free and informed consentmeansthattheindigenouspeoplesconcerned understands fully the meaning andconsequencesofthedisplacementandthattheyacceptandagreetoit. Obviously,they can do so only after they have clearandaccurateinformationon all the relevant factsandfigures.Ifindigenouspeoplesdonotagree,andthe•relocationisstillunavoidable,thenArticle16(2)outlinesthattherelocationshouldonlytakeplacefollowingappropriateprocedures established by national legislation and including publicinquiries whereindigenouspeopleshavetheopportunitytoeffectivelypresenttheirviews.Article16(3)stipulatesthatincaseswhere•relocationhasbeennecessary,indigenouspeoplesshouldhavetherighttoreturnas soon as the reason for which they had to leaveisnolongervalid.Forexample,inthecaseofawar,ornaturaldisaster,theycangoback to their lands when it is over.Article16(4)stipulatesthatincaseswhere•such unavoidable relocation becomes a permanentsituation,indigenouspeopleshave the right tolandsofanequalqualityandlegalstatustothelandstheypreviouslyoccupied,forexampleintermsofagriculturalpotentialofthelandsandthelegalrecognitionofownershiptothatland.Thus,ifindigenouspeoplescannotreturntotheirlands,forexamplebecausetheyhavebeenflooded,theremustbeaplanfortheirresettlementandrehabilitation.Ifindigenouspeoplessowish,theycanacceptotherformsofpaymentfor their lost lands.Finally,Article16(5)stipulatesthatindigenous•peopleshavetherighttoreceivefullcompensation for any loss or injury the relocationmayhavecaused,e.g.lossofhouseorproperty,adversehealthimpactsduetochangeofclimate,etc.


The UNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,hassimilarprovisionsonredress,restitutionandcompensations,inArticle 28:1. Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoredress,bymeansthatcanincluderestitutionor,whenthisisnotpossible,just,fairandequitablecompensation,forthelands,territories and resources which they have traditionallyownedorotherwiseoccupiedorused,andwhichhavebeenconfiscated,taken,occupied,usedordamagedwithouttheirfree,priorandinformedconsent.2. Unlessotherwisefreelyagreeduponbythepeoplesconcerned,compensationshalltaketheformoflands,territoriesandresourceequalinquality,sizeandlegalstatusorofmonetarycompensationorotherappropriateredress.

7.4. COmmENTS By THE ILO SUPERVISORy BODIES: RIGHT TO LANDS AND TERRITORIES

Peru:ConversionofcommunallyownedlandintoindividualpropertyIn1998,anActwaspromulgatedforthecoastalregioninPeru,empoweringindividualcommunitymemberstotakethedecisiontodisposeofcommunallands.Thereby,theActallegedlybypassedthedecision-makingauthorityoftheGeneralAssemblyoftheCommunity,whichisthe highest-ranking decision-making body in the communities.Initsconclusions,theTripartiteCommitteeestablished to analyse the case considered that it is not for the ILO to determine whether individual orcollectiveownershipismostappropriateforindigenouspeoplesinagivensituation,althoughConventionNo.169recallsthespecialimportanceoftherelationshipofindigenouspeopleswiththelandsorterritories,andinparticularthecollectiveaspectsofthisrelationship.FromitsexperienceacquiredintheapplicationoftheConvention,theCommittee noted that the loss of communal land often damages the cohesion and viability of the peopleconcerned.TheCommitteefurthernotedthat:

This is why, in the preparatory work for the Convention, many delegates took the position that lands owned by indigenous persons, and especially communal lands, should be inalienable. In a closed decision, the Conference Committee decided that Article 17 should continue the line of reasoning pursued in other parts of the Convention, according to which indigenous and tribal peoples shall decide their own priorities for the process of development (Article 7) and that they should be consulted through their representative institutions whenever consideration is being given to legislative or administrative measures which may affect them directly (Article 6).

Initsconcludingremarkstothespecificcase,theCommitteenotedthat:In the present case, apparently the Government has decided to favour individual ownership of the land and, in doing so, has ruled out the possible participation of community institutions in the decision-making process, which is not in conformity with the Convention. The Committee notes the Government’s statement that this form of individual landownership is more productive and that it is only regulating an existing practice; although this may or may not be in accordance with the wishes of the peoples concerned, the Committee has not seen any indication that the indigenous peoples of the country have been consulted on the matter as required by the Convention.

Report of the Committee set up to examine the allegation regarding non-compliance with ILO Convention No. 169. Submitted 1997. GB.270/16/4.

Colombia:traditionaloccupation.In examining a case concerning the granting of anenvironmentallicencetoanoilcompanyforexplorationactivitieswithintheterritoryoftheindigenousU’wapeoplewithoutpriorconsultation,theILOCommitteeofExpertsnotedthattheGovernmenthadappliedthecriterionof“regularandpermanentpresenceofindigenouscommunities”indecidingwhethertheprojectwouldaffectthecommunities in question.

Theplannedexploratorywellislocatedinthemiddleof the U’wa ancestral lands but about 1.7 kilometres


from the boundaries of the legally recognised reserve.However,theCommitteeconcludesthattheareaofoperationsoftheexploratorywellprojectwouldhaveanimpactonthecommunitiesinthatarea,includingtheU’wacommunities.

TheCommitteerecallsthattheconceptofindigenouspeoples’“rights of ownership and possession over the lands which they traditionally occupy”,asstipulatedinArticle14(1)ofConventionNo.169,isnotnecessarilyequivalenttothecriterionof “regular and permanent presence” used by the government.Furthermore,theCommittee,recallsthat the “Convention does not cover merely the areas occupied by indigenous peoples, but also ‘the process of development as it affects their lives... and the lands that they occupy or otherwise use’ (Article 7, paragraph 1)”.

Thus,theCommitteeconcludesthat: “The existence of an exploratory or operational project immediately adjacent to land that has been officially recognized as a reserve of the peoples concerned clearly falls within the scope of the Convention.” Governing Body, 282nd Session, November 2001, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Colombia, GB.282/14/3.

7.5. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: LANDS AND TERRITORIES

Bolivia:EmpowermentthroughlandrightsTheterritoryoftheEseEjja,TacanaandCavineñopeoplesislocatedinthenorthernpartoftheBolivianAmazon region. The area is remote and distant from thepoliticalcentreofpower,andthereishardlyanypresenceofpublicinstitutions.Historically,thenaturalresourcesinthearea(timberandnon-timberproducesuchasrubberandnuts)havebeenvariouslyexploitedbyexternalactors,dependingon trends in the world market. The indigenous peopleshavesufferedfromexclusion,dominationand lack of knowledge of their rights and most of themhavebeenexploitedasunpaidlabourers,notleastthroughpracticesofforcedlabouranddebtbondage. Those who did not fall victims to these practiceswereforcedtomovetomoreinaccessibleareas,thusprovokingsocialfragmentationandconflictsbetweentheindigenousgroups.Morethanacenturyofimpositionofforeignsocial,economic,culturalandpoliticaldominationunderminedtheindigenouspeoples’institutionsandcapacitiesbutdid not lead to their elimination.

Theemergingindigenouspeoples’movementandorganisation around land claims in the 1990s led to


significantlegalandpoliticalchanges.In1991,BoliviaratifiedConventionNo.169,whichtriggeredaseriesoflegalreforms,includingtheConstitutionalReformof1994,whichrecognizedandsolidifiedthecollectiverights instituted in the Convention. Article 171 of the revisedConstitution,grantedindigenouspeoplestheownershipoftheirCommunalLandsofOrigin(CLO),and rights to the sustainable use of their natural resources. Another result was the 1996 Agrarian ReformLaw,whichrecognizedthecollectiverightsofindigenouspeoplestotheirterritories,aswellasindigenous customary law and indigenous norms of distribution,redistributionanduse.

The reforms were followed by long-term and large-scaleeffortstodemarcateandtitleCLOs,which,overaperiodoftenyears,resultedinthelegalrecognitionofmorethan500“peasant”communities(seesection1.4.)and10CLOsintheNorthernpartoftheAmazon,havingprofoundpolitical,legal,socialandeconomicimpactonthecommunities.

Inthiscontext,theEseEjja,TacanaandCavineñopeoples,throughtheIndigenousOrganisationoftheBolivianAmazonRegion(CIRABO),claimedcollectivetitlingoftheirterritory(CLO).TheCLOwas legally recognized through two consecutive land titles issued in 2001 and 2005. The total surface

oftheCLOis407,584hectaresandthetitlesareheld collectively by the 28 communities living in the territory,withatotalpopulationof3.594inhabitants(2000).

TheprocesstowardslegalrecognitionoftheCLOinvolvedaseriesofactorsandsteps,includingawareness-raising,capacity-building,legalandadministrativeproceduresandfielddemarcation.Also,itimpliedaconfrontationwiththelocal,regionalandnationalelite,whichhadpreviouslycontrolledthearea.Incontrast,fortheEseEjja,TacanaandCavineñopeoples,thetitlingprocessimpliedaspirationsofanewtypeofsocial,economic,culturalandpoliticalrelations.Thetitlingmarkedamajortransitionpointwithevidentqualitativedifferences:

“Thelandbelongedtoprivateemployersandwe,theindigenousfamilies,workedas‘siringueros’[rubbertappers],welivedthereuntilwedied.Wewereallcontrolledbytheemployers,becausetheythought they were the owners of the land and we onlyworkedforthem.”9)

“Theydidnotrecogniseusasindigenous,theywantedustopresentourpapersaspeasantsbut

9) Testimony, workshop in the Tacana Community San Salvador, 2007.


wedenied,wehadtopresentasanindigenouscommunity,andthereforeweunitedwithourbrothersTacanaandCavineño,tohavethemrecogniseourrights.Now,wemanageourterritory,wearetheowners,wedecideoverournaturalresourcesandatthesametime,wemaintainourcultures.”10)

TheEseEjja,TacanayCavineñopeoplesaremovingtowardsIndigenousAutonomy,asrecognizedinthe2009BolivianConstitution,basedontheuseandcontroloftheirterritory,andlinkedtoanintegratedvisionoftheirfuture,relatedtotheiridentity,culturalpractices,rituals,spiritualbeliefsandsystemofterritorial administration and control.Centro de Estudios Jurídicos e Investigación Social (CEJIS): Impactos sociales, económicos, culturales y políticos de la aplicación del Convenio No. 169 de la OIT, a través del reconocimiento legal del Territorio Multiétnico II, a favor de los pueblos indígenas Ese Ejja, Tacana y Cavineño en el norte amazónico de Bolivia, ILO, 2009.

Norway:TheFinnmarkActInApril2003,theNorwegianGovernmentsubmitted the Finnmark Act concerning land rights in Finnmark County to the National Parliament. 10) Interview with Ese Ejja leader Antenor Monje M, November 2007

Theproposedlegislationwasstronglycriticizedand rejected by the Sami Parliament and various Sami bodies and organization. It was argued thattheproposedlegislationdidnotmeettherequirementsofinternationallaw,includingArticle14 of the ILO Convention No. 169. It was also said thattheGovernmenthadnotundertakenproperconsultationswiththeSamiParliamentindevelopingthe legislation. The National Parliament established direct contact with the Sami Parliament concerning the substantive contentoftheFinnmarkAct,whenitbecameclearthattherewerestrongdoubtswhethertheproposedlegislationandtheprocessmetinternationalstandards.

In2004,theParliament’sStandingCommitteeonJusticeestablishedadialoguewiththeSamiParliament and the County Council of Finnmark. Thisprocessconcludedwithanagreementonthe content of the Finnmark Act between the National Parliament and the Sami Parliament. Furthermore,in2005,theGovernmentandtheSamiParliamentsignedanagreementonproceduresforconsultations between State authorities and the SamiParliament,aimedatavoidingsimilarsituations


in the future. Insummary,thecontentoftheFinnmarkAct,asagreed between the National Parliament and the SamiParliament,isasfollows:

TheFinnmarkActtransfersapproximately95percentofFinnmarkCounty(about46,000sq.km)toa new agency called the Finnmark Estate. This area waspreviouslyownedbytheNorwegianState.ThepurposeoftheActistofacilitatethemanagement of land and natural resources in the county of Finnmark in an ecologically sustainable mannerfortheresidentsofthecounty,and“particularlyasabasisforSamicultureandreindeerhusbandry”.ThebasicprincipleoftheActistolegallyrecognizethattheindigenousSamipeople,throughlong-termuseoflandandnaturalresources,includingwaterresources,havetherightofuseandownershipoftheterritoryconcerned.

ACommissionandatribunalaresetupforthepurposeoffurtheridentifyingtheuseandownershipoflandsandresourcesinFinnmark,basedontheprincipleofestablishedcustomandimmemorialusage. According to section 3 of the Finnmark Act,itshallbeimplementedinconformitywithILO Convention No. 169 and international law

concerningindigenouspeoplesandminorities.Itisstated in section 3 of the Act that ILO Convention No.169shallprevailincasesofconflictbetweentheConventionandtheprovisionsoftheAct.John Henriksen: The Finnmark Act (Norway), a Case Study. ILO, 2008.

Uganda:RighttoancestralterritoryLikemostAfricancountries,Ugandanlawsplacethe control of natural resources with the state. The Benet,asmallhunting-gatheringcommunitylivinginthenortheasternpartofthecountry,wereevictedwhen the forest in which they lived was turned into aprotectedarea.TheBenettookthecasetotheHighCourtcomplainingthattheirancestralterritoryhad been denied them and that they had no means oflivelihood.On27October2005,theUgandanHighCourtruledthat“theBenetCommunity[...]are historical and indigenous inhabitants of the said areaswhichweredeclaredaWildlifeProtectedAreaorNationalPark.”TheCourtruledthatthearea should be de-gazetted and that the Benet are“entitledtostayinthesaidareasandcarryoutagriculturalactivitiesincludingdevelopingthesameundisturbed”.http://www.actionaid.org/uganda Uganda Land Alliance: http://www.ulaug.org


India:LandandTerritoriesThe1949ConstitutionofIndiahasprovisionstoprotectindigenouspeoples’rightsovertheirland.

Article371Aisaspecialprovisionforthestate•ofNagaland,whichisinhabitedmostlybytheNagaindigenouspeoples.AccordingtotheArticle,noActoftheIndianParliamentshallapplytotheStateofNagalandinrespectofmatters such as the ownership and transfer of land and its resources.Article371G,likeArticle371A,excludesthe•applicationofActoftheIndianParliamentincertainrespects,includingtheownership and transfer of land, in the State of Mizoram.

Therearetwelve“Schedules”totheConstitutionofIndia,whichclassifythenatureofadministrationandthepowers,authorityandresponsibilitiesofthe various administration organs. The Fifth and Sixth Schedules deal with administration in the tribal areas.

The FifthSchedule deals with the administration anddevelopmentoftribalareasandtheestablishmentofTribalAdvisoryCouncils,toadviceonmatterspertainingtothewelfareandadvancement of the Scheduled Tribes. Among others,itempowerstheGovernorofaStatetomakeregulations on areas such as the transfer of land by or among members of the Scheduled Tribes. This preventstransferoflandtooutsidersandprotectstheindigenouspeoplesagainstalienationfromtheirland.TheSixthScheduleprovidesfortheadministrationoftribalareasintheStatesofAssam,Meghalaya,MizoramandTripurabydesignatingtribalareasasautonomousdistrictsorautonomousregions(wheretherearedifferentScheduledTribes).TheScheduleentrustsDistrictCouncilstomakelawspertainingto“all areas within such region” and Regional Councils to make laws on areas including the “allotment, occupation or use, or setting apart, of land; management of forest; canal or water course for agricultural purpose and shifting cultivation”.11)

The 2006 law on ScheduledTribesandOtherTraditionalForestDwellers(RecognitionofForestRights)Act,2006(inshorttheForestRightsAct)hasbeencommendedasawatershedeventin

11) Sixth Schedule; Paragraph 3(1).


thestruggleoftheindigenouspeoplesfortheirland.

The Act aims at correcting historical injustices in thereservationofforestland,whichpreviouslydisregardedthepresenceofforest-dwellingcommunities,themajorityofthembeingindigenouspeoples.Intheearlierlegislationsrelatedtoforest, the forest dwellers were regarded as illegal occupantsortrespassers.12)Thepresentlawrecognises community rights as well as individual rights,includingtherightstohold,liveandcultivateontheforestlandandownershipoverminorforestproduce.Theforestdwellersarealsogiventherighttoprotect,regenerateandconservecommunityforest;therighttohaveaccesstobiodiversity;and community right over traditional knowledge. It also recognises community tenure and secures thisthroughadueprocessinitiatedbythelowestunitofadministration,theGramSabhaorVillageAssembly.Incaseofdisplacement,resettlementoftheholderofforestrightscanonlytakeplaceafterfree informed consent has been obtained in writing from the Gram Sabha.

Thesearesomeofthelawsandpoliciescreatedspecificallyforindigenouspeoplesandalthoughtheycouldbeconsideredaslimitedinsomeareas,theygoalongwayinprotectingtherightsoftheindigenouspeoplestotheirlands.http://tribal.nic.in/actTA06.pdf.Case prepared by Chonchuirinmayo Luithui.

Nicaragua:TheAwasTignicommunityAwas Tingni is a Sumo-Mayangna indigenous community in one of the Northern Autonomous Regions of the Caribbean of Nicaragua. In December1993,thenationalgovernmentgrantedaconcessiontoaprivatecompanyforloggingintheterritory,whichwasclaimedbyAwasTingnionthe basis of traditional land tenure. The case was reviewed by the Inter-American Court of Human RightsonAugust2001.Afternegotiations,anagreementwassignedin2004,whichprovidedforeconomicbenefitsforthecommunityandcommittedthegovernmenttoaprocessbywhichitwoulddefinitivelyidentifyandtitlethecommunity’straditional lands. A second concession granted by thegovernmenttoanothercompanywasdeclared

12) For example, the Forest Act, 1927; the Wild Life Conservation Act, 1972; the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.

invalidbytheNicaraguanSupremeCourt.Afteralongandcomplexprocess,thedemarcationandtitlingoflandwerefinalizedforAwasTingniinthebeginning of 2009.

Nicaraguarespondedtothedemandfortitlingofindigenous and ethnic land and territory on the Nicaraguan Caribbean coast by enacting Law 445 in 2003. This law establishes the rights set out in the International Treaties signed by England and Nicaragua when the Moskitia territory was incorporatedintotherestofNicaraguain1894.Law445putsintopracticetheprovisionsofthese international treaties as well as the 1987 constitutionalprovisions,andisaspecificlegalinstrument regulating the demarcation and titling ofthelandsofindigenouspeoplesandethniccommunities.

ThebiggestproblemencounteredinthedemarcationprocessisthelackoffinancialresourcestobeprovidedbytheState.Assuch,thedemarcationandtitlingprocessismovingslowly.

http://www.manfut.org/RAAN/ley445.htmlCase prepared by: Myrna Cunningham.

Panama:LandlawMuchofthelandoccupiedbyindigenouscommunitiesinPanama,bothancestrallyandtoday,islocatedoutsidethepolygonsofrecognisedindigenousterritories.WiththeenactmentofLaw411in2008,thepropertyorlandofindigenousfamilies found outside the established regions (seeSection5.3.4.)wererecognised,astheyfearedbeingdisplacedatanytime.Oneexampleisthe40plusEmberá–Wounancommunitiesnotrecognisedorprotectedbypastlegislationandthathave formed the General Congress of Communal Land.ThisCongressisatraditionalrepresentativeorganisationforthesecommunities,anditsmembersarelegitimatelyselectedbythepeople.Case prepared by: Myrna Cunningham.

vIII. natural resources

107VI I I . NATURAL RESOURCES

8.1. RIGHTS TO NATURAL RESOURCES, CON-SULTATION, BENEfITS AND COmPENSATION

Therecognitionofindigenouspeoples’rightstonatural resources is inextricable tied to the rights tolandsandterritories(seesection7).Therefore,Convention No. 169 establishes as a basic principlethatindigenouspeopleshavetherightstothenaturalresourcespertainingtotheirlandsandtoparticipateintheuse,managementandconservationoftheseresources:

ILOConventionNo.169:Article 15.1: Therightsofthepeoplesconcernedtothenaturalresourcespertainingtotheirlandsshallbespeciallysafeguarded.Theserightsincludetherightofthesepeoplestoparticipateintheuse,managementandconservation of these resources.

TheConventionthusspecifiesthatindigenouspeopleshaverightstothenaturalresourcesof theirterritories,includingtherighttoparticipateintheuse,management,protectionandconservationoftheseresources.Asabasicprinciple,theseresourcescomprisebothrenewableandnon-renewableresourcessuchastimber,fish,water,sand and minerals.

However,therearemanycasesinwhichtheStateConstitutionsprovidesthattheStatesaloneownsmineralandotherresources.Article15(2)recognizesthissituationwhilealsostipulatingthatindigenouspeopleshaverightsregardingconsultation,participationinthebenefitsofresourceexploitationaswellascompensationfordamagesresultingfromthisexploitation.

ILOConventionNo.169:Article 15(2): In cases in which the State retains the ownershipofmineralorsub-surfaceresources or rights to other resources pertainingtolands,governmentsshallestablishormaintainproceduresthroughwhichtheyshallconsultthesepeoples,witha view to ascertaining whether and to what degreetheirinterestswouldbeprejudiced,beforeundertakingorpermittinganyprogrammesfortheexplorationorexploitationofsuchresourcespertainingtotheirlands.Thepeoplesconcernedshallwhereverpossibleparticipateinthebenefitsofsuchactivities,andshallreceivefaircompensationfor any damages which they may sustain as a result of such activities.

Therearenumerousexampleswheretheexplorationorexploitationofmineralorsub-surfaceresourcesonindigenouspeoples’landshasledtoconflicts.Inthesesituations,Article15(2)ofConventionNo.169 seeks to reconcile interests by recognizing thefollowingrightstoindigenouspeoples.Itmustalsobespecificallynotedthattheresponsibilityforensuringthattheserightsarerespectedlieswiththeconcernedgovernmentsandnotwiththeprivatecompaniesorentitiesthatarelicensedtoundertaketheexplorationorexploitation.

Therighttobeconsultedbeforenaturalresourcesontheirlandsareexploredorexploited.Duringconsultation,indigenouspeoplesshallbeabletostatetheirconcerns.Forexample,theycan give reasons why resources should not be extractedorwhycertainareasshouldbeexemptedduetoenvironmentalconcerns,impactuponsacredsites,pollution,healthproblems,lossofbasisofsubsistenceeconomy,etc.Consideringthatexploratoryandexploitativeactivitiesareoftenlong-termprocesseswherecompaniesaregrantedconcessionsofperiodsof30-50years,itisimportanttounderlinethattheobligationtoconsultdoesnotonlyapplywhentakingthedecisiontoexploreorexploitresourcesbutalsoarisesona


generallevel,throughouttheprocessasitaffectsindigenouspeoples.1)Inthisregard,Article15shouldbe read in conjunction with Articles 6 and 7 of the Convention,requiringconsultationandparticipationofindigenouspeoplesintheformulation,implementationandevaluationofdevelopmentplansaffectingthem(seealsosection5onconsultationandparticipation)..Therighttohavingtheimpactofexplorationandexploitationascertained.Article15(2)stipulatesthatindigenouspeoplesshallbeconsulted,withaviewtoascertainingwhether and to what degree their interests would beprejudicedbyexplorationandexploitationofresources. This article should be read in conjunction withArticles6and7(3)oftheConvention,whichspecifythatthesocial,spiritual,culturalandenvironmentalimpactofdevelopmentactivitiesonindigenouspeoplesshallbeassessedincooperationwiththem,andthattheresultsofsuchstudiesshall be considered as fundamental criteria for the implementationoftheseactivities.Moreover,Article7(4)stipulatesthatgovernments,incollaborationwithindigenouspeoples,shalltakemeasurestoprotectandpreservetheenvironmentoftheirterritories. A number of institutions and agencies havecomeupwithguidelinesforsuchimpactassessments,stipulatingamongotherissuestheneedtobuilduponandintegrateindigenouspeoples’knowledge,ensureparticipationthroughouttheprocess,integrategenderconcernsandaddresscapacity-buildingasanintegralelement.

Therighttobenefitintheprofitsmadefromexploitationanduseofnaturalresources.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoparticipateinthesharingofthebenefitsgeneratedbytheexplorationorexploitationofthenaturalresourcesontheirlands.Thisbenefit-sharingcantakeavarietyofforms,includingspecificagreementswithindividualcommunities;negotiatedagreementsbetween states and self-governing territories or redistributionoftaxesandrevenuestospecificindigenouspeoples’developmentpurposes.

1) see GB.282/14/2, case cited in section 8.2

Therighttobecompensatedfordamagescausedbyexplorationandexploitationofnaturalresources.Unfortunately,explorationandexploitationmayhaveanegativeeffectontheenvironment,health,social institutions and livelihoods of indigenous peoples.Inthesecases,Article15(2)specificallystatesthatindigenouspeoplesshouldreceiveafaircompensation.

TheprovisionsofConventionNo.169arereaffirmedintheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,whichstipulatesthat:Article 32, 1. Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodetermineanddevelopprioritiesandstrategiesforthedevelopmentoruseoftheirlands or territories and other resources.2. Statesshallconsultandcooperateingoodfaithwiththeindigenouspeoplesconcernedthroughtheirownrepresentativeinstitutionsin order to obtain their free and informed consentpriortotheapprovalofanyprojectaffecting their lands or territories and other resources,particularlyinconnectionwiththedevelopment,utilizationorexploitationofmineral,waterorotherresources.3. Statesshallprovideeffectivemechanismsforjustandfairredressforanysuchactivities,andappropriatemeasuresshallbetakentomitigateadverseenvironmental,economic,social,culturalorspiritualimpact.

8.2. COmmENTS By THE ILO SUPERVISORy BODIES: NATURAL RESOURCES

TheILOsupervisorybodieshaveexaminedalargenumberofcases,alleginglackofconsultationwithindigenouspeoplesinthecontextofexplorationandexploitationofnaturalresources.Thefollowingcase is illustrative of the challenges faced by many countriesintheimplementationofindigenouspeoples’rightsinthisregard.


Ecuador:ConsultationregardingtheexploitationofnaturalresourcesIn1998,theEcuadorianGovernmentsignedanagreementwithacompanyfortheexploitationofoilinanareacomprising70percentofthe150,000hectaresterritoryoftheIndependentFederationoftheShuarPeopleofEcuador(FIPSE),madeupoftenassociationswhichrepresentapproximately5,000people.Thecomplainantallegedthat,althoughoilisaresource to which the Government has inalienable propertyrightsandtheoilcompanyactedinthenameoftheGovernment,themembersoftheFIPSEwere not informed that an agreement for the mining of hydrocarbons in the territory’s subsurface had been signed nor were they at any time consulted in this regard.

In1998,anextraordinaryassemblyoftheFIPSEhad decided not to allow any negotiations between individual members or communities and the companyanddeclaredthat“anyattemptbythecompanyinthisregardwouldbeconsideredasaviolationoftheintegrityoftheShuarpeopleanditsorganizationsandasanopeninfringementofourrightsasrecognizedintheConstitution(ofEcuador)andinConventionNo.169oftheILO”.The

complainantallegedthatthispublicdeclarationbytheFIPSEwasnotrespected,asthecompanytriedtodividethelocalorganizations,tocreatefictitiouscommittees to coordinate their activities and to denigrate indigenous organizations in the eyes of the public.ItisalsoallegedthattheGovernmentviolatedConvention No. 169 by signing a document agreed betweenArcoofficialsandsomeFIPSEmemberssupposedlyapprovingexplorationandexploitationactivitiesonShuarterritoryfollowingthepublicdeclaration by the FIPSE assembly.

InreplytheGovernmentdeclaredthattheconsultations required under Convention No. 169 werenotapplicable,astheagreementwiththeoilcompanywassignedon27April1998andtheConventionwasonlyratifiedbyEcuadoron15May1998.Therefore,theGovernmentstatedthattheprovisionsoftheConventionwerenotapplicabletotheeventsreferredtoduetotheprincipleofthenon-retroactivity of the law. The Government noted that the Constitution as well as the Hydrocarbons Actreflectitsconcernwithsafeguardingtherightsoftheindigenouspeoples,andthateconomiccontributionsandotherbenefitshavebeenestablishedtocompensateforanydamagescausedtotheenvironmentbytheoilcompanies.


TheGovernmentalsoputforwarditsviewthatprojectsfortheexplorationandexploitationofhydrocarbons are motors of economic growth and therefore serve the interests of national development.Itnoteditsconcernatthefactthatthe Amazon region of the country contains both thehighestindigenouspopulationandthegreatesthydrocarbonpotential,aresourcethatisapartoftheStatepatrimony.TheGovernmentalsoindicatedthatthecooperationagreementssignedbetweenArco and three of the FIPSE’s associations remained null and void because other associations belonging to the FIPSE rejected them.Initsresponse,theILOTripartiteCommitteenotedthat national legislation in many countries establishes thattherightstosubsurfaceresourcesarepartofStatepatrimony.TheConventionrecognizesthislegalprinciplesbutalso“establishes an obligation when administering those resources: the obligation of the State to consult the indigenous and tribal peoples which could be affected prior to authorizing activities for the exploration and exploitation of the subsurface resources situated on indigenous territories”.

TheCommitteeaffirmedthattheprovisionsoftheConventioncannotbeappliedretroactivelybutthatsomeofthefactsoutlinedinthecomplaintconcernactivitiesthathavetakenplacesincetheConvention came into force in Ecuador on 15 May

1999.Although,atthetimeoftakingthedecisiontosigntheshareagreementbetweenthecompanyandtheGovernment,ConventionNo.169hadnotyetbeenratified,theCommitteeobservesthat“the situation created by the signature of that agreement still prevails. In addition, the obligation to consult the peoples concerned does not only apply to the concluding of agreements but also arises on a general level in connection with the application of the provisions of the Convention”.

The Committee noted that “the spirit of consultation and participation constitutes the cornerstone of Convention No. 169 on which all its provisions are based”.

The Committee stressed its awareness of “the difficulties entailed in the settlement of disputes relating to land rights, including the rights relating to the exploration and exploitation of subsurface products, particularly when differing interests and points of view are at stake such as the economic and development interests represented by the hydrocarbon deposits and the cultural, spiritual, social and economic interests of the indigenous peoples situated in the zones where those deposits are situated”.

The Committee considered that “the concept of consulting the indigenous communities that could


be affected by the exploration or exploitation of natural resources includes establishing a genuine dialogue between both parties characterized by communication and understanding, mutual respect, good faith and the sincere wish to reach a common accord. A simple information meeting cannot be considered as complying with the provisions of the Convention. In addition, Article 6 requires that the consultation should occur beforehand, which implies that the communities affected should participate as early as possible in the process, including in the preparation of environmental impact studies. Although in this case the project was established before the Convention came into force in Ecuador, when it did come into force so did the obligation to carry out consultations in respect of any activity affecting the application of the Convention.”

IntheCommittee’sview,whileArticle6“does not require consensus to have been reached in the process of prior consultation, it does stipulate that the peoples involved should have the opportunity to participate freely at all levels in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of measures and programmes that affect them directly, as from the date on which the Convention comes into force in the country”.

Given the continuation of the activities authorized undertheshareagreement,theCommitteeconsidered that the Government had the obligation to consult the indigenous communities as from the entry into force of the Convention in order to allow thecommunitytoparticipateinitsowneconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.

Furthermore,theCommitteeunderlined“that the principle of representativity is a vital component of the obligation of consultation”. It noted that “it could be difficult in many circumstances to determine who represents any given community. However, if an appropriate consultation process is not developed with the indigenous and tribal institutions or organizations that are truly representative of the communities affected, the resulting consultations will not comply with the requirements of the Convention.”

Inthespecificcase,theCommitteeconsideredthat “not only was the appropriate consultation


not carried out with an indigenous organization clearly representative of the peoples concerned […] but the consultations that were carried out excluded it, despite the public statement issued by the FIPSE in which it determined “not to allow any negotiation between individual members […] and the company”. The Committee recalled that “Article 6(1)(c) stipulates that governments shall ‘establish means for the full development of these peoples’ own institutions and initiatives, and in appropriate cases provide the resources necessary for this purpose’. This being the case, the Committee considers that any consultation carried out in future in respect of Block 24 should take into account the abovementioned statement by the FIPSE.”Governing Body, 282nd Session, November 2001, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Ecuador, GB.282/14/2.

8.3. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: NATURAL RESOURCES

Congo:Consultationandparticipationinlogging.

WithintheframeworkofcertificationoftheUnitéForestièred’Aménagement(UFA)ofKabo(NorthernCongo),CongolaiseIndustrielleduBois(CIB)initiatedaconsultationandparticipationprocesswith the indigenous Mbendzele and Bangombe populationsintheregionregardingthelocalisationandsurveyingofannualloggingareas(AAC).

Basedontheprinciplethattheforestisthenaturalenvironment of these semi-nomadic indigenous

peoples,thesocietyinquestionincorporatedmembersoftheKaboindigenous community into its work teamstohelpdefineandidentifysites,treesandotherareasintheforest that are sacred or that are a resourcetobepreserved,astheyareeconomically required for their survival.

Thisresultedintheactiveparticipationofthepopulationinthepreservationoftheenvironmentand the sacred and cultural sites in the forest. Using aGPStrackingsystem,communitymembers,astrueexpertsoftheenvironment,contributesubstantiallytotheprotectionofplantandanimalresources used in their sacred rituals and cultural traditions.

Furthermore,thisparticipativeapproachhelpstopreventconflictandtoreinforcetheinvolvementof the Mbendzele and Bangombe communities in matterstheyconsidertobepriorities.Inaddition,itprovidesaccesstoemploymentand,therefore,income for the individuals working on the team.

CIB’sparticipativeforestmanagementapproach,workingincooperationwiththeindigenouspopulations,showsthattheprovisionsofILOConventionNo.169canbeappliedtointhereconciliation of the economic interests of the State andtheculturalandreligiousaspirationsoftheindigenous communities.

Casedescribedin: La consultation et la participation des populations autochtones «pygmées» à


l’identification et la protection de leurs usages des ressources forestières et fauniques dans l’aménagement forestier: expérience de l’UFA Kabo de la

CIB Nord du Congo, ILO 2008.

Tanzania:ManagingwildlifeInMarch2009,aBillwaspassedby

parliamentinTanzania,whichprovidesforthedevolutionofpowerfromtheWildlife

Department(agovernmentalbody)atthenationalleveltovillagelevelinstitutions,mandatedtomanageand regulate utilization of wildlife resources falling under Village Lands. Villages are then directed to formAuthorizedAssociations(AA)toactastechnicalagentswiththecapacitytoaddressissuesrelatedtowildlife resources.

TheBill:1. Providesforthedevolutionofpowerfromthe central government to the village level and this makes it necessary for hunting companiestonegotiatewithcommunitiesforaccesstowildliferesources;2. Allows for the involvement of indigenous communities in the management of wildlife resourcesintheirareas;Clarifiesanddefinesmandates(previouslyoverlapping)ofstakeholdersinthemanagement of wildlife resources to the benefitofindigenouscommunities;3. Provides communities a share in the benefitsofresourcesintheirownareas.

ItisstilltobeseenhowtheBillwillbeimplemented.TanzaniaNaturalResourceForum:http://www.tnrf.org.

Case prepared by Naomi Kipuri.

Taiwan:IndigenousPeoplesBasicLaw.Amountingtoapproximately1.7%ofthetotalpopulation,theindigenouspeoplesofTaiwan have theirrightsspelledoutmainlyintheIndigenous Peoples Basic Law enacted on 5 February 2005.AtArticle21,thisLawstipulatesthattheGovernmentortheprivateactors“shallconsult indigenouspeoplesandobtaintheirconsentorparticipation,andsharewithindigenouspeoplesbenefitsgeneratedfromlanddevelopment,resource

utilization,ecologyconservationandacademicresearchesinindigenouspeople’sregions”.http://www.apc.gov.tw

Venezuela:TheOrganicActonIndigenousPeoplesandCommunities.TheConstitutionoftheBolivarianRepublicofVenezuelastates,atArticle120,thattheexploitationof natural resources in indigenous lands is subjectedtothepriorconsultationoftheindigenouscommunities concerned and must be carried out withoutdamagingindigenouspeoples’cultural,socialandeconomicintegrity.Theprocedureofconsultation is regulated in the Organic Act on IndigenousPeoplesandCommunitieswhich,besides requiring that an agreement is reached betweentheparties,furtherprovidesfortheassessmentofthesocial,culturalandenvironmentalimpactoftheextractiveactivitiesontheindigenouscommunities,thecompensationforanydamagescausedbytheseactivitiesandthesharingofbenefits-ofeconomicandsocialnature-flowingfromtheexploitationofnaturalresources.http://www.asembleanacional.gov.ve

Philippines:TheIndigenousPeoplesRightsAct.Section 57 of the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act establishesthatnon-indigenouspartiescancarryout extractive activities in the ancestral domains of indigenouspeoplesonconditionthat“aformalandwrittenagreementisenteredintowiththeICCs/IPs[IndigenousCulturalCommunities/IndigenousPeoples]concernedorthatthecommunity,pursuanttoitsowndecisionmakingprocess,hasagreedtoallowsuchoperation”.Section7oftheActalsorecognizesindigenouspeoples’righttobenefitandsharetheprofitsfromallocationandutilizationofthenatural resources found in their ancestral domain.

However,theenforcementoftheseprovisionhasprovedtobeachallenge.TheformerUNSpecialRapporteuronindigenousissues,RodolfoStavenhagen,hasreportedthat“[l]egalsafeguardssuchasthosereferringtothefree,priorandinformedconsent,aswellastherequirementofenvironmentalimpactandassessmentstudiesbeforeundertakingdevelopmentprojects,arerecognizedinprinciple’but,inpractice,‘indigenouspeoples’concernsaregenerallynotgivendue


attention,and…powerfuleconomicandpoliticalinterestsprevailovertheirlegitimaterights.”Hehasfurtheremphasizedthat“indigenousareasarefrequentlysubjecttosweepingmilitaryoperationstoclearthewayforfuturedevelopmentprojects,betheymining,logging,orlarge-scaleplantationsonindigenouslands”.http://www.ncip.gov.ph; R. Stavenhagen, Report of the mission to the Philippines, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2003/90/Add.3, 5 March 2003.

Canada:TheNunavutAgreement.IndigenouspeoplesinCanada,encompassingFirstNations(Indians),MétisandInuit,numberaround4.4%ofthetotalpopulation.ThenationalConstitution of 1982 recognizes their aboriginal and treatyrights.In1995,CanadaalsoannouncedtheInherentRightPolicy,basedonageneralrecognitionof the inherent right of self-government of indigenous peoples.Againstthisbackground,someagreementshavebeennegotiatedbetweenindigenouspeoplesandfederalandprovincialgovernments,includingtheNunavutLandClaimsAgreementActwhich,togetherwiththeNunavutAct(1993),setupthenewterritoryofNunavutin1999.ThepreambleoftheNunavutLandClaimsAgreementsexplicitlystates that one of the objectives of the negotiations conductedbytheInuitPeopleandtheGovernmentofCanadawas“toprovideforcertaintyandclarity[...]ofrightsforInuittoparticipateindecision-makingconcerningtheuse,managementandconservationofland,waterandresources”.Article27oftheAgreementspecifiesthatpriortoundertakingexplorationactivitiesforpetroleumandotherresourcesintheNunavutSettlementArea,theGovernmentandtheproponentshallconsulttheDesignedInuitOrganization(DIO).The Nunavut Act: http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/result;The Nunavut agreement: http://www.nucj.ca;R. Stavenhagen, Report of the mission to Canada, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2005/88/Add.3, December 2004.

Bolivia:LawonHydrocarbonsanditsregulation.InMay2005,thenewLaw on Hydrocarbons 3058 was enacted. This law establishes that hydrocarbon deposits,regardlessofwhichstatetheyarein,belong to the State.

Article 57 of the law also regulates allocation of the

DirectHydrocarbonsTax(IDH).FourpercentoftheIDHgoestoproducingdepartments,twopercenttonon-producingdepartmentsand,lastly,itstipulatesthat the executive branch shall allocate the balance ofthistaxtoindigenousandaboriginalpeoples,amongotherbeneficiaries.Subsequentnegotiationdeterminedthat5%oftheIDHshallbeearmarkedforanindigenouspeoples’developmentfund.

The Law establishes the right to consultation andparticipationoftheindigenous,aboriginalandpeasantpeoples,aswellastherightoftheindigenouscommunitiesandpeoplestobeconsultedonanyplansforhydrocarbonoperations.Article114stipulatesthat,pursuanttoArticles4,5,6,15and18ofILOConventionNo.169,thereshallbeprior,mandatoryandtimelyconsultationofthepeasant,indigenousandaboriginalcommunitiesandpeoples,regardlessoftheirtypeoforganisation,onanyplansforhydrocarbonoperations,asprovidedfor in the current Law.

Article 115 establishes that in accordance with Article6and15ofILOConventionNo.169,consultation shall be carried out in good faith and basedontheprinciplesoftruthfulness,transparency,informationandopportunity.ItshallbecarriedoutbytheapplicableBolivianGovernmentauthoritiesusingappropriateproceduresthatareinkeepingwith the circumstances and characteristics of each indigenousgroup,todeterminetowhatdegreetheywillbeaffected,andtoreachanagreementor consent of the indigenous and aboriginal communitiesandpeoples.Suchconsultationshallbemandatory,andtheresultingdecisionsshallberespected.Inallcases,theconsultationshalltakeplaceontwooccasions:

a)Priortothetender,authorisation,contracting,announcementandapprovalofhydrocarbonmeasures,worksorprojects,asanecessaryprecondition;andb)Priortotheapprovalofenvironmentalimpactassessmentstudies(…)”.

ChapterIIoftheLawestablishescompensationandindemnification.Whenhydrocarbonoperationsinindigenousterritorieshavenegativeimpacts,thecommunitiesshallbefinanciallycompensatedbytheownersoftheoperations.(Article119)


Article120referringtoindemnificationstipulatesthat:“Indemnificationshallconsiderthedamagesderivedfromthelossofprofitsfortraditionalproductionactivitiesand/orexploitationofnaturalresourcesthatthepeasant,indigenousandaboriginalcommunitiesandpeoplesmightdevelopintheimpactedareas.”

Itisimportanttopointoutthatthesearticlesofthenew Law on Hydrocarbonsprotecttherightsoftheindigenouspeoplesspecifically,goingbeyondotherlegalprovisions.Thecountry’sindigenousorganisations,inparticulartheConfederationofIndigenousPeoplesofBolivia(CIDOB),activelyworkedtohavethesechaptersincludedinthenewlaw. www.sirese.gov.bo/MarcoLegal/Hidrocarburos/ Case cited in: Ramiro Molinas Barrios; Los Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas en un Proceso de Cambio de la Naturaleza de la Nación y del Estado, ILO, 2009.

Thailand:PeoplesConstitutionIndigenouspeoplesinThailand encompassfishercommunities (Chao-lae) and hunter-gatherers living inthesouthaswellasvarioushighlandpeopleslivinginthenorthernandnorthwesternpartofthecountry.Onlynine“hilltribes”areofficiallyrecognized,namelytheHmong,Karen,Lisu,Mien,Akha,Lahu,Lua,ThinandKhamu.

PartXIIofthe2007ConstitutionofThailandisdedicatedto“CommunityRights”.Atsection66

itestablishesthat“[p]ersonsassemblingastobeacommunity,localcommunityortraditionallocalcommunityshallhavetherightto…participateinthemanagement,maintenanceandexploitationofnaturalresources,theenvironmentandbiologicaldiversityinabalancedandsustainablefashion.”However,astothepracticalimplicationofthisprovision,theformerUNSpecialRapporteuronindigenousissues,haswarnedthat“despitethe recognition of customary natural resource managementbylocalcommunities,legalinstrumentsadoptedinrecentyears,suchastheLandAct,theNationalReserveForestsActortheNationalParksAct,havefailedtorecognizeindigenousandtribalpeoples’traditionallandtenureandusepatterns.Theenforcementoftheselawshaveresultedintheexpulsionofmanyindigenousandtribalpeoples,consideredtobeillegalencroachersontheirancestrallands,aswellasinanumberofunresolveddisputesbetweenstatelands(includingnationalparks,watershedareasandforestrypreservationareas)andcommunitylands.Corruptionbylawenforcementofficersrelatedtotheforestindustryissaidtoberampant.”The Peoples Constitution: http://www.asianlii.org/th/legis/const/2007/;R. Stavenhagen, General considerations on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous peoples in Asia, UN Doc. E/C.19/2007/CRP.11, 15 May 2007, para.10; IWGIA, The Indigenous World 2008, p.303 ff.

116

Ix. development

117Ix. DEVELOPmENT

9.1. THE RIGHT TO DEVELOPmENT

Therighttodevelopmentisinitselfaninalienablehuman right. The strong link between human rights anddevelopmenthasfiguredprominentlyinUnitedNationsdeliberationsformorethanhalfacentury,butwasmadeexplicitin1986throughtheadoptionoftheUNDeclarationontheRighttoDevelopment.

The UNDeclarationontheRighttoDevelopmentstipulatesthat:1. Therighttodevelopmentisaninalienablehuman right by virtue of which every humanpersonandallpeoplesareentitledtoparticipatein,contributeto,andenjoyeconomic,social,culturalandpoliticaldevelopment,inwhichallhumanrightsandfundamental freedoms can be fully realized. 2. Thehumanrighttodevelopmentalsoimpliesthefullrealizationoftherightofpeoplestoself-determination,whichincludes,subjecttotherelevantprovisionsofbothInternationalCovenantsonHumanRights,the exercise of their inalienable right to full sovereignty over all their natural wealth and resources.

Poverty reduction is the overarching aim of most nationalandinternationaldevelopmentstrategiesincludingthosesupportedbybi-andmultilateraldonors and lenders. Poverty reduction is also a crucialconcernforindigenouspeoplesastheyaredisproportionatelyrepresentedamongthepoor.TheWorldBankestimatesthatindigenouspeoplesconstituteapproximately5%oftheworld’spopulation,but15%ofthoselivinginpoverty.1)

However,indigenouspeopleshaveoftenendedupbeingthevictimsofdevelopmentinsteadofitsbeneficiaries.Whiletheconstructionofinfrastructure,oilexploitation,loggingandmininghascontributedtoeconomicgrowthforcertainsectorsofsociety,theconsequencesforindigenouspeopleshaveoften been devastating. Their land has been taken away,theirforestshavedisappearedandtheirrivers are left contaminated. They have thus been

1) World Bank: Implementation of Operational Directive 4.20 on Indigenous Peoples, 2003.

deprivedoftheirmeansoflivelihood,oftenwithnocompensationoraccesstoalternativelivelihoods.Indigenouspeoples’povertyisareflectionoftheirgenerallymarginalpositionwithinnationalsocieties.Thisimpliesthatindigenouspeoplesarealsomarginalizedwithregardstoparticipationintheshapingofthedevelopmentstrategiesandwithregards to access to resources aimed at alleviating poverty.Thefundamentalstartingpointistheunderstandingthatindigenouspeoplesaredistinctpeopleswhohavetheirownhistories,territories,livelihoodstrategies,valuesandbeliefsandthusholddistinctnotionsofpovertyandwell-being.Thepreambleof the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoplesrecognizesthatindigenouspeopleshavesufferedfromhistoricinjusticesasaresultof,interalia,theircolonizationanddispossessionoftheirlands,territoriesandresources,thuspreventingthemfromexercisingtheirrighttodevelopmentinaccordance with their own needs and interests.Ifindigenouspeoples’ownperceptionsandaspirationsarenotaddressedindevelopmentstrategiesandprogrammes,thereisariskthatthese will either fail or even aggravate the situation byforexampledeprivingindigenouspeoplesofaccesstocrucialresources,underminingtraditionalgovernance structures or contributing to the loss of indigenous languages. Governments must make surethatindigenouspeoplesareconsultedandparticipateinthenationaldevelopmentprocessatalllevels.Withoutindigenouspeoples,inclusive,poverty-orientedandsustainabledevelopmentisnotpossible.Inresponsetothis,ConventionNo.169stipulatesarights-basedapproachtodevelopment,basedontherespectforindigenouspeoples’righttodeterminetheirownprioritiesandunderliningtheimportanceoftheconceptsofconsultationandparticipation:


ILOConventionNo.169:Article 7 1.Thepeoplesconcernedshallhavetherighttodecidetheirownprioritiesfortheprocessofdevelopmentasitaffectstheirlives,beliefs,institutionsandspiritualwell-beingandthelandstheyoccupyorotherwiseuse,andtoexercisecontrol,totheextentpossible,overtheirowneconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.Inaddition,theyshallparticipateintheformulation,implementationandevaluationofplansandprogrammesfornationalandregionaldevelopmentwhichmayaffect them directly. 2.Theimprovementoftheconditionsof life and work and levels of health and educationofthepeoplesconcerned,withtheirparticipationandcooperation,shallbeamatterofpriorityinplansfortheoveralleconomicdevelopmentofareastheyinhabit.Specialprojectsfordevelopmentoftheareasin question shall also be so designed as to promotesuchimprovement.3. Governmentsshallensurethat,wheneverappropriate,studiesarecarriedout,incooperationwiththepeoplesconcerned,toassessthesocial,spiritual,culturalandenvironmentalimpactonthemofplanneddevelopmentactivities.Theresultsofthesestudies shall be considered as fundamental criteriafortheimplementationoftheseactivities.

Insummary,therightsofindigenousinthecontextofdevelopmentare:

Righttocontroltheirowneconomic,•socialandculturaldevelopmentand to developtheirowninstitutionsandinitiatives.Governments should facilitate this by providingthenecessaryresources.Righttobeconsultedandtoparticipate•inallstepsofrelevantplansandprogrammesfordevelopmentatthelocal,nationalandregionallevel.Thetraditions,culturalvaluesandneedsofindigenouspeoplesshouldbe taken into account in the formulation of policies,programmesandprojects,notonlywhenitcomestolocalprojectsatthevillagelevel,butalsowhenformulatingtheoveralldevelopmentpoliciesofacountry.Righttoimpactassessmentstudies:•Beforeanydevelopmentactivitiesareundertaken,studiesshouldbeundertakentoassesstheirpotentialsocial,cultural,spiritualandenvironmentalimpactsofsuchactivities.Righttobenefits:• Alldevelopmentalprojectsandprogrammesshouldbetterthesocio-economic situation of indigenous and tribal peoples.Theyshouldnotbeharmfultotheirwell-being.Righttolands,territoriesandresources:•Therightsofindigenouspeoplestoownership,possessionanduseoftheirlands,territoriesandresourcesneedtoberecognizedandlegallyprotected.Thisisafundamental criterion for them being able to developtheirsocietiesinaccordancewiththeir own needs and interests.

119Ix. DEVELOPmENT

The UNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeopleshassimilarprovisions:Article 23Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodetermineanddevelopprioritiesandstrategies for exercising their right to development.Inparticular,indigenouspeopleshavetherighttobeactivelyinvolvedindevelopinganddetermininghealth,housingandothereconomicandsocialprogrammesaffectingthemand,asfaraspossible,toadministersuchprogrammesthroughtheirown institutions.

IndigenouspeoplesontheinternationaldevelopmentagendaBothgovernmentsandinternationaldevelopmentagencieshaveresponsibilitiesforincludingindigenouspeoplesindevelopmentprocesses.Withinthelast15-20years,agenciessuchastheWorldBank,theAsianDevelopmentBank,UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,theEuropeanCommission and a number of bilateral donors (forexampleDenmark,NorwayandSpain)haveadoptedpoliciesfortheinclusionofindigenouspeoplesindevelopmentprogrammes.Thesepoliciesandstrategiesreflectgoodintentionsandincreasingunderstandingofindigenouspeoples’rights,andtheyhavehelpedplacingindigenouspeoplesontheinternationaldevelopmentagenda.

Nevertheless,therearestillchallengeswithregardstotheimplementationofthesedevelopmentstrategies.Often,therearenopermanentmechanismsforsecuringtheparticipationofindigenouspeoples,therearenospecificstatistics or data available on the situation of indigenouspeoplesandhestaffofgovernmentanddevelopmentinstitutionshaslittleknowledgeofindigenouspeoples’rights,needsandpriorities.Forindigenousorganisations,itremainsachallengetopushforfurtherparticipationindevelopmentprocesses,particularlyasthisbecomesmorecentralized at the national level through the Aid Effectiveness Agenda.

IndigenouspeoplesrightsintheAidEffectivenessframework:In2005,morethan100countriesandagenciesadoptedtheParisDeclarationonAidEffectiveness.TheParisDeclarationisorganisedaroundfivekeyprinciplesforinternationaldevelopmentcooperation:ownership,alignment,harmonisation,managingforresults,andmutualaccountability.Theseprincipleswill contribute to reducing the transaction costs as well as the fragmentation and lack of effectiveness andsustainabilityofdevelopmentefforts.However,extensive research by the ILO also indicates that theapproachcarriesanumberofinherentrisksforfurtherexclusionofindigenouspeoplesifspecificsafeguardsarenotdeveloped.Insummary,therisksrelatedtothefivemainprinciplesare:


PARTICULAR RISkS fACED By INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN RELATION TO THE PRINCIPLES Of THE PARIS DECLARATION:

Principles Some general implications Specific risks related to indigenous peoples

Ownership:Developingcountries exercise strong andeffectiveleadershipovertheirdevelopmentpoliciesandplans.

DevelopmentbecomesmoreState-centred,althoughcivilsocietyshouldalsoplayarole.Thequalityofpoliciesandplanswilldependonthegovernance(includingcorruption)andcapacitysituationinthegiven country. The use of donor conditionalities as an instrument for reformischallenged.Instead,donorscanfocusonpolicydialogueinsupportofchangesinthepartnercountries. Inlinewiththecountry-drivenapproach,donorsshould delegate authority to staff at the country-level.

Manyindigenouspeoples,particularlyinAfricaandAsia,haveonlyweakparticipationingovernmentstructuresandnationaldecision-makingprocessandthereforerisknotbeingtakenintoaccountinpoliciesandplans.Donorsmayhesitatetoengageinpolicydialogueonindigenouspeoples’issues.Mostdevelopmentagenciesfacedifficultiesinensuringthecapacitytoaddressindigenouspeoples’issues in their decentralised structures.

Alignment:Donorsbasetheirsupportondevelopingcountries’ownpolicies,strategiesand systems.

Donorswillnolongerdefineindividualcountrystategiesbutusethecountries’ownplanning,budgetandmonitoringframeworks,includingarrangementsandproceduresforpublicfinancialmanagement.Donorsshouldhelpaddresscapacityweaknessesofpartnercountries’institutions.

Lackofparticipationbyindigenouspeoplesindecision-makingoftenimpliesthattheirneedsandprioritiesarenotreflectedinnationalpolicies,strategiesandprogrammesandtheydonotbenefitfrompovertyreductionefforts.Ifthepartnercountryisreluctant,donorsmaynotfindwaystocomplywiththeirowninstitutionalpoliciesonsupportingindigenouspeoples.

Harmonisation:Donorscoordinate their activities and minimise the cost of delivering aid.

Donors will establish common arrangements at the country-levelforplanning,funding,disbursement,monitoring,evaluatingandreportingandsharingofinformation. Insteadofindividualinterventions,donorwillaimatprovidingbudgetsupportorsupporttoSector-WideApproaches(SWAps).

Thelackofanoverallstrategyonsupporttoindigenouspeoples(inthecontextofthecommitmentsstipulatedbytheRomeandParisDeclarations)mayeventuallyunderminethevalueofindividualdonorpolicies1)onsupporttoindigenouspeoples.

Managingforresults:Developingcountriesand donors orient their activities to achieve the desiredresults,usinginformationtoimprovedecision-making.

Nationalpoliciesshouldbetranslatedintoprioritisedresults-orientedoperationalprogrammes,reflectedinMedium-TermExpenditureFrameworks(MTEF)and annual budgets. This requires strengthening the linkagesbetweenplanningandbudgeting.Donorsshouldrelyonpartnercountries’statistical,monitoring and evaluation systems

MostindigenouspeoplesdonothavetheinstitutionalcapacityorpoliticalleveragetoensurethattheirneedsandprioritiesarereflectedinMTEFsorbudgets.Inmostcountries,adequatedataonindigenouspeoplesarenotavailableandnationalstatisticalbureauxdonothavethecapacitytoprovidedisaggregated data.

MutualAccountability:Donorsanddevelopingcountries are accountable to each otherforprogressinmanaging aid better and in achieving developmentresults.

It is acknowledged that the successful implementationoftheParisDeclarationrequirescontinuedhigh-levelpoliticalsupport,peerpressure,andcoordinatedactionatglobal,regionalandcountry levels.Complianceinmeetingthecommitmentswillbepubliclymonitoredagainst12indicatorsofaideffectiveness,weredevelopedasawayoftrackingandencouragingprogressagainstthebroadersetofpartnershipcommitments.Bothdonorsanddevelopingcountriesshouldincrease their accountability towards citizens and parliament.

The agenda set by the Rome and Paris Declarations focuses on the effectiveness rather than the quality andrelevanceofaid.Consequently,noneofthe12monitoringindicatorsisrelatedtogovernance,humanrights,participation,qualityorinclusivenessofdevelopment.Inotherwords,thereformedaidarchitectureinitselfprovidesnosafeguardstoensurethat“effectiveness”doesnotjeopardisetherights-basedapproach.Inmanycountries,marginalisationwithregardsto access to education and information excludes indigenouspeoplesfromparticipatinginmonitoringand holding governments accountable.

121Ix. DEVELOPmENT


9.2. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: DEVELOPmENT

Denmark:StrategyforDanishSupporttoIndigenousPeoples.Thefirst“StrategyforDanishSupporttoIndigenousPeoples”wasformulatedin1994bytheDanishAgencyforInternationalCooperation(Danida).In2000-2001,DanidainvitedateamofindigenousexpertstoreviewtheimplementationoftheStrategyandproviderecommendationsforitsrevision.The overall assessment of the review team was that themultifacetedStrategy“hasallowedDenmarktofocusontheareasofcrucialimportanceforindigenouspeoplesatanumberofdifferentlevels;internationalpromotionofindigenousrights,supporttoindigenouspeoplesthroughmultilateralandbilateralcooperation,cooperationwithNGOsandIPOsaswellaseconomyandtraderelatedissues”.

Thereviewteamfurtherstatedthat:“[t]heexistenceofacoherentandcomprehensiveDanishstrategyhascreatedresultsatmanylevels,fromtheverylocallevel,whereDanish-fundedNGOsaresupportingthecapacity-buildingofindigenousorganisations,totheinternationallevel,whereDenmarkisplayingaleadingroleintheUNprocessesonindigenousrights.”

Whilethereviewcomplimentedtheoverallpolicy,italsopointedtothefactthatmoreworkneededto strengthen coordination and coherence in theimplementation.Inordertostrengthentheoperationalimpact,theteamspecificallyrecommendedthat:

Thediversityofindigenouspeoples’•issues and the situations in which they live shouldbereflectedatalllevelsofDanishcooperation.Forinstance,theapplicationandreinforcement of legal instruments will vary fromcountrytocountry,aswillindigenouspeoples’capacityandinstitutionalstrength.Thecapacitytoaddressindigenouspeoples•should be raised within the relevant Ministries andEmbassies,providingstaffwithbasicknowledgeonidentifyingindigenouspeoples,indigenousrights,methodologicallessonslearned,etc.Decentralised dialogue should be initiated •toinvolveindigenouspeoplesinprogrammecountries2)inpermanentmonitoring,follow-upandexchangeofexperiencesontheimplementationoftheDanishstrategy.

2) Danish bilateral cooperation focuses on a series of so-called “programme countries”. Currently these are: Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Nepal, Nicaragua, Tanzania, Uganda, Vietnam and Zambia.

123Ix. DEVELOPmENT

The Danish strategy should be systematically •disseminatedtoindigenouspartnersand,whererelevant,bemadeavailableinlanguagesknownbyindigenouspeoples.Theexchangeofexperienceshouldinclude•operativetechniquesforspecificareas,basedonconcreteexperience(e.g.inthefieldsofbilingualeducationandresourcemanagement).Actionresearchonspecificissuesshould•bepromoted,linkingindigenouspeoplesand academics in order to generate new knowledgeonspecificissues,andlinkingthisresearchtoprocessesofempowermentofindigenouspeoples.Institutional strengthening of indigenous •peoplesshouldbeprioritised,asthereisanabsence of institutions on the indigenous side tofullyengageinthedevelopmentprocess.

ArevisedStrategyforDanishSupporttoIndigenousPeopleswasadoptedin2004,basedonthefindingsofthereviewandaconsultationprocesswithrepresentativesofindigenouspeoplesandNGOs.TheStrategymaintainsarights-basedapproach,statingsupportfortherighttoself-determinationasthebasicprinciplefordefiningindigenousrightsinboth national and international contexts. The overall

objectiveis:Tostrengthentherightofindigenouspeoples•tocontroltheirowndevelopmentpathsand to determine matters regarding their owneconomic,social,politicalandculturalsituation.

The strategy intends to integrate the concern for indigenouspeoplesatalllevelsofDenmark’sforeignpolicyanddevelopmentcooperationandraiseindigenousissuesthroughpolicydialoguewithpartnercountries.Itfallsinlinewithinternationalagreements,includingILOConventionNo.169,ratifiedbyDenmark.

ThefivekeyelementsoftheStrategyare:Strengtheningofindigenouspeoples’1. rightsthroughinternationalprocesses;promotionoftherespectforindigenouspeoples’rightsthroughpoliticaldialoguebasedon international declarations and agreements andsupporttoindigenouspeoples’participationinrelevantinternationalfora.Inclusionofindigenouspeoples’2. concernsinbilateraldevelopmentcooperation;deepeneddialogue,whererelevant,onindigenouspeoples’issueswithDanishcooperationcountriesandinclusion


ofindigenouspeoples’needsinsectorprogrammesupport.Inclusionofindigenouspeoples’concerns3. inmultilateraldevelopmentcooperation;dialogue with relevant multilateral institutions onpolicydevelopmentaswellasexchangeofexperiencesandexplorationofareasofcooperationandcommoninterest.Cooperationwithindigenousorganization4. andNGOs;financialsupporttoindigenousorganizationsandrelevantNGOs,andsupportforactivitiesaimedspecificallyatpromotingtheconditionsandrightsofindigenouspeoples.Considerationofindigenouspeoples5. ineconomicandtraderelatedissues;innovativeapproachestoovercomingtheeconomicandtraderelatedproblemsofindigenouspeoples,includingissuesrelatingtotheprotectionofindigenouspeoples’knowledge.

BasedontheStrategy,theDanishMinistryofForeignAffairsandDanidaareprovidingsupporttoindigenouspeoplesintheabovementionedfields,includingthroughlarge-scalesectorprogrammesupporttoBangladesh,Bolivia,NepalandNicaragua.

Strategy for Danish Support to Indigenous Peoples, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2004;For more information, see: http://www.um.dk and http://www.amg.um.dk/en

Bangladesh:TheNationalPovertyReductionStrategyPaper(PRSP-IandPRSP-II)In2005,afterintenselobbyingbyindigenousactivistsandcooperationofconcernedconsultantsandseniorofficials,extensiveconsultationswereheldwithindigenousleadersfromtheplainsregionsandtheChittagongHillTracts(CHT)onthe 2005 National Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper ofBangladesh(“PRSP-I”).ManyoftherecommendationsoftheseleaderswereacceptedandthePRSP-Idisplaysarespectfulapproachtowards the rights and welfare of indigenous peoples.Thetermusedtorefertotheindigenouspeoplesis“Adivasi/EthnicMinority”,whichisfarmoreacceptabletothepeopleconcernedthan“tribal”or“upajati”.Thedocumentacknowledgestheindigenouspeoples’historyofexclusionandexperienceofdiscrimination,amongothersandstatesthat:

“Over the years the adivasi/ethnic minority communities have been made to experience a

125Ix. DEVELOPmENT

strong sense of social, political and economic exclusion, lack of recognition, fear and insecurity, loss of cultural identity, and social oppression. Mainstream development efforts have either ignored their concerns and/or had a negative impact on them. Often issues and actions that affect them are not discussed with these communities or organizations representing them. Thus they are subjected to stark socio-economic deprivation. Mass relocation of non-ethnic minority people in the traditional adivasi/ethnic minority areas caused land-grabbing, leading to livelihood displacement among the adivasi/ethnic minority people.”

ThePRSP-Ireferstothe“inadequaterepresentation[ofAdivasi/EthnicMinorities]atvariouslevelsofgovernmentandpolicyprocesses”hamperingtheirpossibilityofinfluencingpolicydecisionsthataffecttheirlives.Inaddition,itacknowledgestheircomparativelylowopportunitiesineducation(especiallyinremoteareas),andtheirdifficultiesin accessing necessary information. Among the “actionstobetaken”thatitrecommendsarethefullimplementationofthe1997CHTPeaceAccord;resolutionoflandandforest-relatedproblemsintheplains;preventionof“landgrabbing”and“displacement”;increasingaccesstoeducation,

includinginthemothertonguesofthegroupsconcerned;affirmativeactionforjobs;andtheformation of an inclusive advisory body to advise on matterspertainingtoAdivasiissues.

AlthoughthePRSP-Iwasalandmarkimprovementingovernmentpolicy,thePRSP-II(publishedin2008)providesfurtherentrenchmentoftheimportanceofindigenousissuesingovernanceandpovertyreduction.Theterm“indigenouspeople”isusedinterchangeablywith“indigenouscommunities”and the PRSP-II includes a vision statement that acknowledgesthepreservationofthe“socialandculturalidentity”oftheindigenouspeoples,andthe need to ensure the exercise of the indigenous peoples’“social,politicalandeconomicrights”andtheir“securityandfundamentalhumanrights”.Inthesectiononfutureactions,inadditiontoreiteratingtheimportanceofimplementing1997CHTPeaceAccord,thePRSP-IImentionstheratificationofILOConventionNo.169andtheimplementationoftheprovisionsoftheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples.Otherimportantmattersforactionincludelandrights,participationindevelopmentprogrammes,humandevelopment,empowerment,indigenouslanguagesandchildren’saccesstoeducation,accesstoelectricity,andthe


mainstreaming of indigenous issues in national policies.InthesectiononChallenges,thedocumentacknowledges the absence of census and other statisticaldataonindigenouspeoples.

TheprocessofconsultationinthecaseofPRSP-IIwas less inclusive than was the case with PRSP-I. However,acrucialdifferenceisthattheprovisionsofPRSP-IIonindigenouspeoplesareanchoredintwoidentifiablegovernmentinstitutions,theMinistryofCHT Affairs for issues concerning the CHT and the SpecialAffairsDivisionfortheplains.Theactivitiesof the two institutions are sought to be further mainstreamedintoexistingandfuturedevelopmentprogrammesofthegovernment,includingthroughotherkeylineministries.Thisprovidesastrongeranchoring to budgetary allocations. Raja Devasish Roy: The ILO Convention on Indigenous and tribal Populations, 1957 and the Laws of Bangladesh: A Comparative Review; Forthcoming Publication

Kenya:IndigenousPeoplesPlanningFrameworkKenya(aswellasanumberofotherAfricancountriessuchasCameroon,DRCongoandCentralAfricanRepublic)developedanIndigenousPeoplesPlanningFramework(IPPF)incollaborationwiththeWorldBankin2006,undertheauspicesoftheofficeofthePresident.TheIPPFisdesignedwithin the framework of the national Poverty

ReductionStrategyanditprovidesthat:“aspirations of indigenous peoples are taken into consideration in all Bank financed projects. These include ‘to live in peace with their neighbors, to have access to sufficient land to practice agriculture and graze their livestock, or to have access to forests to gather honey for consumption and sale, to practice their culture, to have equitable access to social infrastructure and technical services; ensure that indigenous peoples receive social and economic benefits that are culturally appropriate and inclusive in both gender and intergenerational terms and to be fairly represented in the institutions which make decisions affecting their lives at local, regional and national levels. The IPPF guidelines are meant to avert any potentially adverse effects from project interventions on indigenous peoples by ensuring free, prior and informed consultation; or if avoidance proves not to be feasible, minimize, mitigate or compensate for such negative impacts.”

TheIPPFhasbeendevelopedduetotheWorldBank’sOperationalPolicyNo.4.10,whichrequiresspecificactionwheninvestmentsoftheBankandthe Global Environment Facility affect the interests andrightsofindigenouspeoples,includingtheirlands and natural resources. The IPPF in Kenya hasyettobeimplementedandisrestrictedtoWorldBankfundedprojects,thusnotcoveringprogrammesofotherdonors.Case prepared by Naomi Kipuri.

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NewZealand:TransforminghistoricgrievancesintodevelopmentforthefutureNewZealand’slargest-eversettlementofgrievances,arising from 19th-century seizures of land and forestsduringEuropeansettlement,waspassedinParliamentinSeptember2008.Theagreementtransfersaround10%ofNewZealand’sintensivelymanagedplantedforesttotheCentralNorthIsland(CNI)Collective,whorepresentover100,000indigenous Maori. Maori have been engaged in grievance claims since the 1970s and this latestsettlement,whichincludeslicenserentalsaccumulatedsince1989,iswortharound450million New Zealand dollars.

Oncethesettlementiscompleted,theCNICollective will be New Zealand’s largest single landownerintheforestrysector,andoneofthelargest investors in the industry. The economic benefitswillbesignificantandmuchneededastheMaoriareamongthenation’spoorestcitizens,withloweducationandincomelevels,poorhealthandhousingstandards,andhighernumbersofunemployed.ThesettlementhasthepotentialtoprovideMaoridescendantswiththescaleandquality of resources needed to create sustainable opportunitiesforthemselves.

TheCNICollectivewillsetupaholdingcompanystructure and forestry management structure to manage the land collectively and ensure that economicbenefitsfromtheforestryandfinancialassets are maximised sustainably over time. One optionfortheCollectiveistofocusitsinvestmentonboosting New Zealand’s contribution to the global forestryindustry.NewZealand-styleplantationtimberishighlysoughtafter,foritssuperiorquality,andForestStewardshipCouncil(FSC)accreditationconfirmsthattheforestsarebeingsustainablymanaged.George Asher, Lead Negotiator, Central North Island Iwi Collective: Indigenous tribes transform historic grievances into a bright future, 2008; http://www.cniforest.co.nz.

x. educatIon

129x. EDUCATION

Indigenouspeopleshavehistoricallybeenamongthepoorestandmostexcludedanddisadvantagedsocial sectors in the world. One of the biggest factorscontributingtothedisadvantagedpositionofindigenouspeoplesisthelackofqualityeducation.

Millions of indigenous children around the world are deprivedoftherighttoeducation.1)

1) http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=30859&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html.

Issuesconfrontingindigenouschildrenineducation

Unequalaccesstoeducation.InGuatemala,indigenouspeoplehavehadhalf the years of schooling of non-indigenous people;inMexicoadultindigenouspeoplehave had an average of three years of schoolingcomparedtosixyearsofschoolingfornon-indigenouspeople;andinPeruindigenous adults average six years of schooling while non-indigenous average nine.Moreover,indigenousschoolstendtohaveteacherswithlessexperienceandlesseducation,andbilingualeducationispoorlyimplemented.OneofthebiggestfactorscontributingtothedisadvantagedpositionofindigenouspeoplesinLatinAmericaislackofquality education.2)

Suppressingindigenouslanguages.TheNordicstateshavehistoricallyadoptedandimplementedpoliciesaimedat

2) Williams, Sandra (2007) Indigenous Education Latin America, available at http://poverty.suite101.com/article.cfm/indigenous_education_latin_america.

suppressingtheindigenousSamiculture,inparticularthroughtheeducationalsystem.During the 19thcentury,inanefforttosupportanationalistagenda,NorwaydecidedtomaketheSamipeopleasNorwegianaspossible.TheSamilanguagewaseffectivelybanned in Norwegian schools until the late 1960s.3)

IndigenouschildrenandchildlabourILO research has revealed that indigenous childrenaredisproportionatelyaffectedbychildlabour,whichharmstheirhealth,safetyand/ormorals,aswellasbytheworstformsofchildlabour,whichincludeslavery,forcedlabour,childtrafficking,armedconflicts,prostitution,pornographyandillicitactivitieslikedrugstrafficking.Combatingchildlabouramong indigenous children requires a rights-basedapproachinwhichtheaccessibilityandquality of education are key elements. See: Guidelines for Combating Child Labour among Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, ILO 2007.

3) John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.


Theproblemformanyindigenouspeoplesinrelationtoeducationisnotonlytheinferiorschooling,orcompletelackofformaleducation,butalsothecontent and objective of education made available tothem.Therearenumerousexampleswhereeducationhasbeenacoreelementinstatepoliciesaimedatassimilatingindigenouspeoplesintomainstream societies – and thereby contributed to theeradicationoftheircultures,languagesandwaysof life.

Thus within education there are a number of areas to beconsideredinimplementingtheConvention:

Individualandcollectiveaspectsoftherightto•education;Thequalityofindigenouspeoples’education;•Diminishingdiscriminationandprejudice•through education.

10.1. INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE ASPECTS Of THE RIGHT TO EDUCATION

International human rights law recognizes the right to education as a fundamental human right for everyone. Education enables individuals to achieve thefulldevelopmentoftheirpersonalityandabilities,aswellasenablingthemtoparticipateeffectivelyin the society. These individual rights to education areprovidedundertheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightsandtheConvention on the Rights of the Child. International human rights law acknowledges that the individual righttoeducation,evenifitisfullyimplemented,isnotsufficienttomeettheneedsofindigenoussocieties. In addition to the individual need and right toeducation,indigenouspeopleshavecollectiveeducationalneedsandrights,basedontheirdistincthistories,cultures,values,languages,knowledge,livelihood strategies and ways of learning – and their wish to transmit these to future generations.

TheCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,initsgeneralcommentNo.11(2009)expressesthe duality of the individual and collective aspectsoftherighttoeducationinthefollowing way:

The education of indigenous children contributes both to their individual and community development as well as to their participation in the wider society. Quality education enables indigenous children to exercise and enjoy economic, social and cultural rights for their personal benefit as well as for the benefit of their community. Furthermore, it strengthens children’s ability to exercise their civil rights in order to influence political policy processes for improved protection of human rights. Thus, the implementation of the right to education of indigenous children is an essential means of achieving individual empowerment and self-determination of indigenous peoples.4)

4) CRC/C/GC/11

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Whenelaboratingonindigenouspeoples’righttoeducation,itisthusnecessarytotakeintoaccounttwocategoriesofrights:(1)theindividualrighttoeducation,reaffirmingthateveryonehasequalrighttoeducation,and(2)indigenouspeoples’collectiverights to education that takes into account their specialneeds.ILOConventionNo.169reflectsthesetwocomplementaryprinciplesofindividualandcollectiverightsinArticles26and27:

ILOConventionNo.169stipulatesthat:Article 26Measures shall be taken to ensure that membersofthepeoplesconcernedhavetheopportunitytoacquire education at all levels on at least an equal footing with the rest of the national community.Article 271. Educationprogrammesandservicesforthepeoplesconcernedshallbedevelopedandimplementedincooperationwiththemtoaddresstheirspecialneeds,andshallincorporatetheirhistories,theirknowledgeandtechnologies,theirvaluesystemsandtheirfurthersocial,economicandculturalaspirations.2.Thecompetentauthorityshallensurethetrainingofmembersofthesepeoplesand their involvement in the formulation and implementationofeducationprogrammes,withaviewtotheprogressivetransferofresponsibilityfortheconductoftheseprogrammestothesepeoplesasappropriate.3. Inaddition,governmentsshallrecognisetherightofthesepeoplestoestablishtheirowneducationalinstitutionsandfacilities,providedthatsuchinstitutionsmeetminimumstandardsestablishedbythecompetentauthorityinconsultationwiththesepeoples.Appropriateresourcesshallbeprovidedforthispurpose.

Articles26and27reflectthefundamentalphilosophyofConventionNo.169,whichistopromoteandprotectindigenouspeoples’righttosimultaneouslymaintainanddeveloptheirowncultures,waysoflife,traditionsandcustoms,andtocontinuetoexistaspartsoftheirnationalsocietieswiththeirownidentity,cultures,structuresandtraditions(seealsosections3.2.and3.3.onequalityandspecialmeasures).Further,Article27stipulatesthefollowingkeyprinciples:

Educationprogrammesforindigenouspeoplesshallbedevelopedandimplementedincooperationwiththemtoaddresstheirspecificneeds.Thisimpliesthatindigenouspeoplesareentitledtofullyparticipateinthedevelopmentandexecutionofsucheducationprogrammes,inordertoensurethateducationprogrammeseffectivelymeettheirspecificneedsandthattheirvalues,cultures,knowledge and languages become an integral partofsuchprogrammes.Theprovisionalsoemphasizesthateducationprogrammesshallreflectindigenouspeoples’ownaspirations for the future asfarassocial,economicandculturalmattersareconcerned.Thisisareflectionofanacceptancethateducationisanimportantwayofensuringthatindigenoussocietiescandevelopinaccordancewiththeirownprioritiesandaspirations.

Responsibilitiesfortheconductofeducationprogrammesshouldbeprogressivelytransferredtoindigenouspeoplesthemselves.Inaddition,Article27(3)recognizesthatindigenouspeopleshavetherighttoestablishtheirowneducationalinstitutionsandfacilities,andobligesstatestoprovideappropriateresourcesforthispurpose.Thecriterionhoweveristhatsuchinstitutions meet minimum national standards for education.Inpracticalterms,thesetwoprovisionsacknowledgethatindigenouspeopleshavetherightto a certain degree of educational autonomy - in the implementationofgeneraleducationprogramsandservices,andthroughtheestablishmentoftheirowneducational institutions.


The UNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples:Article 141. Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoestablish and control their educational systemsandinstitutionsprovidingeducationintheirownlanguages,inamannerappropriatetotheirculturalmethodsofteaching and learning.2. Indigenousindividuals,particularlychildren,have the right to all levels and forms of education of the State without discrimination.3. Statesshall,inconjunctionwithindigenouspeoples,takeeffectivemeasures,inorderforindigenousindividuals,particularlychildren,includingthoselivingoutsidetheircommunities,tohaveaccess,whenpossible,to an education in their own culture and providedintheirownlanguage.

Article 14 of the UN Declaration on the RightsofIndigenousPeoplesreaffirmsthatindigenouspeopleshavetherighttoestablish and control their own educational systems and institutions. This should be

interpretedinthelightofArticles3and4oftheDeclaration,whichreaffirmthatindigenouspeopleshavetherighttoself-determination,andthat,inexercisingtheirrighttoself-determination,theyhavetherightto autonomy and self-government in matters relating to their internal and local affairs. It is natural to consider education a matter relatingtoindigenouspeoples“internalandlocalaffairs”–entitlingindigenouspeoplesto the right to educational autonomy. The main role of the state in relation to indigenous education,wheneverindigenouspeopleswishtoimplementsuchautonomy,istoensurethat their educational systems and institutions meet the national minimum standards for education. It is however required that such an assessmenttakesplaceincooperationwithandwiththefullparticipationofindigenouspeoples.Moreover,thestateisobligedtoprovideadequatefinancialresourcesfortheestablishment and administration of such institutions.5)


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10.2. THE qUALITy Of INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ EDUCATION

Education can be a means to address two of the most fundamental concerns and rights of indigenous peoples:respectfortheirculturalandlinguisticdiversity.

Indigenouspeoplesconstitutethevastmajorityof the world’s cultural and linguistic diversity. This culturalandlinguisticdiversityisaresource,madeupofuniqueandcomplexbodiesofknowledge,know-howandpracticesthataremaintainedandfurtherdevelopedthroughextendedhistoriesofinteractions with the natural environment and other peoplesandtransmittedtofuturegenerations.Thelinksbetweenlanguage,cultureandtheenvironmentsuggestthatbiological,culturalandlinguistic diversity are distinct but closely and necessarily related manifestations of the diversity of life. Indigenous cultures are therefore crucial to the effortsofachievingsustainabledevelopment.

UNESCOestimatesthatover50%ofsome6700languagesspokentodayareindangerofdisappearing:

96%oftheworld’slanguagesarespokenby•4%oftheworld’spopulationOnelanguagedisappearsonaverageevery•two weeks 80%oftheAfricanlanguageshaveno•orthography

http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?pg=00136

Inaddition,inordertoovercomediscriminationandmarginalisation,indigenouspeoplesneedtogaintheknowledgenecessarytofullyandequallyparticipateinthenationalsociety,includingbyknowingtheirrights and mastering the national language.

Inresponsetothissituation,ConventionNo.169providesanumberofarticlesspecificallyconcerningthecontentandqualityofindigenouspeoples’education:

ILOConventionNo.169Article 281. Childrenbelongingtothepeoplesconcernedshall,whereverpracticable,be taught to read and write in their own indigenous language or in the language mostcommonlyusedbythegrouptowhichtheybelong.Whenthisisnotpracticable,thecompetentauthoritiesshallundertakeconsultationswiththesepeopleswithaviewtotheadoptionofmeasurestoachievethisobjective.2. Adequate measures shall be taken toensurethatthesepeopleshavetheopportunitytoattainfluencyinthenationallanguageorinoneoftheofficiallanguagesofthe country.3.Measuresshallbetakentopreserveandpromotethedevelopmentandpracticeoftheindigenouslanguagesofthepeoplesconcerned.Article 29Theimpartingofgeneralknowledgeandskillsthatwillhelpchildrenbelongingtothepeoplesconcernedtoparticipatefullyandonan equal footing in their own community and in the national community shall be an aim of educationforthesepeoples.

Theseprovisionsreflectindigenouspeoplesdemandforinterculturalandbilingualeducation,whichisbasedontherespectforculturalandlinguisticdiversityandpromoteseducationasaninstrumentfortheadvancementofdemocracy,toleranceandhumanrights.Someofthekeyprinciplesofsuchinterculturalandbilingualeducation,inlinewithConventionNo.169are:

Incorporationofindigenouspeoples’knowledge,history,valuesandaspirationsinthecurriculum.Thedevelopmentofdiversified,culturallyappropriateand locally relevant curricula that build relevant qualificationsandtakeintoconsiderationtheneedsof both boys and girls are key to ensuring the respectforindigenousculturesandthepreservation,transmissionanddevelopmentofindigenousknowledge. In some countries where indigenous


peoplesconstituteaminorityofthepopulation,indigenouseducationwillbeaminorcomponentwithinthegeneraleducationalsector,whileinothercountries it will be a main feature of the entire sector.Insomecountries,indigenouspeoplesarethemselvesdevelopinglocallyrelevantcurriculainordertorespondtotheproblemofalienationwhileinothers,thecurriculahavebeenintegratedintothenationaleducationpoliciesandstrategies.Inordertobuildthenecessarytechnicalcapacity,thedevelopmentofpoliciesandstrategiesfortraining,recruitmentanddeploymentofindigenousteachers – including access of indigenous students to secondary and higher education – is a necessary startingpoint.Insomecountries,theprovisionofscholarshipsorotherspecialmeasuresmaybenecessaryinordertopromoteindigenousstudents’,andparticularlygirls’,accesstoeducation.Inaddition,schooldesignsareoftendefinedaccordingtomainstreamnormsandpreferencesthatignoreindigenousvaluesandpractices.Programmesthatsupportthedevelopmentofeducationalinfrastructure should diversify school design in different cultural contexts.

Accesstogeneralknowledgeandskills.Interculturaleducationimpliesamutuallearningprocessasitrelatestoschoolsandcurriculatoaccountforthechallengesofculturaldiversity,using education as an instrument for advancing theparticipationofallgroupsintheshapingofthenationalsociety.Inthisregard,itiscrucialthatindigenouspeopleshaveaccesstoeducationthatencompassestheskillsandknowledgethatarenecessaryinordertofullyparticipateandcontributetothebroadersociety.Thisisevenmoreimportantin the context of urbanization and economic

globalization,wheremoreandmoreindigenouspeoplecompeteforjobsinthelabourmarket.

Bilingualeducationandliteracyinindigenouslanguages.Although bilingualism and multilingualism are thewaytopreventlanguagesfrombecomingendangered,paradoxically,itisnotencouragedamongmostofthemajorlanguagegroups,whosespeakersregardmonolingualismasthenormandthepreferredstateforhumanlanguage(UNESCO:AtlasoftheWorld’sLanguagesinDangerofDisappearing,2001).Manycountrieshaveconstitutionalandlegislativeprovisionsregarding linguistic rights but these are often not implementedinthecontextofformaleducation.Thechallengeisthus,inlinewithConventionNo.169,theDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoplesandtheUNESCOUniversalDeclarationonCulturalDiversity,toofferbilingualeducationtoindigenouschildren,allowingthemtofullydeveloptheir skills in both their indigenous and the national languages.Whilethereisaneedtogenerallyprovideforbilingualeducationinthebroadersector,somenumerically small and educationally disadvantaged groupsarespecificallyvulnerabletolosingtheirlanguages and being marginalised in the education sector.Thesegroupsshouldbeidentifiedandtargetedthroughspecialmeasures.Further,inorderto offer bilingual education and contribute to the preservationofindigenouslanguages,educationprogrammesshould,wherenecessary,elaboratealphabets,grammars,vocabulariesanddidacticmaterial in indigenous languages.6)

6) See also: Tool Kit: Best Practices for Including Indigenous Peoples in Sector Programme Support, DANIDA, 2004.

135x. EDUCATION

TheEducationforAllFramework:ThevastmajorityoftheWorld’scountrieshaveadoptedtheEducationforAll(EFA)framework,whichspecifiessixeducationgoals for meeting the learning needs of all children,youthandadultsby2015.Thesixgoals,whichalsoformpartoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs),are:Goal1:Expandearlychildhoodcareandeducation.Goal2:Providefreeandcompulsoryprimaryeducation for all.Goal3:Promote learning and life skills for youngpeopleandadults.Goal4:Increaseadultliteracyby50percent.Goal5:Achievegenderparityby2005,gender equality by 2015.Goal6:Improvethequalityofaction.

The EFA framework acknowledges the need foraspecialfocusonthemostvulnerableanddisadvantagedchildren,includingindigenouschildren;theneedtousethelearners’ownlanguage and introducing other languages thattheyneed;andtheneedforrelevantandusefulcurriculum,basedonthelearners’local environment and focused on broader knowledgeandcompetencieswhichtheycanapplyintheirlives.Itisfurtheracknowledgedthatqualityforeveryonewillmeanspecialapproaches,includingforindigenouspeoples,as “[m]any of these will not be able to receive a quality education without special measures and attention to address their needs”.

Itisthusoftheutmostimportancethatgovernments,indigenouspeoples,donorsand civil society organisations work together

toensurethatspecialapproachesaredevisedtoreachedtheGoalsforindigenouspeoples,within the context of national EFA strategies.See: http://www.unesco.org/education/efa

TheUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild also recognizes that the indigenous child’s right to education is not only a matter of access but also of content. The Committee recommendsthatstateparties,withtheactiveparticipationofindigenouspeoples,reviewand revise school curricula and textbooks todeveloprespectamongallchildrenforindigenousculturalidentity,history,languageand values.7)

Moreover,theCommitteeisoftheviewthat indigenous children have the right to be taught to read and write in their own indigenouslanguages,orinthelanguagemostcommonlyusedbythegrouptowhichtheybelong,aswellasinthenationallanguage(s)ofthecountryinwhichtheybelong. This recommendation echoes article 28(1)ofConventionNo.169,andmakesitapplicabletoallstatespartiestoCRC.TheCommittee also recommends that state partiestakeeffectivemeasurestoincreasethe number of teachers from indigenous communities,andallocatesufficientfinancial,materialandhumanresourcestoimplementindigenouseducationalprogramsandpolicieseffectively.8)

7) UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, Recommendations on the Rights of Indigenous Children, 3 October 2003 (Day of General Discussion on the Rights of Indigenous Children).



10.3. DImINISHING DISCRImINATION AND PREjUDICES THROUGH EDUCATION.

Convention No. 169 does not exclusively address educationwithinthetraditionaleducationsector,butalsomakesprovisionsforusingcommunicationandawareness-raisingasmeansofempowermentandtoovercomediscriminationandprejudices.

ILOConventionNo.169:Article 301. Governmentsshalladoptmeasuresappropriatetothetraditionsandculturesofthepeoplesconcerned,tomakeknowntothemtheirrightsandduties,especiallyinregardtolabour,economicopportunities,educationandhealthmatters,socialwelfareand their rights deriving from this Convention.2. Ifnecessary,thisshallbedonebymeansof written translations and through the use of mass communications in the languages of thesepeoples.Article 31Educational measures shall be taken among allsectionsofthenationalcommunity,andparticularlyamongthosethatareinmostdirectcontactwiththepeoplesconcerned,withtheobjectofeliminatingprejudicesthattheymayharbourinrespectofthesepeoples.Tothisend,effortsshallbemadeto ensure that history textbooks and other educationalmaterialsprovideafair,accurateandinformativeportrayalofthesocietiesandculturesofthesepeoples.

Awareness-raising and training are crucial means ofstrengtheningtheinstitutionalcapacityofindigenouspeoplestodeveloptheirownsocietiesandcommunitiesandfullyparticipateandcontributetothebroadernationalsociety.Thisisparticularlyimportant,asmostindigenousinstitutionshavebeen weakened or undermined and are in a disadvantagedpositionwithregardtopromotingandimplementingtheirrights.

Ontheotherhand,awareness-raising,trainingandeducationcanpositivelycontributetoovercomingprejudicesagainstindigenousculturesand

languages.Thisisinlinewithindigenouspeoples’demandforprovidinginterculturaleducationtoallsectors of society and not seeing it exclusively as an indigenouspeoples’priority.Ultimately,interculturalcommunicationandeducationhasthepotentialtopreventandreduceconflictinmulticulturalsocieties.

The UNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeopleshassimilarprovisions:Article 151.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttothedignityanddiversityoftheircultures,traditions,historiesandaspirationswhichshallbeappropriatelyreflectedineducationandpublicinformation.2. Statesshalltakeeffectivemeasures,inconsultationandcooperationwiththeindigenouspeoplesconcerned,tocombatprejudiceandeliminatediscriminationandtopromotetolerance,understandingandgoodrelationsamongindigenouspeoplesandallother segmentsof society.

10.4. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: THE RIGHT TO EDUCATION

Cameroon:non-formaleducationA study on non-formal education in the Baka communityinthetownofMbang,Cameroonrevealedtheimportanceofmodulatingandadaptingteachingsystemstotheuniquenessofindigenous communities. The study also showed that,inadditiontoincreasingtheaccessofBakachildrentotheeducationsystem,adaptedlearninghas also contributed to safeguarding ancient culturalpracticesoftheindigenouscommunity,increasingindigenouspeoples’involvementintheadministrationandchoiceofeducationprogrammes,reinforcing bilingualism and reducing discriminatory practices.

AstheBakacommunityofCameroonexperiencesdiscriminationinaccesstoeducation,andconsideringtheirnomadicfisher-gathererlifestyle,aninitiativewasimplemented–calledORA(Observe,Reflect,Act).ORAisdevelopedinthespiritofconsultationandparticipationofthecommunity

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concerned,alsotakingintoconsiderationthesocial and ecological environment of learners and thusdefininganinnovativeapproachwheretheindigenouspeoplesarethekeyactors.

TheseteachingmethodsadaptedtotherealityofindigenouspeoplesinCameroonaretheresultoftheGovernment’s1995initiativetoimplementaconceptualframeworkforbasicnon-formaleducation.

Thenon-formaleducationexperienceconductedinthetownofMbang(south-easternCameroon)clearly demonstrates that taking into consideration culturalspecificities,inparticularindigenouslanguages,bolsterscommunitycohesion,breaksdowndiscriminatoryprejudicesandstrengthensinter-ethnicdialogue.Theleadingroleofparents,especiallywomen,intheeducationofchildrenandtransmissionofancestralvaluesmustbehighlighted,given that women are the holders of know-how andknowledgethatisboundtodisappearifnottransmitted to future generations.

Thestudyemphasisestheinteractionbetweentheenvironmentandeducationalcontent:based

ontheknowledgeoftheforest,whichisthestudents’naturalenvironment,non-formaleducationovercomes the challenge of teaching indigenous childrenintheBakacommunity,whilereinforcingtheirpersonalityandaspirations.

EstablishinganappropriatelegislativeframeworkinspiredbytheprovisionsofILOConventionNo.169 and the United Nations Declaration on the RightsofIndigenousPeoples,mightturnouttobeasound means for consolidating the results of these pioneeringexperiences.Venant Messe: Best practices of the implementation of ILO Convention No. 169 in education matters. Case of the education of Baka children in the rural town of Mbang (Cameroon), ILO 2008.

Greenland:Language,educationandself-governmentThe Kalaallisut language is the Greenlandic dialect of the Inuit language. For many years it hadtocompetewithDanish,thelanguageofthecolonizers,andlikemanyotherindigenouslanguages,itwasanendangeredlanguage.


Today,Kalaallisutisalivinglanguageanditisspokenby80percentofthe56,700peoplelivinginGreenland.ItisusedinParliament,inmedia,schools and higher education and it thrives side by side with Danish in a modern bilingual society. The processtowardspreservationoftheInuitcultureandlanguageisintimatelylinkedtothedevelopmentofself-government in Greenland.

Traditionally,educationtookplacewithinthefamily.Themotherwasthemostimportantteacher;shewastheonebringingupnewgenerationsinasustainable hunting society. School education was introducedwithcolonialism.OneofthepurposesofDanishcolonizationwastoChristianisetheInuit,and the missionaries were greatly concerned that thepopulationbeabletoreadtheBible.PublicschoolswereintroducedinGreenlandin1905,and the Church and School Act became the frameworkunderwhichthewholepopulationinGreenland,includingtheremotevillages,wastobe given basic education. The curricula included religion,Greenlandic,andmathematics,andtrainedcatechists were in charge of teaching. Besides teaching,thesecatechistsalsoperformedchurchduties.

In1925,theActonAdministrationintroducedcompulsoryeducationforchildrenaged7to14andopenedupforteachingDanishlanguage,culture

andhistory.Danishwasthelanguageofinstruction,andeducationbecamemoreandmoreinfluencedby Danish norms and traditions.

DuringWorldWarII,GreenlandwascompletelycutofffromDenmarkandtherebygainedexperienceinmanagingitsownaffairs.Afterthewar,Greenlandersbegantodemandmoreinfluenceandequalityofstatus.

In1953,theDanishParliamentamendedtheConstitution,makingGreenlandpartoftheDanishRealm,andgivingtheGreenlandersthesamelegal status as Danish citizens. Two seats in the Danish Parliament were reserved for Greenlandic representatives–asisstillthecasetoday.AreferendumheldinDenmark,butnotinGreenland,laterapprovedtheconstitutionalamendment,whichmarkedthefirststeptowardsagradualdecolonization of Greenland. Greenland’s new statusalsoresultedinimportantinvestmentswithinthesectorsofeducation,healthandinfrastructure.InorderfortheGreenlanderstobenefitfromtheseinvestments,anewpolicypromotingtheconcentrationofthepopulationinthecitieswaslaunched.Allofthisresultedinmajor,butnotalwayswelcomed,changesinthelifeoftheInuit.

AlthoughtheDanishdevelopmentpolicyimplementedfrom1953tothelate1970swas

139x. EDUCATION

beneficialinsomeaspects,thispolicyhaditsshortcomings.Forinstance,from1951-1960,thenumberofpupilsinthepublicschoolsincreasedby70%anddoubledbetween1960and1967,yetnotenoughGreenlandicteachershadbeentrained,andDanish teachers were brought in from Denmark. The highpercentageofDanishteachers,whotendedtoleaveagainafteracoupleofyears,createdproblemswiththecontinuityineducation.

In1979,GreenlandHomeRulewasestablished,which gave Greenland a semiautonomous governmentunderInuitleadership.TheHomeRule law transformed the language and education policies.ThelawestablishedGreenlandicasthemain language although Danish had to be thoroughly taught. Both languages were to be used in the administration.

The new school law from 1980 had as its key objective“tostrengthenthepositionoftheGreenlandiclanguage”,bymakingitthelanguageofinstruction,whileDanishwouldbetaughtfromGrade4asafirstforeignlanguage.Thecontentsof the school subjects were adjusted to a greater extenttotheneedsofGreenlandicsociety.Yet,these objectives were conditioned by the availability ofGreenlandicteachersandteachingmaterials;oftenDanishteacherswouldbeteaching,attheexpenseofinstructioninGreenlandic.Throughout

the 1980s efforts were therefore made to increase thenumberofGreenlandicteachersandimprovingthe quality of training.

Thegradualimprovementininstructioninthepublicschools resulted in the need for the introduction of highschool/collegetraininginGreenland.Atwo-year“AdultEducation”courseinDanish,butwithsubstantialaccommodationsofGreenlandicculture,wasintroduced.Later,additionalhighschool/college training courses were established on the west coast.

In1997,schooladministrationwasdecentralized.Whiletheresponsibilityfortheoveralllegislativeframeworkremainedwiththecentralauthority,themunicipalcouncilswerenowgiventheresponsibilitytodefinetheadministrativeandpedagogicgoalsfortheirschools,inaccordancewiththelocalsituation.

Asof2007,therewere24urbanschoolsand62villageschoolswithatotalof10,688.Thereare909teachers,includingprincipalsaswellasteacherstrainedaskindergartenteachersbutupgradedtoworkinpublicschools.74%oftheteachersand81%ofthe73principalsareGreenlandicspeakers.

Greenland has three high schools with a total of 850 students and 85 teachers. Most of the students are bilingual,withGreenlandicastheirmothertongue.


Inthehighschools,teachingisdoneinDanishfollowingtheDanishcurriculum;onlyafewclasseswithtypicalGreenlandicsubjectslike“Huntingandfishing”arebeingtaughtin Kalaallisut. The rationale isthatthiswillpreparethestudents,sotheyareableto continue in the Danish higher education system.

Greenland’slanguageandeducationpoliciescomplywiththeprovisionsofConventionNo.169oneducationandcommunicationasstipulatedinArticles26-29,31and32.Someofthemainelementsandresultsare:

Greenlandic children have equal access to •education;Greenlandersthemselvesdevelopand•implementtheireducationprogrammes;Children are taught to read and write in their •ownlanguageaswellasDanish;Children receive the general knowledge and •skillstoparticipatefullyandequallyintheirlocalandnationalcommunity;Thetextbooksusedprovide“fairinformation”•and largely take into account the history of Greenland“thelocalknowledgeandskills,andtheindigenousvaluesystem”;Kalaallisutisbeingpreservedanddeveloped.•

Thishasbeenachievedthroughaprocessthathasbeenfacilitatedbyanumberoffactors:

ThelimitedimpactofDanishcultureduring•almost 300 years of colonisation due to the geographicaldistanceandtheclimate,whichlimited the number of Danish settlers. The early acknowledgement by Danish •colonizersoftheimportanceofdocumentingandsystematisingthelanguagebydevelopingaGreenlandicscript,establishingschoolsandteachers training college.Theimplementationofapolicythatearly•on involved the Kalaallit in decision-making processesatthelocallevelthroughthedistrict councils.The fundamental differences between •GreenlandandDenmarkintermsoflanguage,mentality,livelihoodandculturethatpreventedany form of assimilation.The strong attachment to Kalaallisut as a vital •partoftheGreenlandicidentity.TheprominentplaceKalaallisuthashadfrom•the very start in the education system and

laterinthemedia(printedmediaandradio)and other means of communication.Thefactthatprimaryeducationwasmade•compulsoryandfreeatanearlystage.

Henriette Rasmussen: Oqaatsip Kimia: The Power of the Word, ILO, 2008.

Peru:TeachertrainingThe Programme for Training of Bilingual Teachers in thePeruvianAmazon(FORMABIAP)wasestablishedin1988,withtheobjectiveofrespondingtothereal educational needs of the indigenous girls and boysfromtheAmazonRegion;toeducatenewgenerations to exercise their individual and collective rights;andtodefendandsustainablymanagetheirterritoriesinaccordancewiththeprinciplesofautonomy and self-determination. The Programme is jointly managed by the indigenous organization theInterethnicAssociationfortheDevelopmentofthePeruvianForest(AIDESEP)andtheMinistryofEducation.

TheMissionofFORMABIAPisto:Buildthecapacityofsocialactorstodesign,•implementandleadinnovativeproposal,inaccordancewiththeneedsandaspirationsoftheindigenouspeoples;Promotetheexchangeofindigenouspeoples’•knowledge,practicesandvalueswiththose of other cultures from an intercultural perspective,forthesustainabledevelopmentof the Amazon Region.

Thetrainingoftheindigenousprimaryschoolteacherstakesfiveyears,combiningcyclesofformal schooling at the Teacher Training Centre with training cycles undertaken in the communities of origin of the indigenous students. During the cycles attheTrainingCentre,thestudentsappropriatethe theoretical and methodological instruments they need for their future functions as bilingual and interculturalpedagogues.Duringthetrainingcyclesundertakeninthecommunities,theyre-appropriateanddeepentheirknowledgeconcerningtheirownsocietythroughresearchandparticipatoryaction,while integrating themselves in the educational life of thecommunity,undertakingpedagogicalpractice,which increases during their years of study.

Thecyclesofformalschoolingaimat:

141x. EDUCATION

Developingattitudesandcapacitiesinthe•future teacher that will allow him or her to designeducationproposalsinaccordancewiththesocial,ecological,culturalandlinguisticrealityofhisorherpeople,whileintegrating contributions of modern curricula inareflexiveandcriticalway.The cycles of training undertaken in the •communitiesaimat:Facilitating the students to regain the •indigenousknowledgeandpracticestheydidnothaveaccesstoduringtheirpreviousyearsof schooling.Collecting the necessary elements for •systematizing the indigenous knowledge.Validatingtheproposedprimaryschool•curriculumandtheeducationalmaterials,elaboratedthroughthepedagogicalpractice.Maintaininganddevelopingpermanentlinks•withtheirpeopletoensurethatthefutureprofessionalteacheriscommittedtoworkwithinandforhisorherpeople.

Throughthismodality,189indigenousteachersfromthefollowing15Amazonianpeopleshavefinalizedtheirstudies:Achuar,Awajun,Ashaninka,Nomatsiguenga,Bóóraá,Kandozi,Shawi,Kukama-Kukamiria,Wampis,Uitoto,Shipibo,Chapara,

Shiwilu,TikunayKichwa.

Since2005,FORMABIAPhasalsodevelopedaprogrammetotrainpre-schoolteachers.Thestudentsaremothersfromthecommunities,whoare trained through a strategy whereby training sessions are undertaken in one of the communities ofagivenpeople,combinedwithcyclesofpractice,undertaken in the students’ own communities. Theprogrammeaimsattrainingteacherswhoarerootedintheircultureandlanguagetorecuperateandapplytheirknowledgeofculturaleducationandgenderperspectivesintheirworkwiththemothersandchildrenundertheageoffive.Theunderlying understanding is that education at this level is basically undertaken within the family and the community in a non-formalised way.http://www.formabiap.org

Algeria:ThepositiveeffectsofintroducingtheAmazighelanguageintotheeducationsystemAfter a school boycott in the indigenous region of Kabyliein1995,AlgeriaenactedalawestablishingAmazighe language teaching in the elementary schoolsystem.Asaresult,Tamazightisnowtaughtto indigenous students at various levels in Berber-speakingregions,despiterecurrentshortcomings.Thismeasure,althoughpartial,hashadsome


positiveeffects,suchasstimulatingthecreativityof indigenous children who are discovering their languageandbecomingawareofitsscientificaspect,andtheeditorialproliferationthatAlgeriaisexperiencing,notablyinliteraryandartisticproduction,which,initself,isthebestwaytopreserveaculturewithamostlyoraltradition.

Anotherpositiveeffectofthisdecisionisthatadozen jobs are created in the education sector eachyear,inordertoprovideincreasinglygreatercoverage of language teaching at all levels. This hassparkedrenewedinterestintheAmazighecultureandcivilisation,notablyattheuniversitylevel.Amazighelanguageandculturedepartments,whichopenedjustafewyearsearlier,nowhavehundredsof students enrolling annually.Case prepared by: Belkacem Boukherouf.

Norway:SamirighttoeducationThe 1999 Education Act in Norway has strengthened Sami children’s right to study and be taughtintheSamilanguage.TheActstipulatesthatallpupilsinprimaryandlowersecondaryschoolinareasdefinedasSamidistrictsareentitledtostudyand be taught in the Sami language. Outside the Samidistricts,anygroupoftenpupils,regardlessoftheirbackground,whosodemand,havetheright to study and be taught in the Sami language. Theyretainthisrightforaslongasatleastsixpupilsremaininthegroup.PursuanttotheEducationAct,Samipupilsinuppersecondaryschoolshavetheright to study the Sami language.

AspecialstategrantisprovidedtodaycarecentresthathaveadoptedstatutesorientedtowardsSamilanguage and culture. The intention of the grant is to covertheadditionalexpensesincurredinprovidingSamidaycareplaces,therebyensuringthatSamichildrenatdaycarecentreshavethepossibilityofdevelopingandstrengtheningtheirSamilanguageskillsandtheirculture.ThespecialgrantforSamidaycare centres was transferred to the Sami Parliamenton1January2001.TheGovernmentsaid that this is in line with the efforts to strengthen the Sami right to self-determination.9)

Asfarasthecontentofeducationisconcerned,inareasdefinedasSamidistrictsandaccording

9) CRC/C/129/Add.1 6 October 2004, paragraph 589.

tospecificcriteriaelsewhereinNorway,teachingisgiveninaccordancewiththespecialSamicurriculum.ForSamipupils,thisteachingisintendedtobuildasenseofsecurityinrelationtothepupils’owncultureandtodevelopSamilanguageandidentity,aswellasequippingSamipupilstotakeanactivepartinthecommunityandenablingthemtoacquireeducationatalllevels.Statesupportisprovidedforthedevelopmentoftextbookswritteninthe Sami language. The Sami University College has aspecialresponsibilityfortrainingSamiteachers.However,severalchallengesremainontheimplementationoftheSamicurriculuminSamischools in Norway.10) New research suggests that theschoolcultureneedstochange,inordertoensurethatschoolsarebetterequippedtoaddressthespecificneedsofSamichildren.John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.

Argentina:Trainingandawareness-raisingcampaignoftheindigenouspeoplesofNeuquénArgentinaisafederalrepublic,wherepowersaresharedbetweenthecentralandprovincialgovernments,andtheprovincesretainadegreeofself-government.Eachprovinceenactsitsownconstitutioninaccordancewiththeprinciples,declarations and guarantees of the National Constitution.In2000,ArgentinaratifiedConventionNo.169.Subsequently,theindigenousMapucheinNeuquénProvinceadvocatedforreformoftheConstitutionoftheProvincialStateofNeuquén,asthepreviousConstitutiondisregardedtheirindividual and collective rights. The goal was a new Constitution that would allow them to enjoy the rights enshrined in Convention No. 169 and the National Constitution.

The amendment of the Provincial Constitution was achieved through numerous coordinated actions. Forinstance,Mapucheleadershadastrongpresenceinthenegotiationsandinteractedinaconstructive way with the Constitutional Reform Commissionandgainedsupportfromwell-knownindividuals,whohelpedtolobbyandgainbroadersupport.Onesignificantelementinthisregardwasthetrainingandcapacity-buildingof

10) http://www.eurolang.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3081&Itemid=1&lang=sv.

143x. EDUCATION

Mapucheleadersonindigenouspeoples’rights,focusing on Convention No. 169. The leaders used effective information-sharing mechanisms to further disseminate the contents of the training to the communities. Based on the newly acquired knowledge,thegeneralMapuchepopulationvoicedtheirdemandsstrongly,forexamplebydistributingpamphletsandpressreleases,andorganisingletter-writingcampaignsanddemonstrations.

In2006,theConstitutionofNeuquénwasamended.ThenewConstitutionrecognizesthepre-existenceoftheindigenouspeoplesandtheirculturalandethnicdistinctiveness.Itprovidesforindigenouspeoples’collectiverightstotheirancestrallands,thedistributionofsuitableadditionalland,anditguaranteestheirparticipationinissuesrelatedtotheirnatural.Also,theConstitutionrecognizesthe cultural diversity and linguistic richness and providesbilingualandmulticulturaleducation.Theserights had already been recognized in the National Constitution,buttheArgentineaneducationsystemisdecentralisedanduntil2006,theProvinceofNeuquénhadfailedtoincorporatethisrightintoitsConstitution.

Thiscaseprovesthattheexistenceoffavourablenationallegislation,coupledwiththeappropriatetrainingofindigenouspeoplesatalllevelsregardingtheirrights,canincreasetheeffectiveimplementationofinternationallegalinstrumentssuch as Convention No.169. Some of the remaining challengesforeffectiveimplementationofbilingualandinterculturaleducationinNeuquénare:

Ensuringtheeffectiveparticipationof•indigenouspeoplesindesigningandimplementingthisneweducationalsystem.Incorporatingthetraditionalindigenous•methodsofteachingandlearning,whichincludethefamilyandthecommunity,whilecreatingtheappropriatebalancewiththegeneral Argentinean culture. Conceptualisingabilingualandintercultural•educationsystem,whosefocusistoenrichnotonlytheindigenouscommunity,butthepopulationasawhole.

Constitution of Argentina: http://www.argentina.gov.ar/argentina/portal/documentos/constitucion_ingles.pdf;Constitution of Neuquén Province: http://www.jusneuquen.gov.ar/share/legislacion/leyes/constituciones/constitucion_nqn/cnqn_aindice.htm;Centro de Políticas Publicas para el Socialismo (CEPPAS) and Grupo de Apoyo Jurídico por el Acceso a la Tierra (GAJAT): Del derecho consagrado a la práctica cotidiana: La contribución del Convenio 169 de la OIT en el fortalecimiento de las comunidades Mapuche de la Patagonia, ILO, 2008.

xI. health and socIal securIty

145xI . HEALTH AND SOCIAL SECURITy

11.1 EqUALITy AND ADEqUACy Of SERVICES

HealthisdefinedbytheWorldHealthOrganizationas “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”1)Thisdefinitionreflectsaholisticunderstandingofhealththatcorrespondstomanyindigenouspeoples’traditionalconceptsofhealth,whichincludephysical,mental,emotionalandspiritualaspectsaswellasrelationsbetweenindividuals,communities,theenvironmentandthesociety at large.

Inthissense,themajordeterminantsofhealthareoutsidethedirectinfluenceofthehealthsectorandincludefactorssuchasaccesstoland,environmentalprotectionandculturalintegrity.Consequently,displacementfromancestrallands,ill-planneddevelopmentandresettlementpolicies,repressionoftraditionalinstitutions,customsandbeliefs and the related drastic changes in life styles are some of the factors that affect indigenous peoples’health.Manyindigenouscommunitiesare,forexample,disproportionatelyaffectedbyviolence,suicides and substance abuse.

1) Constitution of the World Health Organisation; www.searo.who.int/LinkFiles/About_SEARO_const.pdf

Negativeeffectsofcolonisation.Manyindigenouspeopleshavesufferedseverenegativeimpactontheirhealthandgeneraldemographicsituation.Forexample,whentheOngepeopleofLittleAndamanIsland,whowerehunters,gatherersandfishers,wereresettledin1976bytheGovernmentofIndia,therewasadrasticdeclineintheirpopulation.Infantmortality rates doubled in the seven years between 1978 and 1985 and many women became sterile. One determining factor was malnutrition due to the shrinking of living spaceandthecorrespondingdecreaseinthe availability of food sources.2) The 1991 censusofIndiaputthenumbersoftheOngepeopleat99,adecreasefromthe672peopleregistered in 1885.3)

Statistical data on the health status of indigenous peoples,particularlyinAfricaandAsia,isscarce.However,accordingtotheWHO,thehealthstatusofindigenouspeoplesinbothpoorandindustrialized2) Venkatesan, D. 1990. Ecocide or Genocide? The Onge in the Andaman Islands. Cultural Survival Quarterly 14(4),

3) Rao,V.G., Sugunan,A.P., Murhekar , M.V. and Sehgal, S.C.; 2006; Malnutrition and high childhood mortality among the Onge tribe of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Public Health Nutrition: 9(1).


countries is invariably lower than that of the overall population,4) and available data shows wide disparitiesbetweenthehealthstatusofindigenouspeoplesandthatofotherpopulationgroups.

Traditionalhealthsystemshavedevelopedovergenerationstomeettheparticularneedsofindigenouspeopleswithintheirlocalenvironment.Inallregionsoftheworld,traditionalhealingsystemsandbiomedicalcareco-exist,andtheWHOestimatesthatatleast80%ofthepopulationindevelopingcountriesreliesontraditionalhealingsystemsastheirprimarysourceofcare.5)

Similarly,mostindigenouscommunitieshavetraditionalsystemsforprovidingsocialsecuritytoitsmembers,includingmechanismsfordistributingwealth,sharingfoodresourcesandprovidinglabour and assistance in case of misfortune. Very littleinformationexistsabouttheimportanceofsuchsystems,butitmustbeassumedthattheyplayamajorrole,forexample,withregardstothedistribution of remittances from indigenous workers who have migrated outside their communities.Allovertheworld,traditionalhealingandsocialsecurity systems have been gradually undermined bylackofrecognition,environmentaldisintegration4) http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs326/en/index.html.

5) The Health of Indigenous Peoples - WHO/SDE/HSD/99.1

andsocialdisruption.Also,traditionalhealingandsocialsecuritysystemsmayhavedifficultiesinrespondingtonewchallengesrelatedtochangesin,forexample,livelihoodsystems,introductionofnewdiseases,socialvaluesandrolesrelatedtogenderand age.Inparallel,indigenouspeoplesareoftenmarginalisedintermsofaccesstopublichealthandsocialsecurityservices,andinmanycasestheservicesprovidedarenotadequateoracceptableforindigenouscommunities.Forexample,publichealthworkers may have discriminatory attitudes towards indigenousculturesandpracticesandareoftenreluctanttobestationedinremoteareas;theremaybelinguisticbarriers;theinfrastructureisoftenpoorandservicesexpensive.

Right to basic health care is a fundamental right to lifeandStateshaveanobligationtoprovideproperhealth services to all citizens. Convention No. 169 stipulatesinArticles24and25thatindigenouspeoplesmusthaveequalaccesstosocialsecurityschemesandhealthservices,whiletheseshouldtakeintoaccounttheirspecificconditionsandtraditionalpractices.Wherepossible,governmentsshouldprovideresourcesforsuchservicestobedesignedandcontrolledbyindigenouspeoplesthemselves.

StatusofScheduledTribescomparedtotherestofthenationalpopulationinKeyHealthIndicators(1998-99),India1)

1) NFHS, 1998-99, quoted in Planning Commission, 2005, Table 2.11

HEALTH INDICTOR SCHEDULED TRIBES ALL % DIffERENCE

Infant MortalityNeo-natal mortalityChild MortalityUnder-5 mortalityANCcheck-up%Institutionaldeliveries%Womenwithanemia%Childrenundernourished(WeightforAge)Full immunisation

84.253.346.3

126.656.517.164.955.926.4

67.643.429.394.965.433.651.847.042.0

24.522.858.033.413.649.125.218.737.1


ILOConventionNo.169:Article 24Social security schemes shall be extended progressivelytocoverthepeoplesconcerned,andappliedwithoutdiscriminationagainstthem. Article 251. Governments shall ensure that adequate health services are made available to the peoplesconcerned,orshallprovidethemwithresources to allow them to design and deliver suchservicesundertheirownresponsibilityandcontrol,sothattheymayenjoythehighestattainablestandardofphysicalandmental health. 2.Healthservicesshall,totheextentpossible,becommunity-based.Theseservicesshallbeplannedandadministeredincooperationwiththepeoplesconcernedandtakeintoaccounttheireconomic,geographic,social and cultural conditions as well as their traditionalpreventivecare,healingpracticesand medicines. 3. The health care system shall give preferencetothetrainingandemploymentoflocalcommunityhealthworkers,andfocusonprimaryhealthcarewhilemaintainingstrong

links with other levels of health care services. 4.Theprovisionofsuchhealthservicesshallbeco-ordinatedwithothersocial,economicand cultural measures in the country.

TheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeopleshassimilarprovisions:Article 21(1)Indigenouspeopleshavetheright,withoutdiscrimination,totheimprovementoftheireconomicandsocialconditions,including,interalia,intheareasofeducation,employment,vocationaltrainingandretraining,housing,sanitation,healthandsocial security.Article 23Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodetermineanddevelopprioritiesandstrategies for exercising their right to development.Inparticular,indigenouspeopleshavetherighttobeactivelyinvolvedindevelopinganddetermininghealth,housingandothereconomicandsocialprogrammesaffectingthemand,asfaraspossible,toadministersuchprogrammesthroughtheirown institutions.


Someoftheoperationalimplicationsofindigenouspeoples’rightstosocialsecurityandhealthcareare:

Developmentofmechanismsforparticipation•atdecision-makinglevels(healthandsocialsecuritypolicies,programmes);Allocationofspecificresourcesinorder•toovercomethewidedisparitiesbetweenindigenouspeoplesandotherpopulationgroups;Focusoncapacitybuilding;trainingof•indigenous health workers and strengthening of indigenous institutions to ensure local ownershipofhealthinstitutionsandculturallyappropriateapproachestohealthandsocialsecurityservices;Recognitionofindigenouspeoples’intellectual•propertyrightstotraditionalknowledgeandtraditionalmedicines;Regular and systematic gathering of •disaggregated quality information to monitor thesituationofindigenouspeoplesandtheimpactofpoliciesandprogrammes;Formulation of a research agenda identifying •priorities,e.g.traditionalhealingpracticesandsystems,mentalhealth,substanceabuse,linksbetweenlandlossandpoorhealth,thehealthimpactofmacropolicies;Developmentofspecificapproachesto•address indigenous women and children as they are in many cases seriously affected by bad health conditions.6)

The UNWorldConferenceAgainstRacism,RacialDiscrimination,XenophobiaandRelatedIntolerance,2001 in its Programme of Actions has urged Statestoadoptaction-orientedpoliciesandplans,includingaffirmativeaction,toensureequality,particularlyinrelationtoaccesstosocialservicessuchashousing,primaryeducation and health care.7)

6) Tool Kit: Best Practices for Including indigenous peoples in sector programme support, Danida, 2004.

7) Report of the World Conference Against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, Durban, 2001.

11.2. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: HEALTH AND SOCIAL SECURITy

Nicaragaua:DecentralisationofthehealthsystemThe Health Act states that the Ministry of Health (MINSA)isthegoverningbodyforthehealthsectorinNicaragua;however,incompliancewiththe guidelines of the 2008-2015 National Human DevelopmentPlan,MINSAismovingforwardwiththedecentralisationprocess.Aspartoftheprocess,inNovember2008,MINSAsignedaFrameworkAgreement on Coordination of the Regionalisation of Health Care in the Autonomous Regions of the Nicaraguan Caribbean coast. This agreement providesfortheinstitutionalimplementationoftheregionalisationofhealthcare,delegatingtothe Regional Councils and Regional Autonomous Governments of the RAAN and RAAS the jurisdiction andresponsibilityfortheautonomousorganisation,direction,managementanddeliveryofservices,aswellasmanagementofthesector’shuman,physicalandfinancialresources.Theessenceofthisagreementisthattheintegration,developmentand strengthening of traditional and natural medicine willbedirectedregionally,soastopromotecomplementarityandintegrationofservicesandroles between the agents of natural and traditional medicineandWesternmedicine.Case prepared by Myrna Cunningham.

Tanzania:Restockingthroughtraditionalsocialsecuritysystem.TheDanish-supportedERETOprojectinTanzaniaaddressesindigenousMaasaipastoralistsintheNgorongoroConservationArea(NCA).Itaimstoimproveaccesstowaterforpeopleandlivestock,provideveterinaryservicesandrestockpoorpastoralhouseholds.ERETObuildsdirectlyontheMaasaiconceptandmeasurementofpovertyandon a clan-based mechanism for social security andredistributionofwealth,whichisusedasthekeyimplementationmechanismforrestocking.Asheadsofhouseholds,womenplayakeyroleintherestocking,whichhassofarbenefited3,400households.Ithasreversedthetrendofmarginalisation and restored these households to pastoralism,whichtothemismorethanjustaneconomicsystembutisaheritage,spiritualityandadeterminant of identity.


Danida: Tool Kit: Best Practices for Including Indigenous Peoples in Sector Programme Support, 2004.

Nepal:CreationofsocialsecurityandaffirmativeactionprogrammesThereisbroadpoliticalagreementthattheexistinginequalitybetweenindigenouspeoplesanddominantcommunitiesinNepalneedstobeaddressed.IndigenouspeoplesinNepalingeneralhavelowerwealth,educationalachievement,healthandpoliticalinfluencethanthenationalaverage.However,thereisalsosignificantdiversityamongtheindigenousgroupsinNepal.Somegroups,suchastheThakaliandtheNewar,areactuallyabovethenationalaverageinmoststatistics,whileothers,suchastheChepangortheRauteareseverelymarginalized. To deal with the large diversity and targetsupporttothosegroupsthatneeditmost,theindigenouspeoples’umbrellaorganization,NepalFederationofIndigenousNationalities(NEFFIN),independentlystarteddividingindigenouspeoplesintofivecategories,rangingfromadvantagedtoendangered. Government and donors have since adoptedthiscategorizationalso.TheMinistryofLocalDevelopment,forexample,startedprovidingcash transfers to individuals from the highly marginalizedandendangeredindigenousgroupsin2008.

Some indigenous organizations are calling for generalizedethnic-basedaffirmativeactiontobenefitallindigenouspeople.Thisiscomplicatedsomewhatby the very substantial socio-economic differences amongthegroups.Whilethefivecategoriesareusefulindifferentiatingtheindigenouspeoples,thesystem is based on neither objective criteria nor recurrentdatacollection.Therefore,somevoicesarenowcallingforamoredynamicsystem,inwhichaffirmativeactionwouldbebasedonaregularlyreviewedsetofsocio-economiccriteria.Thus,disadvantagedindigenousgroupswouldqualifybasedontheirlevelofdisadvantage,ratherthanonthebasisoftheirstatusasindigenouspeople.However,thesediscussionsareongoingintheconstitution-makingprocess,andnocomprehensivepolicyhasyetbeendevised.Programme to Promote ILO Convention No. 169, project reports Nepal, 2008-9;Bennett, Lynn and Parajuli, Dilip (2007). Nepal

Inclusion Index:Methodology, First Round Findings and Implications for Action. Draftpaper.

UnitedStates:SuicidepreventionprogramsSuicideaccountsfornearlyoneinfivedeathsamongNativeAmericanandAlaskanNativeyouths(15-19yearolds);aconsiderablyhigherproportionofdeathsthanforanyotherethnicgroupswithintheUnitedStates.Infact,differencesinsuicideratesbetween Native American and Alaskan Native youths and other ethnic youths have been noted for over three decades.

Suicidepreventionprogrammesthatareculturallyappropriateandincorporateculturallyspecificknowledge and traditions have been shown to be the most successful and well received by Native American and Alaskan Native indigenous communities.Suchpreventionprogrammesarelargelysuccessfulbecausetheyincorporatepositivemessages regarding cultural heritage that increase the self-esteem and sense of mastery among Native AmericanandAlaskanNativeyouths,andfocusonprotectivefactorsinaculturallyappropriatecontext.Theyalsoteachculturallyrelevantcopingmethodssuchastraditionalwaysofseekingsocialsupport.http://indigenousissuestoday.blogspot.com/2008/02/suicide-native-american-and-alaskan.html.

Brazil:EnaweneNaweThe Enawene Nawe are a small Amazonian indigenouspeoplewholiveintheforestsofMatoGrosso,Brazil.Theywerefirstcontactedin1974,when they numbered only 97 individuals. Today their populationisaround500.The Enawene Nawe have refused to get closer tothetownsandhospitalsbecauseofthehealthproblemsandsufferingtheyhaveexperiencedwhenthey came in contact with the outsiders. They are also aware that they should not rely on outsiders for healthcare.Therefore,inadditiontotheirherbalists,shamansandmastersingers,communitymembersarereceivingtraininginWesternhealthcareandmedicines.Thenewspecialistsarecalled“Baraitalixi”or“littleherbalists”.Thetrainingisconducted in the longhouses in their language andinthepresenceofeveryone.TheBaraitalixi,


supportedbyprofessionalhealthstaffviaradiocontact,areadvisingandtreatingupto80casesamonth.

AspecialwardhasalsobeensetupfortheindigenouspeopleatthelocalhospitalwithhooksforthehammocksoftheEnaweneNawe,andspaceisprovidedforrelativestostay.Thehospitalstaffisalso given basic training about the Enawene Nawe to ease contact. Case prepared by Choncuirinmayo Luithui.‘Healthcare and the Enawene Nawe’ in: How Imposed Development Destroy the Health of Tribal peoples; Survival International Publication, 2007.

AustraliaTherearesignificantdisparitiesinhealthstatusbetween Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoplesandotherAustralians,encompassingtheirwholelifecycles.Thereisa17-yeargapinlifeexpectancybetweentheindigenouspeoplesandotherAustralians,highermortalityrates,earlieronsetof diseases and more incidences of stress-related problemsaffectingsocialandmentalwellbeing.

InJuly2003,theAustralianHealthMinistersagreed to establish a National Strategic Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health (NSFATSIH) whosekeygoalis:“ToensurethatAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplesenjoyahealthylifeequaltothatofthegeneralpopulationthatisenrichedbyastronglivingculture,dignityandjustice.”Buildingonthisendorsement,inDecember2007,theCouncilofAustralianGovernments(COAG)committed to work with indigenous communities toclosethegaponindigenousdisadvantage,recognizingthatspecialmeasuresareneededtoimproveindigenouspeoples’accesstohealthservices and that the active involvement of these peoplesiscrucialinthedesign,delivery,andcontrolof these services.COAGdeclareditscommitmentto:

closethelifeexpectancygapwithina•generation(by2030)halvethegapinmortalityratesforindigenous•childrenunderfiveby2018halvethegapinliteracyandnumeracy•outcomes by 2018

InadditionCOAGhasalsoagreedto:provideaccesstoearlychildhoodeducation•for all four-year-olds living in remote indigenous communities by 2013halvethegapinYear12orequivalent•attainment rates by 2020 halvethegapinemploymentoutcomesby•2018

Further,theAustralianGovernmentestablishedtheNationalIndigenousHealthEqualityCouncilinJuly2008toadviseonthedevelopmentandmonitoringof health-related goals and targets.

InNewSouthWales,aspecialpolicyhasbeendevelopedtoaddressthehighlevelofneedrelated to mental health and wellbeing in Aboriginal communities and the relatively low levels of utilisation ofspecialistmentalhealthservices.TheAboriginalMentalHealthandWellBeingPolicy2006-2010setsoutstrategiesandactionsto:

Enhancekeyworkingpartnershipssuch•as those between the Area mental health services and Aboriginal Community Controlled HealthServices(ACCHSs);Improvementalhealthleadershipto•ensureappropriateserviceresponsivenessforAboriginalpeople,theirfamiliesandcarersacrossemergencyandacute,earlyinterventionandprevention,andrehabilitationandrecoveryservices;Developspecificmentalhealthprogramsfor•Aboriginalpeopleofallageswhohaveorareatriskofmentalillness.;Increaseexpertiseandknowledgethrougha•rangeofdataandevaluationactivities;Strengthen the Aboriginal mental health •workforce,bothinincreasedpositionsinAreaHealth Services and ACCHSs and in training andskilldevelopment.

Council of Australian Governments’ Meeting, Melbourne 20 December, 2007: http://www.coag.gov.au/coag_meeting_outcomes/2007-12-20/;Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Performance Framework, 2008 Report; http://www.health.gov.au;http://www.health.gov.au/internet/ministers/publishing.nsf/Content/mr-yr08-nr-nr104.htm;New South Wale Aboriginal Mental Health and Well Being Policy 2006-2010: http://www.health.nsw.gov.


au/policies/pd/2007/pdf/PD2007_059.pdf.Case prepared by: Chonchuirinmayo Luithui

IndiaIndigenouspeoplesinIndia(knownasScheduledTribes)fallwaybehindtherestofthenationalpopulationintermsofkeyhealthindicators(seetableinsection11.1).Forexample,therateofchildmortalityamongScheduledTribesis58%higherthanfortherestoftheIndianpopulation.Healthcareisamajorproblemintheremoteandisolatedareaswherethemajorityofindigenouspeopleslive,andlackoffoodsecurity,sanitationandsafedrinkingwater,poornutritionandhighpovertylevelsaggravate the situation.

Most indigenous communities in India continue to bedependentonforestandnaturalresourcesfortheirlivelihoodandsubsistence.However,throughprocessesofmodernizationanddevelopmentandtheaccompanyingdestructionofindigenoushabitats,indigenoussystemsofmedicine,skillsandnatural resources used in traditional remedies are fastdisappearing.

TherearenospecificpoliciestotargethealthcareofindigenouspeoplesinIndiayet,butthehealthsituation of Scheduled Tribes has found mention in the 11thFiveYearPlan(2007-2012)andacomprehensivestrategyhasbeenlaidoutintheDraftNationalTribalPolicy,2006.

Theapproachofthe11thFiveYearPlanisto“attemptaparadigmshiftwithrespecttotheoverallempowermentofthetribalpeople”.ThePlanprovidesforincreasedeffortstomakeavailableaffordableandaccountableprimaryhealthcarefacilities to Scheduled Tribes and to bridge the yawninggapinruralhealthcareservices.Periodicreviews are to be conducted on the delivery system and function of the health care institutions under threebroadheadingstooptimiseserviceinthetribalareas:(i)healthinfrastructure;(ii)manpower;and(iii)facilities,likemedicineandequipment.

TheDraftNationalTribalPolicy(2006)proposesadetailed,targetedstrategy,whichaimstoaddressthespecificproblemsfacedbyindigenouspeoplesin relation to health and medical care. This includes enhancing access to modern healthcare by

developingnewsystemsandinstitutions;asynthesisof Indian systems of medicine like Ayurveda and Siddhawithtribalsystemsandmodernmedicine;decentralizing control of medical staff to village and districtlevel;area-specificmethodsforprovisionofcleandrinkingwater,whichtakeintoaccountthedifferent kinds of terrain in tribal areas.The Policy is still a draft but an encouraging feature (alsoreflectedintheEleventhPlan)istherecognitionoftheneedforstrategies,whichcombineindigenousmedicinewithmainstreamallopathicsystems.8) Movingawayfromapurelyservice-deliveryapproachhasthepotentialtomakehealthcareininteriortribalareasmuchmoreaccessible,whilealsoprovidingscopeforindigenouspeoplestocontributetheir extensive traditional knowledge.Social Justice, Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007-2012, Planning Commission, Government of India; http://tribal.nic.in/finalContent.pdf.

8) It is also significant to note that the National Health Policy, 2002 recognises the need for special measures and separate schemes, tailor-made to the health needs of scheduled tribes, among other vulnerable groups, and emphasises the need to strengthen alternative systems of medicine

xII. tradItIonal occupatIons, labour rIghts and vocatIonal traInIng

153xI I . TRADITIONAL OCCUPATIONS, LABOUR RIGHTS AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

TheILO’sconcernforindigenouspeoplesstartedasearlyas1920,primarilyasaconcernfortheirconditionsasexploitedworkers(seesection14.1).Thisconcernled,amongotherthings,totheadoptionoftheILO’sForcedLabourConvention(No.29)in1930.Continuedresearchduringthe1950sshowedthatindigenouspeopleshadaneedforspecialprotectioninthemanycaseswheretheywerevictimsofseverelabourexploitation,includingdiscrimination,andforcedandchildlabour.Inrecognition of the need to address the situation of indigenouspeoplesinaholisticandcomprehensiveway,ILOConventionNo.107wasadoptedin1957.TheConventionhasaspecialsectiononconditionsofemploymentandwasadoptedwithaviewto“improve the living and working conditions of these populations by simultaneous action in respect of all the factors which have hitherto prevented them from sharing fully in the progress of the national community” (preamble,ILOConventionNo.107).

Due to the continued and crucial relevance of labourrightsforindigenouspeoples,ConventionNo. 169 and the UN Declaration on the Rights of IndigenousPeoplesalsoincludespecialprovisionsonemploymentandlabourrights.

12.1. RESPECT fOR INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ TRADITIONAL OCCUPATIONS

Mostindigenouspeopleshavedevelopedhighlyspecializedlivelihoodstrategiesandoccupations,whichareadaptedtotheconditionsoftheirtraditionalterritoriesandarethushighlydependentonaccesstolands,territoriesandresources.Suchtraditionaloccupationsincludehandicrafts,ruraland community-based industries and activities such ashunting,fishing,trapping,shiftingcultivationorgathering.Insomecases,indigenouspeoplesaresimplyidentifiedbytheirtraditionaloccupations,as,forexample,pastoralists,shiftingcultivatorsandhunter-gatherers.

Inmanycases,lackofrespectforindigenouspeoples’rightsandculturesleadtodiscriminationagainst their traditional livelihoods. This is for

examplethecaseinpartsofSouth-EastAsia,wherepracticesofrotatingagricultureareforbiddenbylawandinpartsofAfrica,wherepastoralists’rightstoland and grazing are not recognized.1)

ConventionNo.169stipulatesthatsuchtraditionaloccupationsshouldberecognisedandstrengthened:

ILOConventionNo.169Article 23 1. Handicrafts,ruralandcommunity-basedindustries,andsubsistenceeconomyandtraditionalactivitiesofthepeoplesconcerned,suchashunting,fishing,trappingandgathering,shallberecognisedasimportantfactors in the maintenance of their cultures and in their economic self-reliance and development.Governmentsshall,withtheparticipationofthesepeopleandwheneverappropriate,ensurethattheseactivitiesarestrengthenedandpromoted.2. Upontherequestofthepeoplesconcerned,appropriatetechnicalandfinancialassistanceshallbeprovidedwhereverpossible,takingintoaccountthetraditionaltechnologies and cultural characteristics of thesepeoples,aswellastheimportanceofsustainableandequitabledevelopment.

12.2. RESPECTING LABOUR RIGHTS

Inmanycases,increasedpressureonindigenouspeoples’landsandresourcesimpliesthattraditional livelihood strategies are no longer viable andinvestmentsandjobopportunitieswithinindigenous territories are often few. Many indigenous workers have to seek alternative incomes and the overwhelming majority of communities have some or even most of their members living outside their traditionalterritories,wheretheyhavetocompeteforjobsandeconomicopportunities.

1) For further information on traditional occupations of indigenous and tribal peoples and the many difficulties and challenges faced by them, see Traditional Occupations of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, ILO, Geneva, 2000.

xII. tradItIonal occupatIons, labour rIghts and vocatIonal traInIng


Even where they continue to live in their traditional territories,indigenouspeoplemaybetakingupneweconomicactivitiesasprimary,secondaryortertiaryoccupations.Forexample,ashiftingcultivatormaytakeupfishingorwagelabourduringthedryseasonafterhisswiddencrophasbeenharvestedandbeforethenextcroppingcyclestarts.2) There is a general lack of reliable data and statistics aboutindigenouspeoples’particularsituationwithrespecttoemployment.However,whereevidenceisavailable,itindicatesthatindigenouspeoplesarebeingdiscriminatedagainstandaredisproportionatelyrepresentedamongthevictimsofforced labour and child labour. Some of the barriers and disadvantages they face in the national and internationallabourmarketsare:

Many indigenous workers are not able •tocompeteonanequalfooting,astheirknowledgeandskillsarenotappropriatelyvalued,andtheyhavelimitedaccesstoformaleducation and vocational training.Indigenous workers are often included in the •labourmarketinaprecariouswaythatdeniestheir fundamental labour rights.Indigenous workers generally earn less •than other workers and the income they receivecomparedtotheyearsofschoolingcompletedislessthantheirnon-indigenouspeers.Thisgapincreaseswithhigherlevelsofeducation.

2) Raja Devasish Roy, “Occupations and Economy in Transition: A Case Study of the Chittagong Hill Tracts”, in Traditional Occupations of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, ILO, Geneva, 2000, pp. 73-122.

Labourexploitationanddiscriminationaffectindigenousmenandwomendifferently,and gender is often an additional cause of discrimination against indigenous women. Manyindigenouswomen:

Have less access to education and training •atalllevels;Aremoreaffectedbyunemploymentand•under-employment;Are more often involved in non-•remuneratedwork;Receivelesspayforequalwork;•Have less access to material goods and •formalrecognitionneededtodeveloptheiroccupationortoobtainaccesstoemployment;Have less access to administrative and •leadershippositions;Experienceworseconditionsofwork,for•examplerelatedtoworkinghoursandoccupationalsafetyandhealth;Areparticularlyvulnerabletosexualabuse•andharassmentandtrafficking,astheyoftenhavetoseekemploymentfarawayfromtheircommunities;Are limited by discriminatory cultural •practices,which,forexampleinhibittheeducationofthegirl-childorpreventwomenfrominheritinglandorparticipatingindecision-makingprocesses.3)

3) Eliminating Discrimination against Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Employment and Occupation – a Guide to ILO Convention No. 111, ILO 2007.


Inordertoovercomethissituation,ILOConventionNo.169containsanumberofprovisions,addressingindigenouspeoples’labourrights.

ILOConventionNo.169,Article 20:1. Governmentsshall,withintheframeworkofnationallawsandregulations,andincooperationwiththepeoplesconcerned,adoptspecialmeasurestoensuretheeffectiveprotectionwithregardtorecruitmentandconditionsofemploymentofworkersbelongingtothesepeoples,totheextentthattheyarenoteffectivelyprotectedbylawsapplicabletoworkersingeneral.2. Governmentsshalldoeverythingpossibletopreventanydiscriminationbetweenworkersbelongingtothepeoplesconcernedandotherworkers,inparticularasregards:(a)admissiontoemployment,includingskilledemployment,aswellasmeasuresforpromotionandadvancement;(b)equalremunerationforworkofequalvalue;(c)medicalandsocialassistance,occupationalsafetyandhealth,allsocialsecuritybenefitsandanyotheroccupationallyrelatedbenefits,andhousing;(d)therightofassociationandfreedomforalllawfultradeunionactivities,andtherightto conclude collective agreements with employersoremployers’organisations.3. The measures taken shall include measures toensure:

(a)thatworkersbelongingtothepeoplesconcerned,includingseasonal,casualandmigrant workers in agricultural and other employment,aswellasthoseemployedbylabourcontractors,enjoytheprotectionaffordedbynationallawandpracticetoothersuchworkersinthesamesectors,andthatthey are fully informed of their rights under labour legislation and of the means of redress availabletothem;(b)thatworkersbelongingtothesepeoplesare not subjected to working conditions hazardoustotheirhealth,inparticularthroughexposuretopesticidesorothertoxicsubstances;(c)thatworkersbelongingtothesepeoplesare not subjected to coercive recruitment systems,includingbondedlabourandotherformsofdebtservitude;(d)thatworkersbelongingtothesepeoplesenjoyequalopportunitiesandequaltreatmentinemploymentformenandwomen,andprotectionfromsexualharassment.4.Particularattentionshallbepaidtotheestablishmentofadequatelabourinspectionservices in areas where workers belonging tothepeoplesconcernedundertakewageemployment,inordertoensurecompliancewiththeprovisionsofthisPartofthisConvention.


TheConventionemphasizestheneedtoadoptspecialmeasuresfortheprotectionofindigenousworkers,wheretheyarenoteffectivelyprotectedbyexisting national labour standards. The objective is topreventdiscriminationandensurethattheyaretreated the same as all other workers.

Inaddition,theConventionspecifiesthefollowingconditions:

Indigenous and tribal workers should not •be discriminated against when looking and applyingforwork,whichincludeseverythingfrommanuallabourtohigherpositions.Men and women should have the same opportunities.Theyshouldnotbepaidlessthananyone•elsedoingtheworkofequalvalue,andthisshouldnotberestrictedtolower-paidkindsofwork.Theyshouldnotworkunderexploitative•conditions.Thisisespeciallyimportantwhenworkingasseasonal,casualormigrantworkers,e.g.onplantationsduringharvesttimes.Men and women should be treated equally •and,inparticular,womenshouldbeprotectedagainst sexual harassment. They have the right to form or join •associationsandtoparticipateintradeunionactivities.They should receive information about •workers’ rights and ways to seek assistance.They should not work under conditions •causingadversehealthimpactswithoutbeingproperlyinformedaboutthenecessaryprecautions.

The UNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeopleshassimilarprovisionsonlabourrights:Article 171.Indigenousindividualsandpeopleshavethe right to enjoy fully all rights established underapplicableinternationalanddomesticlabour law.2. Statesshallinconsultationandcooperationwithindigenouspeoplestakespecificmeasurestoprotectindigenouschildrenfromeconomicexploitationandfromperformingany work that is likely to be hazardous or tointerferewiththechild’seducation,ortobeharmfultothechild’shealthorphysical,mental,spiritual,moralorsocialdevelopment,takingintoaccounttheirspecialvulnerabilityandtheimportanceofeducationfortheirempowerment.3. Indigenous individuals have the right not to be subjected to any discriminatory conditions oflabourand,interalia,employmentorsalary.

IndigenouspeoplesandfundamentallabourstandardsInadditiontoConventionNo.169,indigenousworkersenjoytheprotectionunderthebroaderbodyofinternationallabourstandards.Inparticular,the ILO’s eight fundamental Conventions address theissuesofforcedlabour,discrimination,childlabour,andfreedomofassociation.ThefundamentalConventionsarethefollowing:

EqualRemunerationConvention,1951(No.•100)Discrimination(EmploymentandOccupation)•Convention,1958(No.111)MinimumAgeConvention,1973(No.138)•WorstFormsofChildLabourConvention,•1999(No.182)AbolitionofForcedLabourConvention,1957•(No.105)ForcedLabourConvention,1930(No.29)•AbolitionofForcedLabourConvention,1957•(No.105)Freedom of Association and Protection of the •RighttoOrganizeConvention,1948(No.87)Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining •Convention,1949(No.98)


TheseConventionshavebeenratifiedbyalmostallILOmemberstates.Asreaffirmedbythe1999ILODeclarationonFundamentalPrinciplesandRightsatWork,alsonon-ratifyingstateshaveanobligationtorespect,promoteandrealizetherightsandprinciplessetoutinthefundamentalConventions,includingforindigenouspeoples.

ForcedlabourForcedlabouroccurswhenpeoplearesubjectedtopsychologicalorphysicalcoercioninordertoperformwork,whichtheywouldnototherwisehavefreely chosen. Forced labour includes situations suchasslavery,practicessimilartoslavery,debtbondage,orserfdom.ILOresearchindicatesthatindigenouspeoplesinmanyareasareathighriskofbecomingvictimsofforcedlabour,asaresultoflongstanding discrimination.

InLatinAmerica,todayascenturiesago,themainvictimsofforcedlabourareindigenouspeoples.InSouthAsia,bondedlabourremainsparticularlysevereamongtheDalitsandAdivasis.Womenand girls from the hill tribes of the Mekong region ofSouth-EastAsiaareknowntobeparticularlyvulnerabletotraffickingforsexualexploitation.InCentralAfrica,forcedlabourappearstobeaparticularproblemfortheBaka,Batwaandother

so-called“pygmy”peoples.The ILO’s Forced Labour Convention No. 29 from 1930obligesILOmemberstatestosuppresstheuseofforcedorcompulsorylabourinallitsformswithintheshortestpossibleperiod.In1957,ConventionNo.29wasfollowedupbytheAbolition of Forced Labour Convention No 105. ThisConventionoutlinesspecificpurposesforwhichforcedlabourcanneverbeimposed.Thus,forced labour can never be used for economic developmentorasmeansofpoliticaleducation,discrimination,labourdiscipline,orpunishmentforhavingparticipatedinstrikes.4)

ChildlabourinindigenouscommunitiesThere is a need to distinguish generally between acceptable child work and child labour. Using childrenforslaveryandforcedlabour;subjectingthemtochildtraffickingandforcedrecruitmentforarmedconflicts;usingchildreninprostitutionandpornographyorinillicitactivitieslikedrugstrafficking;orsimplymakingthemdoworkthatharmstheirhealth,safetyormorals,istoexposethemtotheworstformsofchildlabour.Incontrasttothis,mostindigenouschildrenhaveparticularworkingroles

4) For further information see the Global Report under the Follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work 2005 (“A global alliance against forced labour”), ILO 2005.


reflectingelaborateculturalnotionsofchildhooddevelopmentdistinguishedbyage-groups,gender,socialstatusandoftenaccompaniedbyritualssuch as those marking entry into adulthood. Such light work that is not harmful but which contributes tochildren’sdevelopmentandprovidesthemwithskills,attitudesandexperiencethatmakethemusefulandproductivemembersoftheircommunityduring their adult life can in no way be equated with harmful child labour.

Indigenouschildlabourprevailsinruralareas,butis also on the rise in urban settings. Children of female-headedhouseholdsandorphansarethemost vulnerable. Indigenous children work within theformalaswellastheinformalsector,buttendtobemorenumerousinthelatter,wheretheyusuallyworkverylonghoursandareoftenpaidinkindonly.Indigenouschildrenconstituteagrowingpercentageofthemigrantlabourforceworkinginplantationsand other forms of commercial agriculture. In Guatemala,forexample,exploitativechildlabourincludesworkingincommerceagriculture,fireworkmanufacturing and handicrafts.

Child labour affects boys and girls differently. Becauseofthewidespreadgenderdiscrimination,includinginsomeindigenousculturalpractices,girlsin the rural areas are less likely to go to school and many migrate instead to urban areas to work as domesticservants.Thismakesthemless“visible”andmorevulnerabletoexploitation,sexualabuseand violence. Some indigenous children combine school with work but the majority of child labourers have little or no schooling.

Although general efforts to eliminate child labour haveincreased,indigenouschildrenarenotbenefitingasmuchasnon-indigenouschildren. Infact,childlabouramongindigenouspeopleshas until recently received little attention from governments and international institutions as well asfromindigenouspeoplesthemselves.Itlargelyremainsaninvisibleissue,andnocomprehensivedataonthemagnitudeoftheproblemortheconditionsandtypesofworkinwhichindigenouschildrenareengagedexist.However,aseriesofcasesandexamplesdrawnfromalloverthe world indicate that indigenous children are disproportionallyaffectedbyhighratesofchild


labour.Further,recentstudieshaveshownthatindigenouschildrenareatparticularriskforendingupintheworstformsofchildlabour.Combatingchild labour among indigenous children requires specificapproaches,basedonthespecialneedsandrightsofthesepeoples.ILOConventionNo.182ontheWorstFormsofChildLabour,andConventionNo.138onMinimumAge are the ILO´s main instruments to combat child labour.5)

DiscriminationinEmploymentandOccupationThemaininstrumentoftheILOtofightdiscriminationistheConventiononDiscriminationinEmploymentandOccupation,1958(No.111).ConventionNo.111definesdiscriminationas“anydistinction,exclusionorpreferencemadeonthebasisofrace,colour,sex,religion,politicalopinion,nationalextractionorsocialorigin,whichhastheeffectofnullifyingorimpairingequalityofopportunityandtreatmentinemploymentoroccupation.”“Equalityofopportunityandtreatment”includestwoaspects:(1)thenotionofequaltreatmentwhichrequiresthatallpersonsshouldbetreatedonanequalfooting;and(2)thenotionofequalopportunitywhich requires that everyone must be offered comparablemeansandopportunities.Thenotionofequalopportunitysuggeststhateverybodyshouldbe brought to an equal level in ordertoaccessworkopportunities.

Withthefocuson effectratherthanontheprocess, it is irrelevant whether the discrimination was intentionalornot,andConventionNo.111aimsateliminating both direct and indirect discrimination. Directdiscriminationreferstorules,policiesorpracticesthatexcludeordisadvantagecertainindividualsbecausetheybelongtoaparticulargrouporbecausetheyhavecertaincharacteristics.Indirectdiscriminationisoftenhidden,moresubtleandthereforemoredifficulttoidentify.Itoccurswhenapparentlyneutralmeasures(rules,policesorpractices)haveadisproportionatelyadverseimpactononeormoreparticulargroups.Evenwell-intentionedmeasuresmaybediscriminatory in their effect.

5) For more information, see: Guidelines for Combating Child Labour among Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, ILO, 2006.

The Peruvian teacher training centre FORMABIAP (see section 10.4.) has trained bilingual intercultural teachers over a number of years, taking into account the linguistic and cultural specificities of the indigenous peoples of the Amazon Region. However, new national rules for selection of candidates were introduced in order to improve the general educational quality in the country. These rules established admission requirements that were almost impossible to fulfil for the overwhelming majority of indigenous students. Most of these students come from remote areas and have been taught in a language, which they do not master completely. They are taught in institutions with inadequate infrastructure and materials by teachers who have discriminatory attitudes and no specialized training. As a result of the new admission criteria, indigenous students have de facto been excluded from training to become bilingual teachers. In response to this situation, in 2008, FORMABIAP developed a special course for indigenous students, which, as a special measure, aimed at bringing the indigenous students to the same level as the non-indigenous students so the former could compete on an equal footing. Even so, for the third successive year, no indigenous student passed the admission exam in 2009.6)

TheprovisionsofConventionNo.111arehighlyrelevanttoindigenouspeopleswhentheyfacediscriminationbasedontheirrace,religionornational and social origin. Along with Convention No. 169,ConventionNo.111callsforspecialmeasuresoraffirmativeactiontomeettheparticularneedsofindigenouspeoplesandothergroupsthatarebeingdiscriminated.Suchmeasurescan,forexample,bespecialeducationalgrantsorreservedjobsinthepublicsector.7)

6) http://www.formabiap.org.

7) For more information see: Eliminating Discrimination against Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Employment and Occupation – a Guide to ILO Convention No. 111, ILO 2007.


12.3. ACCESS TO VOCATIONAL TRAINING

Withoutequalaccesstotraining,anyrealpossibilityofenteringemploymentoroccupationisillusory,inasmuch as training is one of the keys to the promotionofequalityofopportunities.

ConventionNo.169containsspecificprovisionsonvocationaltraining:Article 21 Membersofthepeoplesconcernedshallenjoyopportunitiesatleastequaltothoseofothercitizensinrespectofvocationaltrainingmeasures. Article 22 1. Measuresshallbetakentopromotethevoluntaryparticipationofmembersofthepeoplesconcernedinvocationaltrainingprogrammesofgeneralapplication.2. Wheneverexistingprogrammesofvocationaltrainingofgeneralapplicationdonotmeetthespecialneedsofthepeoplesconcerned,governmentsshall,withtheparticipationofthesepeoples,ensuretheprovisionofspecialtrainingprogrammesandfacilities. 3. Anyspecialtrainingprogrammesshallbebasedontheeconomicenvironment,socialandculturalconditionsandpracticalneedsofthepeoplesconcerned.Anystudiesmade in this connection shall be carried outincooperationwiththesepeoples,whoshall be consulted on the organisation and operationofsuchprogrammes.Wherefeasible,thesepeoplesshallprogressivelyassumeresponsibilityfortheorganisationandoperationofsuchspecialtrainingprogrammes,iftheysodecide.

The Convention does not only cover vocational trainingofgeneralapplicationbutalsospecialtrainingprogrammesthatarebasedonindigenouspeoples’economicenvironment,socialandculturalconditionsandpracticalneeds,assuchtrainingismorelikelytopromotetheirequalopportunities.Whendevelopingsuchtrainingitisimportanttoconsultwithindigenouspeoples,and,whereappropriate,transfertheresponsibilityforsuchprogrammestothem.

12.4. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: EmPLOymENT AND LABOUR RIGHTS

Nepal:TheKamaiyasThe Kamaiya system was a system of bonded labourthatwaswidelypracticedinthewesternlowlandsofNepaluntilitwasabolishedin2000.Over98%ofthekamaiyas,orbondedlabourers,camefromtheindigenousTharucommunity,andtheeffects of the system still continue to affect them in termsoflackofaccesstoland,labourexploitation,lackofeducationandwidespreadpoverty.

TheTharusareindigenoustothelowlandplainsbeltofNepal,knownastheTarai.TheTaraihasgone through a radical transformation in the last 60 years;frombeingamalaria-infestedandsparsely-populatedjungletobecomingtheagriculturalbread-basket and industrial heartland of the country. Beforethe1950s,theregionwasalmostexclusivelyinhabitedbyindigenouspeoplesofwhomtheTharuwerethelargestsinglegroup.Today,overhalfofNepal’spopulationlivesinthenarrowstripofflatland. The waves of settlement by high-caste hills peoplesdeprivedTharusoftheirancestralland,to which they seldom held legal title. The new settlerswerebettereducatedandoftenhadpoliticalconnections,wherebytheycouldgainaccessandtitletotheland.Infact,largetractsoflandwereownedbyministersandpoliticiansthemselves.WithinaperiodofafewyearsmanyTharufamiliesweredeeplyindebtedtothenewlandownersandreduced to the status of bonded labourers.

Withthecomingofmultipartydemocracyin1990,some NGOs began to challenge the system of bondedlabour,throughacommunitydevelopmentapproach,includingawarenessprogrammes,literacyandincome-generatingprojectsforthekamaiyas. Progress towards an actual abolition ofbondedlabourwasslow,butin2000agroupof kamaiyas launched a sit-down strike in front of localgovernmentofficedemandingfreedomfromdebt-bondage,paymentofminimumwage,andregistration of the land on which they were living. A coalitionofhumanrightsorganisations,NGOsandtradeunionsquicklygatheredaroundthem,andtheactionspreadintoafreedommovementculminatingwith the government issuing the Kamaiya Freedom DeclarationonJuly17th,2000.Over25,000bonded


labourers and their family members were freed from bondageovernight,withthegovernmentdeclaringtheirdebtstolandlordsvoidandthreateningupto10yearsimprisonmentforanyonekeepingbondedlabourers.

WhenthegovernmentissuedtheFreedomDeclaration,italsostipulatedplansforrehabilitation,including land grants for the freed kamaiyas. However,asof2008,abouthalfofthefreedkamaiyasarestilllandless.Furthermore,thelandgrantsprovidedhavegenerallybeenquitesmallin size. Thus the fundamental condition that gave risetobondedlabourinthefirstplace,namelytheTharus’alienationfromancestraldomain,isstillaproblem.Theongoingeconomicvulnerabilityofthegroupmakesthemsusceptibletootherformsoflabourexploitationincludingforcedlabour,childlabourandpaymentbelowtheminimumwage.Peter Lowe. Kamaiya: Slavery and Freedom in Nepal. Kathmandu, MS-Nepal, 2001 ILO Katmandu News report. 8th Kamaiya Liberation Day observed in Nepal with the demand for effective rehabilitation of freed Kamaiyas. http://www.iloktm.org.np/read_more.asp?id=127

LatinAmerica:Childlabourandvocationaltraining.Oftheapproximately40millionindigenouspeople

inLatinAmerica,almosthalfofthem(15-18million)aregirls,boysandadolescents.Generally,itisestimated that indigenous children are twice as likely toworkastheirnon-indigenouspeers.Inordertocombatchildlabouramongindigenouschildren,thedevelopmentofhighqualityvocationaltraining,relevanttotheparticularlinguisticandculturalcontextofindigenouspeoplesmustbeprovided.InCentralAmerica,initiativesaretakentocreateeducationandvocationaltrainingappropriatetotheneedsofindigenouspeoples.InNicaragua,theAutonomous University of the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua(URACCAN)andtheBluefieldsIndianandCaribbeanUniversity(BICU)arespecificeducationalinstitutions,establishedtoprovidespecialprogrammesforindigenouspeoplesintheAutonomous Regions.

URACCAN contributes to strengthening the RegionalAutonomybycomplementaryprocessesofself-development,localcapacity-building, multiethnic unity and integral training of men and women in the Region. Its mission is to contribute to the strengthening of Autonomy by training the human resources in the Region and for the Region;bymakingroomforthedevelopmentofknowledge,skillsandattitudesinordertopreservenaturalresourceswhilepromotingsustainability;andcreatinglocalcapacitysothatthefullexercise


ofhuman,indigenousandautonomicrightscanbefulfilled.Inadditiontobilingual,culturally-relevantformal university courses in indigenous law and traditionalmedicines,theseuniversitiesofferprogrammesinleadership,literacyandcommunityorganizingtoadultswhohavenopreviousformaleducation.http://white.oit.org.pe/ipec;http://www.Uraccan.edu.ni.Case prepared by: Brenda Gonzales Mena.

TradeunionsandindigenouscommunitiescombatingforcedlabourinthePeruvianAmazonregionIndigenouspeopleshaveforcenturiesbeenthemostaffectedbypracticesofforcedlabourinLatinAmerica. The region has the second highest number ofvictimsofforcedlabourintheworld,over1.2millionpeopleaccordingtoILOestimates.In-depthfieldresearchintheruralareasofBolivia,ParaguayandPeru,hasconfirmedthatindigenouspeoplesareparticularlyvulnerabletoaformofforcedlabourcalled debt bondage. Indigenous workers are recruited by labour intermediaries who – through wageadvancesandothermanipulations-inducethemintoanartificialdebtthattheycannotrepay.Longhoursofworkarenotsufficienttorepaythisdebt,thustrappingtheworkersintogreaterdebtandalongerdebtrepaymentperiod.Thissystemperpetuatesthepovertyorextremepovertyoftheworkersandimpedeshumanandsocialdevelopment.

InPeru,astudycarriedoutin2004bytheILOand

thePeruvianMinistryofLabourandEmploymentPromotionconfirmedtheexistenceofforcedlabourpracticesinthecontextofillegallogginginthetropicalAmazonregion,withanestimatednumberof33,000victims,mostofwhichbelongtoindigenouspeoples.

The study revealed two main forms of forced labour inloggingactivitiesintheAmazon:

The most common modality is that indigenous •communitiesarecontractedtoprovidetimber from their own land. The communities inreturnreceivemoney,foodorothergoods that are advanced to them under the conditionthatthecommunitymembers,whoknowthearea,willdelivertimber.The second modality consists in situations •where indigenous and other workers are hired toworkinloggingcamps.

Bothmodalitiesusedeceptiontoentrapworkersinacycleofdebtandservitudethatisoftenpassedonfrom one generation to the next.

Theseforcedlabourpracticesarelinkedtothelargerissueofdiscriminationagainstindigenouspeoplesinthe labour market. They are frequently at the bottom oftheoccupationalladder,engagedinlow-pay,irregularandunprotectedemploymentandsubjectto discrimination in remuneration.

In2006and2007,theILOofficeinPeruandtheBuildingandWoodWorkers’International(BWI)signedtwoagreementstospecificallyaddressforced labour. The two organizations committed


themselvestoaseriesofjointactivities,onawareness-raising,disseminationofinformation,andefforts to organize workers in the forestry sector.

Asaresult,atradeunionpilotprojecttocombatforced labour in the forestry sector in Bolivia and PeruwaslaunchedinAugust2008,financedbytheNetherlandsTradeUnionFederation(FNV).TheprojectisimplementedintheUcayaliRegionbytheNationalFederationofWorkersintheWoodandAlliedIndustries(FENATIMAP),anorganisationthatcomprisesworkersfromseveraltradeunionsandassociationslinkedtotheforestrysector,mainlylocated in the Peruvian Amazon region. FENATIMAP has for many years coordinated its actions with representativesfromindigenouscommunities,andhas further extended its relations with indigenous organisationsduringtheimplementationofthisproject.

Theobjectiveoftheprojectistocontributetothereduction of the number of workers in situations of forced labour through a series of awareness-raisingandcapacity-buildingactivities.Theseactivitiesincludetrainingoftradeunionpromotersonissuessuchasforcedlabour,fundamentalrightsofworkersandindigenouspeoples,legalmechanismstorespondtoviolationsoftheserights,and organisational ways to advance collective action.Indigenousleadersparticipateinthetraining and later organise training and awareness-raisingactivitiesintheirrespectivecommunitiesandorganisations,togetherwithFENATIMAP’spromoters.

Asaresultofthecoordinatedimplementationoftheproject,indigenousorganisationsareestablishingformal links with FENATIMAP to enable further jointactiontoprotectthefundamentalrightsofworkersandindigenouspeoples.Awareness-raisingactivities are being organised in several locations intheregion,andthenetworkofindigenouscommunitiesandorganisationsparticipatingintheseactionsisexpanding.Theestablishedlinksarealsoprovingvaluableforthecollectionofinformationonsituations of forced labour and illegal logging in the region.Theprojecthasadditionallydisseminatedinformation on forced labour and indigenous peoples’rightsinthelocalmedia,makingtheissuesmorevisibletotheauthoritiesandthegeneralpublic.

Theprojectdemonstratesthatthecoordinationbetween indigenous organisations and trade unionscanfacilitateindigenouspeoples’accesstolegalmechanisms;provideawidernetworkofsupport;andopenupnewpossibilitiesofdialoguewithin institutions where they have traditionally not participated.Thetradeunionshavegainedabetterunderstandingoftherealitiesandproblemsfacedbyindigenouspeoples,andcanraisetheirconcernsindiversecontexts,includingthedifferentmechanismsofsocialdialogueinwhichtheyparticipate.Bedoya and Bedoya: Trabajo forzoso en la extracción de la madera en la Amazonía Peruana, ILO 2005;A Global Alliance Against Forced Labour, ILO Global Report 2005.Case prepared by Sanna Saarto, ILO’s Programme to Combat Forced Labour, Peru.

164

xIII. contacts and cooperatIon

across borders

165xI I I . CONTACTS AND COOPERATION ACROSS BORDERS

13.1. PEOPLE AND PEOPLES DIVIDED By BORDERS

Itfollowsfromtheverydefinitionofindigenouspeoplesthattheyinhabitedacountryorregionpriortoconquest,colonisationorestablishmentofstateboundaries(seesection1.1).Therefore,manyindigenouspeopleshavebeeninvoluntarilydividedorseparatedbystatebordersthatrunacrosstheirterritoriesandhampercontactformembersoftheirpeopledividedbytheborder.Thisis,forexample,thecasefortheSamipeopleandthetraditionalSamiterritory,whichisdividedby the state boundaries of four nation states (Finland,Norway,RussiaandSweden)duetogeopoliticalcircumstances.Inothercases,stateboundarieseffectivelypreventindigenouspeoplesfrommaintaininganddevelopingcontactsandcooperationwithotherindigenouspeoplesandcommunitiesacrossstateboundaries,e.g.theChinin Burma and India. Inordertoremedythesesituations,ConventionNo.169hasaspecificarticleoncontactsandcooperationacrossborders:

ILOConventionNo.169Article 32Governmentsshalltakeappropriatemeasures,includingbymeansofinternationalagreements,tofacilitatecontactsandco-operationbetweenindigenousandtribalpeoplesacrossborders,includingactivitiesintheeconomic,social,cultural,spiritualandenvironmentalfields.

Thisprovisionisnotonlyapplicabletothoseindigenouspeopleswhohavebeeninternallydividedbystateboundaries,butisalsoapplicabletoindigenouspeoplesthatarenotdividedbystateboundaries,butwhowouldbenefitfromcooperatingwithotherindigenouspeoplesacrossstateboundaries.

TheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples contains a similar provision:

Article 361. Indigenouspeoples,inparticularthosedividedbyinternationalborders,havetherighttomaintainanddevelopcontacts,relationsandcooperation,includingactivitiesforspiritual,cultural,political,economicandsocialpurposes,withtheirownmembersaswellasotherpeoplesacrossborders.2. States,inconsultationandcooperationwithindigenouspeoples,shalltakeeffectivemeasures to facilitate the exercise and ensure theimplementationofthisright.

Indigenouspeoples’righttomaintainanddevelopcontactsandcooperationacrossnationalboundaries is by its nature different from other internationally recognized rights of indigenous peoples,asitsimplementationrequirespolitical,administrativeand/orlegalmeasuresfrommorethanonestate.Apreconditionfortheimplementationof this right is thus that the states concerned have afriendlyandcooperativerelationshipuponwhichspecificarrangementsfortheimplementationofthisright can be established.


13.2. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: CROSS-BORDER CONTACT AND COLLABORATION

Venezuela:Freetransitofindigenouspersonsandgoodsacrossborders.The 2002 Constitution of the Venezuelan “Amazonas”State,recognizestherightofindigenouspeopleslivingininternationalborderlandsto freely transit with their goods across the borders. AsexpresslyspelledoutintheConstitution,therationaleforthisrightisfoundinthepre-existenceofindigenouspeopleswithrespecttothefoundationofthe national State.

Atthefederallevel,theOrganicActonIndigenousPeoplesandCommunitiesstatestherightofindigenouspeopleslivinginborderlandstomaintainanddeveloprelationsandcooperationwithindigenouspeoplesandcommunitieslivinginneighbouringcountries,asregardssocial,cultural,economic,spiritual,environmentalandscientificactivities.Inthisconnection,theActestablishestheState’sdutytoadoptadequatemeasures,withtheparticipationoftheindigenouspeoplesandcommunitiesconcerned,throughinternationalagreements,treatiesandconventions,withaviewtofacilitatingandfosteringtheintegration,cooperation,transit,exchangesandeconomicdevelopmentoftheindigenouspeoplesconcerned.

Thepossibilityofestablishingcontactsandcooperationacrossbordersispresentedasaspecificrightoftheindigenouspeopleslivinginborderlandsontheassumptionthatthesepeopleshave traditionally maintained relations across borders sinceanagepredatingtheestablishmentofmodernStatesandtheirboundaries.Correspondingly,the State has a duty to facilitate these relations andpromotethembytheadoptionofadequatemeasures,includinginternationalagreements.Itisalsoexplicitlystatedthattheindigenouspeoplesconcerned shall participate in the drafting of these instruments.The Constitution of the Amazonas State: www.iadb.org//sds/ind/index_ind_e.htm; Ley Orgánica de Pueblos y Comunidades Indígenas: www.asembleanacional.gov.ve.

Colombia:AreasofBorderIntegrationLaw No. 191 of 1995 regarding Border Areas

isdesignedtofostercooperationandeliminatethe obstacles to the natural interaction between communities living across the national borders. Inparticular,itaimsatpromotingcooperationwithregardtolocaldevelopment,theprotectionoftheenvironmentandthesupplyofpublicservices.Tothisend,itprovides,inArticle5,fortheestablishmentof“AreasofBorderIntegration”onthebasis of international agreements to be signed with neighbouringStates.Whereindigenouscommunitiesliveintheareasconcerned,theestablishmentoftheseissubjectedtothepriorconsultationwiththerepresentativeinstitutionsoftheindigenouscommunities concerned. The Law also recognizes thatwithintheframeworkofthecooperationand integration agreements signed by the local authoritiesofcross-borderscountries,indigenousrepresentativesinstitutionsofneighbouringcountriescansigntheirowncooperationagreementscoveringmatters within their jurisdiction.http://www.iadb.org//sds/ind/index_ind_e.htm

Norway,Sweden,FinlandandRussia:Samicross-bordercollaborationandreindeerhusbandryTheSamiareaclassicexampleofapeoplewithdistinctidentity,language,culture,socialstructures,traditions,livelihoods,history,andaspirationsthathavebeenseparatedbystateborders.Forcenturies,theSamiweresubjectedtoconstantlychanginggeopoliticalsituations,legalandpoliticalregimes. Eventually the traditional Sami territory wasdividedbetweenFinland,Norway,RussiaandSweden.TheSamipeoplewerehenceforthforciblydivided by state boundaries.

BecauseofthedifferencesinthepoliticalandlegalsystemsbetweentheNordiccountriesandRussia,therehavebeennoseriouspoliticaldiscussionsat the state level about the need to redress Sami cross-border rights in the Russian-Nordic context. TheSamilivingintheformerSovietUnion(USSR)suffered tremendously as a result of the State programmeofcentralizingthemeansofproduction.The Sami were forced to leave their traditional villages,whichwereoftendestroyedtopreventtheirreturn,andrelocatedtolargetownsorcentresfortheStatecollectivizationprogramme.Thisresultedinthedestructionoftheirtraditionalsocial,culturalandeconomic structures. They were effectively isolated



from the Sami living in the Nordic States. After the collapseoftheUSSR,theSamiinRussiastartedto rebuild their culture and re-establish contact with Sami in the other countries.

Today,electedSamiparliamentsexistinFinland,Norway and Sweden. The Sami Parliament in Finlandwasestablishedin1972,whereastheSamiparliamentsinNorwayandSwedenwereestablishedin1989and1993respectively.Although,thesethreeparliamentsdonothaveidenticalpowers,functionsandtasks,theysharethe ability to freely and on their own initiative raise anymatterofconcerntotheSamiintherespectivecountries.In1998,thethreeSamiparliamentsformalizedtheircross-bordercooperationthroughthe establishment of the Sami Parliamentary Council. TheParliamentaryCouncilcomprises21members,appointedbytherespectiveSamiparliamentsfromamongtherepresentativeselectedtoeach

of them. The Sami in Russia only have observer statusintheSamiParliamentaryCouncil,astheydonothavetheirownparliament.Everyfourthyear,the Sami Parliaments convene a conference of SamiparliamentarianstodiscussprincipalissuesofconcerntotheSamipeopleasawhole.TheConference of Sami Parliamentarians gathers the membersofallthreeSamiparliamentsinajointplenarysessionofallthreeparliaments.

However,sincetheboundariesbetweenSwedenandNorway,andFinlandandNorwaywereestablishedin1751,therehasbeensomestaterecognition of cross-border Sami rights in these countries. The recognition of such rights is still evolvingandnofinalsettlementhasbeenreached–althoughtheprocesshasbeenongoingformorethan 250 years.

ThedraftNordicSamiConvention(seebelow),also


addresses cross-boundary reindeer husbandry rights. Article 43 of the draft Convention states that the right of the Sami to graze reindeer across national borders is based on custom. The draft Convention seeks to ensure Sami autonomy in relation to the management of grazing lands across nationalboundariesanditstatesthat,ifagreementshave been concluded between Sami villages or communities concerning the right to reindeer grazing acrossnationalborders,theseagreementsshallberespectedbystateauthoritiesandshallprevail.Intheeventofadisputeconcerningtheinterpretationorapplicationofsuchanagreement,aparty(Samivillages/communities)shallhavetheopportunitytobringthedisputebeforeanarbitrationcommitteefordecision.ThecompositionofsuchanarbitrationcommitteeanditsrulesofprocedureshallbejointlydecideduponbythethreeSamiparliaments.Apartydissatisfiedwiththearbitrationcommittee’sdecisionofthedisputeshallhavetherighttofileasuitonthe matter in a court of law in the country on which territory the grazing area is situated.

There are various other forms of cross-border Sami cooperationandcontacts,suchascooperationbetweentheSamiRadio/TVbroadcastersinFinland,Norway,RussiaandSweden,variousformsofculturalcooperation,Pan-SaminationalteamsinfootballandNordicwintersportdisciplines,etc.

Cross-borderSamicooperationisprimarilyfundedbythegovernmentsofFinland,NorwayandSweden,basedonaproportionalformulathroughwhichthecountrywiththebiggestSamipopulationcontributes the most.1)

John Henriksen (2008): The continuous process of recognition and implementation of the Sami people’s right to self-determination, The Cambridge Review of International Affairs, Volume 21, Number 1, Center of International Studies – University of Cambridge.Case cited in: John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.

Norway,SwedenandFinland:DraftNordicSamiConventionIn1995,theSamiCouncil(apan-Saminon-

1) The total Sami population is estimated to be somewhere between 80-95,000 individuals in the respective countries as follows: Finland 8,000: Norway 50-65,000; Sweden 20,000; and Russia 2,000. These figures are estimates only as the national censuses do not include a specific Sami component.

governmentalorganization)submitteditsproposalfor a draft Sami Convention to the governments ofFinland,NorwayandSweden,andthethreeSamiparliaments.Anagreementtofollow-uptheproposalwasmadewithinthecontextoftheoverallNordicpoliticalcooperation,althoughtheRussianauthoritieswerenotinvitedtojointhisprocessduetothedifferingpoliticalandlegalsituationinRussia.

In2001,anExpertGroupwasestablished,throughajointdecisionbythegovernmentsofFinland,NorwayandSwedentotaketheprocessfurther.TheExpertGroupsubmittedaunanimousproposalon a Nordic Sami Convention to the governments andtheSamiparliamentsinNovember2005.

TheprovisionsoftheproposedConventionarelargely based on the acknowledgment of the Sami asonepeoplewiththerighttoself-determination.AccordingtoArticle1,theobjectiveistoaffirmandstrengthensuchrightsoftheSamipeoplethatarenecessarytosecureanddeveloptheSamilanguage,culture,livelihoodsandsociety,withthesmallestpossibleinterferencefromnationalborders.

Article10stipulatesthatstatesshall,incooperationwiththeSamiparliaments,strivetoensurecontinuedharmonization of legislation and other regulation ofsignificanceforSamiactivitiesacrossnationalborders.Article11obligesthestatestoimplementmeasurestorenderiteasierfortheSamitopursueeconomic activities across national borders and to providefortheirculturalneedsacrosstheseborders.Forthispurpose,thestatesshallstrivetoremoveremaining obstacles to Sami economic activities thatarebasedontheircitizenshiporresidenceorthat otherwise are a result of the Sami settlement area stretching across national borders. The states shall also give Sami individuals access to the cultural provisionsofthecountrywheretheyarestayingatany given time.

Article12stipulatesthatstatesshalltakemeasurestoprovideSamiindividualsresidinginanyofthethreecountrieswiththepossibilitytoobtaineducation,medicalservicesandsocialprovisionsinanotherofthesecountrieswhenthisappearstobemoreappropriate.

Article13containsprovisionsconcerningthe


symbolsoftheSamipeople:Thestatesshallrespectthe right of the Sami to decide over the use of the SamiflagandotherSaminationalsymbols.Thestatesshallmoreover,incooperationwiththeSamiparliaments,makeeffortstoensurethattheSamisymbols are made visible in a manner signifying theSami’sstatusasadistinctpeopleinthethreecountries.

Article 20 of the draft Convention recognized that theSamiParliamentsinFinland,NorwayandSwedenhavetherighttoformjointorganizations,andthattheStates,incooperationwiththeSamiparliaments,shallstrivetotransferpublicauthoritytosuch organizations as needed.

Article 22 decides that the states shall actively seektoidentifyanddevelopthearea(aSamiregionwithintherespectivecountriesandacrossstateboundaries),withinwhichtheSamipeoplecanmanagetheirparticularrightspursuanttotheConvention and national legislation.

Article 14 establishes that in each of the three countriesthereshallbeaSamiparliament,asthehighestrepresentativebodyoftheSamipeopleinthecountry.TheSamiparliamentsshallactonbehalfoftheSamipeopleofthecountryconcerned,andshall be elected through general elections among the Sami in the country.

Duetolegaltechnicalities,theSamiarenottobepartytotheConvention.TheExpertGroupdiscussedthepossibilityofdevelopingaConventiontowhichtheSamipeoplewouldalsobeaformalparty,butconcludedthatrenderingtheSamipeopleapartytotheConventionwouldmostlikelydepriveit of its status as a legally binding instrument under internationallaw.Thus,theExpertGroupdecidedtodevelopaConventiontowhichonlytheStatesareformalparties,butwhichcannotberatifiedorchangedwithouttheapprovaloftheSamiparliaments.

TheproposedSamiConvention,andtheprocessunderwhichitwasdeveloped,encapsulatesthemostprogressivesidesoftheNordicdiscourseontheSamipeople’srights.However,itremainstobeseen whether the States eventually are willing to accepttheseproposedstandards.Therespective

SamiparliamentshaveallendorsedtheproposedConvention,whereastheStatesarestillreviewingitscontent.ItisexpectedthatformalnegotiationsbetweenthegovernmentsandtheSamiparliamentsinFinland,NorwayandSwedenwillstartinthenearfuture.John Henriksen (2008): The continuous process of recognition and implementation of the Sami people’s right to self-determination, The Cambridge Review of International Affairs, Volume 21, Number 1, Center of International Studies – University of Cambridge;An English language version of the proposed Nordic Sami Convention is available at: http://www.regjeringen.no/Upload/AID/temadokumenter/sami/sami_samekonv_engelsk.pdf. Case cited in: John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.

TheCircumpolararea:TheArcticCouncilInauguratedinSeptember1996,theArcticCouncilisanorganizationfoundedontheprinciplesofcircumpolarcooperation,coordinationandinteraction to address the issues of sustainable development,includingenvironmentalprotection,ofcommon concern to Arctic States and northerners. TheeightArcticstatesaremembersoftheCouncil;Canada,Denmark/Greenland/FaroeIslands,Finland,Iceland,Norway,Russia,SwedenandUSA.Sixindigenousorganizations/communitieshavethestatusofpermanentParticipantsontheCouncil:TheAleutInternationalAssociation,ArcticAthabaskanCouncil,Gwich’inCouncilInternational,InuitCircumpolarConference,RussianAssociationofIndigenousPeoplesoftheNorth(RAIPON),andtheSamiCouncil.ThePermanentParticipantstatusenablesindigenouspeoplestoactivelyparticipateinthe work of the Council.http://arctic-council.org

Ecuador-Peru:TheBi-nationalParkElCóndorThe border area between Ecuador and Peru in the Amazonregionofthe“CordilleradelCóndor”wasforyearsanareaofoccasionalarmedconflicts,since the demarcation of the borders between the two countries in 1941 had failed to establish the border in that region. The area is inhabited byindigenousShuarandHuambisa,whoarecloselyrelatedculturallyandlinguistically.Thus,communities on both sides of the border have been severelyaffectedandinvolvedintheconflict.


The idea of creating a Bi-national Park was proposedbyindigenousandenvironmentalorganizationsofbothcountries,butwasconsideredanalmostutopiandream.However,whenaPeaceAgreementwassignedbythetwocountriesin1995,theproposalwaspartiallyincludedandabinationalenvironmentalprotectionareahasbeenestablishedat both sides of the border. http://www.ambiente.gov.ec/paginas_espanol/4ecuador/docs/areas/condor.htm

Ecuador-Peru:TheBi-nationalFederationoftheZáparaAtonetime,theZáparapeoplewereoneofthemostnumerouspeoplesintheAmazonRegion.However,duringthe19th and 20thcentury,thepopulationwasdrasticallyreducedduetoepidemicsandtheexploitationofrubberintheregion,whichwaslargelybasedonpracticesofslaveryandforcedlabourperpetratedontheindigenouspopulation.ThetraditionalterritoryoftheZáparawasdividedby the border established between Ecuador and Peruin1941,withthelargestpopulationlocatedonthePeruvianside(estimatedataround700)andonlyaround150-200ZaparasontheEcuadorianside.Ofthese,onlyabout15speaktheirlanguage.Therefore,theZáparalanguageandculturewas

declaredWorldIntangibleCulturalHeritagein2001byUNESCO.Sincethen,severalinitiativeshavebeenundertakentoprotectandsupporttheZáparaculture,includinginitiativesforpreservingthelanguageandprovidingbilingualeducationfortheZáparochildren.

In2003,agroupofEcuadorianZáparastravelledon the rivers across the border and visited the ZáparasofPeru,whohadbeenseparatedfromthem for more than 60 years. This led to a series ofbi-nationalmeetingsandin2006,aBi-nationalFederationoftheZáparaPeopleofEcuadorandPeru was established. The Third Bi-national Meeting oftheZaparaPeopletookplaceinMarch2009,withthe aim of

Strengthening and organising links between •familymembers;Definingpoliciesforbilingualintercultural•education;Exchanginghandicrafts;•Definingorganizationalpoliciesforthe•recuperationofthehistoryandphilosophyoftheZáparapeople.

http://piatsaw.blogspot.com http://www.codenpe.gov.ec http://www.elnuevoempresario.com/noticia_6045

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xIv. conventIon no. 169:

ratIfIcatIon, ImplementatIon, supervIsIon and

technIcal assIstance

173xIV. CONVENTION NO. 169: RATIfICATION, ImPLEmENTATION, SUPERVISION AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE

14.1 HISTORy Of THE ILO´S INVOLVEmENT wITH INDIGENOUS PEOPLES

In1919,afterthehorrorsofWorldWarI,worldleaders decided to form the League of Nations. Bydoingso,theyhopedamongmanyotherthingstopreventwarandimprovethequalityoflife on a global basis. One of the measures taken tofulfilthesegoalswastheestablishmentoftheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO),whosemainobjectivewastoaddresssocialpeace.Withthewords“therecanbenolastingpeacewithoutsocialjustice”thisobjectiveisclearlyreflectedintheILOConstitution.

TheILOisastandards-settingagencythatadoptsConventionsandRecommendationsandprovidesassistancetogovernmentsandothersinputtingtheseintopractice.Asof2009,theILOhasadopted188Conventionsonawiderangeofissues,suchasworkingconditions,employmentpolicy,occupationalsafetyandhealth,maternityprotectionandsocialsecurity,aswellasdiscrimination,freedomofassociation,childlabourandforcedlabour.

Looking into the conditions of workers around the world,theILOrealizedthatindigenouspeopleswereespeciallyexposedtosevereformsoflabourexploitation.Asearlyas1920,theILObegantoaddressthesituationofso-called“nativeworkers”intheoverseascoloniesoftheEuropeanpowers.Increasingly,itbecameevidentthatthesepeopleshadaneedforspecialprotectionincaseswheretheywereexpelledfromtheirancestrallandsandhadbecomeseasonal,migrant,bondedorhome-based labourers. One of the outcomes of this recognitionwastheadoptionin1930oftheILO’sForcedLabourConvention(No.29).

In1945,theUnitedNationswascreated,andtheILObecameaUNspecialisedagency.TheILObegan to widen its examination of the situation of indigenousworkersandthroughoutthe1950s,withtheparticipationofotheragenciesoftheUNsystem,theILOworkedontheIndigenousandTribalPopulationsConvention(No.107).ConventionNo.107wasfinallyadoptedin1957asthefirstinternational treaty dealing with the rights of “indigenousandtribalpopulations”.

Asyearswentby,certainweaknessesinConventionNo.107becameobvious,particularlyitsunderlyingassumptionthattheonlypossiblefutureforindigenouspeopleswasintegrationintothelargersociety and that others should make decisions on theirdevelopment.Withthegrowingawareness,organizationandparticipationofindigenouspeoplesatthenationalandinternationallevelsduringthe1960sand1970s,theseassumptionswerechallenged.In1989,ConventionNo.107wasreplacedbyConventionNo.169.

ConventionNo.107 covers a wide range of issues,includingemploymentandoccupation,rights to land and education in indigenous languages. The Convention is now closed for ratificationbutitremainsbindingonthose18countriesthathaveratifieditandwhichhavenotyetdenounceditorratifiedConventionNo.169.TheseareAngola,Bangladesh,Belgium,Cuba,DominicanRepublic,Egypt,ElSalvador,Ghana,GuineaBissau,Haiti,India,Iraq,Malawi,Pakistan,Panama,Portugal,SyriaandTunisia.Inthesecountries,the Convention can still be used as an instrument to guarantee indigenous and tribal peoplescertainminimumrights.However,theILOCommitteeofExpertsonApplicationofConventions and Recommendations and the ILO Governing Body invited all countries that haveratifiedConventionNo.107toconsiderratifying Convention No. 169.

14.2 THE ILO’S TRIPARTITE STRUCTURE

The ILO is unique among UN agencies because itisnotcomposedonlyofgovernments.Ithasatripartiteconstitution,comprisinggovernments,employersandworkers.Thesethreepartiesarethe ILO constituents, who all have formal roles to playinthedecision-makingandproceduresoftheinstitution. Due to this general characteristic of the ILO,indigenouspeoplesassuchdonothaveaformalpositionwithintheILOtripartitestructure.

ThetripartitestructureoftheILOisreflectedthroughoutitsstructure,includingintheInternationalLabour Conferences and the ILO Governing Body.


TheInternationalLabourConferenceTheConferenceprovidesaforumfordebateanddiscussiononimportantsocialandlabourissues.Itadoptsstandards,andistheprincipalpolicy-makingbodyoftheOrganization. Each of the ILO’s 183 member Statesisrepresentedbyfourdelegatestothe annual ILO Conference. Two are from the government,andoneeachfromthenationalworkers’andemployers’organizations.During the discussions concerning the adoptionofConventionNo.169,anumberofindigenousrepresentativesparticipatedasmembersofdelegationsofworkers,employersandgovernments.

TheGoverningBodyTheILOprogrammeandbudgetaresetbytheGoverningBody,andapprovedbytheConference. It also sets the Conference agenda. The Governing Body elects the Director-GeneraloftheILO,itschiefexecutiveofficial,foraperiodoffiveyears,andsupervisestheday-to-dayoperationsoftheILOOffice.TheGoverningBodyiscomposedof56members:28governmentmembers,14employermembersand14workermembers.

ThetripartiteconstituentsoftheILOalsohaveprivilegedaccesswhenitcomestoaccessingtheILOsupervisoryproceduresrelatedtoratifiedconventions.However,indigenouspeopleshavefoundpracticalwaystoengagewiththeILOsupervisorybodies,oftenthroughcollaborationwithworkersorganizations(seesections14.5and14.6).

DuetothecharacteristicsoftheILO,itsmaingovernmentpartnerinmemberstatesistheMinistryofLabour(oritsequivalent,howevernamed).However,astheresponsibilityforindigenouspeoples’rightsoftenistheresponsibilityofagovernmentbodyotherthantheMinistryofLabour,the ILO can work directly with whatever institution thegovernmenthasdesignatedforthistheme.Also,theILOtechnicalcooperationactivities(seesection14.11)candirectlyaddressandincludeindigenouspeoples

14.3 RATIfICATION

The Programme of Action of the Second Decade of theWorld’sIndigenousPeopleadoptedbytheUNGeneral Assembly in 2005 states that consideration should be given by States that have not yet done sotoratificationofConventionNo.169andthestrengthening of mechanisms to monitor the implementationoftheConvention.1)

RatificationisthevoluntaryactbywhichaStateestablishes at the international level its consent to be boundbyaconvention.Since1989,20countrieshaveratifiedConventionNo.169asprovidedinthetablebelow:

COUNTRy RATIfICATION DATE

Argentina 3.7.2000

Bolivia 11.12.1991

Brazil 25.7.2002

Chile 15.9.2008

Colombia 7.8.1991

Costa Rica 2.4.1993

Denmark 22.2.1996

Dominica 25.6.2002

Ecuador 15.5.1998

Fiji 3.3.1998

Guatemala 5.6.1996

Honduras 28.3.1995

Mexico 5.9.1990

Nepal 14.9.2007

Netherlands 2.2.1998

Norway 19.6.1990

Paraguay 10.8.1993

Peru 2.2.1994

Spain 15.2.2007

BolivarianRepublicofVenezuela 22.5.2002

Inmostcases,ratificationofConventionNo.169followsaprocessofdialoguebetweenthegovernment,indigenouspeoples,membersofparliamentandoftenbroadersectorsofcivilsociety,which will often include elements of awareness-raising,capacity-building,research,legalreviews

1) UN doc. A/60/270, 5 August 2005, paragraph 56.


andexchangeofexperiences.Inmanycases,theILO,throughitsInternationalLabourStandardsSpecialistsandtechnicalcooperationprogrammes,providesassistanceandtechnicalinputtosuchactivities(seesection14.11).

ILOConventions,unlikeotherinternationaltreaties,cannotberatifiedwithreservations.SomeConventions allow ratifying States to limit or modify theobligationsofaConvention(e.g.bywayofadeclarationexplicitlypermittedorrequiredundertheConvention),butthisisnotthecasewith

ConventionNo.169.Therefore,itisimportantthatgovernments,indigenouspeoples,traditionalILOconstituents(workersandemployers)aswellas other stakeholders are fully informed about alltheprovisionsoftheConventionaswellastheimplicationsofratification.Moreover,thisisimportantforgeneratingownershipofthepost-ratificationimplementationprocess;andbyinvolvingtheseprincipalactors,theirparticipationintheimplementationoftheConventionisusuallybetterguaranteed.


RatificationofConventionNo.169byNepalNepalratifiedConventionNo.169inSeptember2007.Theratificationfollowedalongprocessofpromotion,dialogue,research,exchangeofexperiences,trainingandcapacity-buildingofdifferentactors,includingindigenousrepresentatives,politicalparties,bureaucrats,internationalorganizations,civilsocietyorganizations,tradeunions,employersorganizations,academicsandmediapersons.SeveralnationalworkshopsprovidedopportunitiesforleadingnationalpoliticiansandindigenousrepresentativestodiscusstheConvention’srelevanceforNepal’shighlydiverse,complexand unequal society. The discussions took placeduringtheheightofthe10-yearlongarmedconflict,inwhichNepal’sindigenouspeoplesweredisproportionatelyinvolvedbothascombatantsandasciviliancausalities,owingtotheirhistoryofsocial,political,economicandgeographicexclusion.GiventhepoliticalcontextinthecountryinwhichexclusionofcertaingroupswasfuellingtheMaoist-inspiredcivilwar,theILOfacilitatedtheexchangeofexperiencesfromGuatemala,wheretheConventionwasratifiedin1996asanintegralpartofthePeaceAccords.Anagreementbetweentheall-partygovernmentandtheNepaleseFederationofIndigenousNationalities(NEFIN)inAugust2007ledtotheeventualratification.Subsequently,theratificationofConventionNo.169cametoplayanimportantpartinthepeaceprocessinNepal,becomingamajorpreconditionfortheindigenousmovementtosupportthe elections and the Constituent Assembly process.TheimplementationoftheConventionisstillongoinginNepal,butalready the Convention has formed the basis for claims for meaningful consultation andparticipationintheconstitutionmakingprocess.ItisalsohopedthattheprinciplesoftheConvention,willgoontoprovideacomprehensiveframeworkforaddressingkeyquestionsrelatedtoindigenouspeoplesinNepal’snewstatestructure.

Eachcountryhasitsownnationalproceduresfortheratificationofinternationaltreaties,whichvariesaccordingtotheconstitutionalset-upofthecounty.TheprocedureisusuallyinitiatedbythelineministryresponsiblefortheissuescoveredbytheConvention. Once a government decides in favour ofratifyingConventionNo.169,theapprovaloftheparliamentorotherlegislativebodymayhavetobesought.Oncethisisobtained,thebodyororgancompetenttodosounderthenationalproceduresigns the so-called instrument of ratification.

Oncethenationalprocessisconcluded,thegovernmentsendstheinstrumentofratificationtothe ILO informing it of its decision to ratify and be boundbytheConvention.Whenitreceivesthisinstrument,theILOregisterstheratificationandinforms other member States. It is only through registrationbytheILOthattheratificationbecomeseffectiveontheinternationalplane.

Oneyearaftertheregistrationofratification,the Convention enters into force in the country concerned,i.e.itbecomesbindingonthecountryunder international law.

14.4. ImPLEmENTATION IN GOOD fAITH

Underinternationallaw,treatiesinforceforacountrymustbeimplementedingoodfaith.2)Also,theILOConstitution states that ILO members must make provisionsofratifiedConventionseffective.3) This means that the government must take all measures necessarytoapplytheprovisionsoftheConventioninlawandinpracticethroughtheadoptionandeffectiveimplementationofappropriatelegislation,regulationsandpolicies.Itisalsonecessarytoputinplacetheadministrativearrangements,mechanismsor institutions needed to ensure that the State’s obligationsundertheConventionarecompliedwith.

The legal status of the Convention within the national legalsystemvariesfromcountrytocountry(seesection14.7).InthemajorityofcountriesthathaveratifiedtheConventionsofar,ratifiedtreatiesareanintegralpartofthenationallaw.Underthesesystems,theprovisionsoftheConventionoften

2) Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969, Article 26.

3) Article 19(5)(d) of the Constitution of the ILO.


prevailoverconflictingnationallaw.Insomecases,the Convention is considered to have a status similar tothatofthecountry’sConstitution(e.g.Colombia)inotherstheConventionprevailsovernationallegislation(e.g.NepalandCostaRica).4)

Article9(1)oftheNepal1990TreatyActIn case of the provisions of a treaty to which the Kingdom of Nepal or HMG has become a party following its ratification accession, acceptance or approval by the Parliament conflict with the provisions of current laws, the latter shall be held invalid to the extent of such conflict for the purpose of that treaty, and the provisions of the treaty shall be applicable in that connection as Nepal laws.5)

Article7oftheConstitutionofCostaRicaPublic treaties, international agreements and concordats duly approved by the Legislative Assembly shall have a higher authority than the laws upon their enactment or from the day that they designate.6)

EvenwheretheConvention,onceratifiedformsapartofthenationallaw,itwillstillbenecessarytodevelopspecificmeasurestoapplytheConvention,forinstance:

To enact legislation or regulations regarding •thoseprovisionsoftheConventionwhicharenotsufficientlyprovidedfororoperationalisedinthegivennationalcontext;Toeliminateanyconflictbetweenthe•provisionsoftheConventionandearliernationallawsandpractices;Todevelopandimplementcoordinatedand•systematic government action as envisaged undertheConvention;To establish relevant institutions and •mechanisms,particularlythoseconcerningconsultation,participationandconsent;Toprovideinformationandguidance•

4) For further information on the legal status of the Convention in ratifying States see: Application of Convention NO. 169 by national and international courts in Latin America - A Case book, ILO 2009.

5) http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/type,LEGISLATION,,NPL,3ae6b51724,0.html

6) http://www.constitution.org/cons/costaric.htm

concerning the requirements of the Conventionstothepublicauthoritiesconcerned(seealsosection3.1onsystematicandcoordinatedaction).

In its General Observation on Convention No.169(2008),theCommitteeofExpertsunderlinesthat:“[T]heConventionreferstothreeinterrelatedprocesses:coordinatedandsystematicgovernmentaction,participationand consultation. […] Articles 2 and 33 of the Convention,readtogether,providethatgovernments are under an obligation to develop,withtheparticipationofindigenousandtribalpeoples,coordinatedandsystematicactiontoprotecttherightsandtoguaranteetheintegrityofthesepeoples.Agenciesandotherappropriatemechanismsare to be established to administer programmes,incooperationwithindigenousandtribalpeoples,coveringallstagesfromplanningtoevaluationofmeasuresproposedintheConvention.”

Insomeothercountries,ratifiedinternationaltreatiesdonotbecomeautomaticallypartofthenationallaw.Insuchacase,thecountryisrequiredtogive effect to its international obligations through separatelegislation.AmongthecountrieshavingratifiedtheConvention,thisisthecase,forinstance,inNorwayandinFiji(seesection14.7ontheuseofConventionNo.169innationalcourts).

14.5. ACCOmPANyING ImPLEmENTATION: THE PROCESS Of REGULAR SUPERVISION

OnespecificfeatureoftheILOnormativesystemisthatratifyingStateshavetoreportperiodicallyonthemeasures taken to give effect to the Convention and onanyproblemsencountered.ThisisanobligationundertheILOConstitution.RatificationofanILOConventionisthusthebeginningofaprocessofdialogueandcooperationbetweenthegovernmentandtheILO.ThepurposeistoworktogethertomakesurenationallegislationandpracticeareinlinewiththeprovisionsoftheConvention.


OneyearaftertheentryintoforceoftheConvention,thegovernmenthastosenditsfirstreportontheimplementationoftheConventiontotheILO.Theone-yearinterimperiodistogivethegovernmenttimetomakesurenationallawandpracticeareinagreementwiththeConvention.Afterthis,thenormalreportingperiodforConventionNo.169iseveryfiveyears.However,ifthesituationneedstobefollowedclosely,theILOsupervisorybodiesmayrequestareportoutsidetheregularreportingcycle.

InaccordancewiththeILOConstitution,thegovernmenthastosubmitacopyofitsreporttothemostrepresentativeworkers’andemployers’organizations to enable them to make comments on thereport,ifany.Theseorganizationsmayalsosendtheir comments directly to the ILO.

The government’s first report following the entry into force of the Convention should cover all the provisionsoftheConventionandanswereachofthequestionssetoutinthecomprehensive Report Form.Governmentsareaskedtoreportonlegislation,rulesandregulationsthatgiveeffecttotheConventionaswellasonthescopeofapplicationoftheConvention,includingwhichgroupsofthenationalpopulationitcovers.Inthissense,thefirstreportofthegovernmentcanserveasabaselineagainstwhichfutureprogressinimplementationisassessed.

Subsequent reports can then normally be limited to provideinformationon:

New legislation or other measures affecting •theapplicationoftheConvention;Repliestoquestionsinthereportformon•thepracticalapplicationofConvention(forexamplestatistics,resultsofinspections,judicialoradministrativedecisions)aswellas comments received from workers and employersorganizations;Repliestoanycommentspreviouslyreceived•fromtheILOsupervisorybodies.

Thesupervisorybodiesoftenrequestadditionalreportsbeyondtheregularreportsdueeveryfiveyears. There is thus an on-going dialogue between thegovernmentsconcernedandtheILOsupervisorybodiesregardingimplementation.

TheILObodiesundertakingtheregularsupervisionoftheapplicationofratifiedConventionsaretheCommitteeofExpertsontheApplicationofConventionsandRecommendations(CEACR;CommitteeofExperts)andtheCommitteeontheApplicationofStandards(CAS)oftheInternationalLabour Conference.

TheCommitteeofExpertsconsistsof20independentexperts,whomeetannuallyinGenevain November and December. The Committee’s mandateistoexaminethereportssubmittedbyILO member States on the measures taken to give effecttoratifiedConventionsanditassessestheconformityofthecountry’slawandpracticewithitsobligationsundertheConvention.Inthistask,theCommittee also relies on information received from workers’andemployers’organizations,aswellasrelevantpubliclyavailableinformation,e.g.officialUnitedNationsreports.

TheCommitteeofExpertsengagesinaprocessofongoingdialoguewiththegovernment,whichcanbeveryeffectiveinidentifyingimplementationandinformationgapsandsuggestingmeasuresandmechanismsforimprovedimplementation.Followingeachexaminationofreports,theCommitteemayaddress comments to the government concerned toguideandstrengthentheimplementation.DuetothecomplexitiesofConventionNo.169,itisoneof the Conventions that has generated extensive commentsfromtheILOsupervisorybodiesformany countries. The comments of the Committee of Expertscomeintwoforms:

“Observations”,whicharetheCommitteeof•Experts’publiccommentsontheapplicationofILOConventions;and“Directrequests”,whicharesentdirectlyto•thegovernmentinquestion,andgenerallyaskformoreinformationonspecificsubjects.


TheCommitteeofExperts’ observations areincludedinitsannualreporttotheInternationalLabourConference,whichmeetsinJune.ThisreportisdiscussedbytheCommitteeontheApplicationofStandards(CAS),whichcomprisesrepresentativesofgovernments,employersandworkers.TheCAS’smaintaskistoexaminetheapplicationofratifiedConventionsbyanumberofcountries(”individualcases”)onthebasisofthe observations issues by the Committee of Experts.

Asanoutcomeofsuchindividualcases,theCASadoptsconclusionsaddressedtotheILOMemberState examined.

IndigenouspeoplesdonothavedirectaccesstosubmittingreportstotheILOsupervisorybodies.However,indigenouspeoplescanensurethattheirconcerns are taken into account in the regular supervisionofILOConventionsinseveralways:

Bysendingverifiableinformationdirectlyto•theILOon,forexample,thetextofanewpolicy,law,orcourtdecision.Bymakingallianceswithtradeunions,and•throughthem,raisingissuesofconcern.AsaconsequenceofthetripartitesetupoftheILO,employers’andworkers’organizationscansubmitreportsontheapplicationofanILOconventionatanytime,irrespectiveofwhenareportonthatconventionisdue.Thiscanbedonebyanyworkers’oremployers’organization,whichcanbebasedanywhereand not necessarily in the country concerned. By drawing the attention of the ILO to relevant •officialinformationfromotherUNsupervisorybodies,foraoragencies,includingtheUNSpecialRapporteuronthesituationofhuman rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenouspeopleandtheUNPermanentForum on Indigenous Issues.

Finally,asinthecaseofNorway,indigenouspeoplesandstatescanseekinnovativewaystoprovideindigenouspeopleswithdirectaccess.


Norway:InnovativearrangementsforreportingunderConventionNo.169In1993,theGovernmentofNorwaysubmitteditsfirstreporttotheILOconcerningConvention No. 169. The Sami Parliament in Norway disagreed strongly with certain sectionsofthegovernmentalreport,inparticularthesectionaddressinglandand resource rights. The Sami Parliament submittedawrittenresponsetotheGovernment,reflectingthesubstantivedisagreement between the Government and the Sami Parliament on the status of implementationofConventionNo.169,and requested that the views of the Sami Parliamentbeincorporatedintothereportorannexedtothegovernmentalreport.However,theGovernmentofNorwayrejectedthisrequest,andtheviewsoftheSamiParliament were not forwarded to the ILO. GovernmentalofficialsinformedtheSamiParliament that the government was not in apositiontoforwardtheSamiParliament’sreporttotheILO,becausethegovernmentfound it to be too critical towards the views of the Government.

ThisproblemwascloselylinkedtothediverginginterpretationandunderstandingofthecorelandrightsprovisionsoftheConvention:TheGovernmentandtheindigenous Sami Parliament in Norway differed in their understanding of the substantive content of Article 14 of the Convention.TheGovernmentinterpreteditsobligations under Article 14 to be limited to ensuringastronglyprotectedusufructrighttolandsandnaturalresourcesfortheSami,whereas the Sami Parliament believed the

StateisobligedtorecognizeandprotectSamirightsofownershipandpossession,aswell as usufruct rights.

The Sami Parliament informed the ILO about this situation. The ILO Committee of Expertsraisedconcernsthatthereportdidnot contain any information about the views of the Sami Parliament. This was most likely the result of the Sami Parliament initiative. This incident motivated the Government of Norway and the Sami Parliament to reach an agreement,underwhichtheGovernmentwillsenditsreportsonConventionNo.169totheSamiParliamentforcomments,andtransmittheParliament’scommentstotheILOaspartofitsofficialreport.

Inthiscontext,theCommitteeofExpertsstatedthat;“The Committee welcomes warmly the dialogue between the Government and the Sami Parliament on the application of the Convention. It notes that this corresponds to the approach suggested in point VIII of the report form, and looks forward to continuing this exchange of information and views. It considers that this can best be carried out in the context of the regular reporting on the implementation of the Convention.”7) InApril2003,theGovernmentsubmittedaproposalforaFinnmarkAct–onlandandresource rights - to the Norwegian National Parliament(theStorting).TheproposalwasstronglycriticisedbySamiinstitutions,inparticulartheSamiParliament,fornotmeeting the international legal requirements forrecognitionandprotectionofSamirights,and the obligation to consult the Sami 7) Document No. (ilolex) 061995NOR1691.


whenever consideration is given to legislative measures which may affect them directly.

TheSamiParliamentprepareditsownindependentreport/assessmentoftheproposedFinnmarkActfortheILO.Inaccordance with the earlier agreement between the Government and the Sami Parliament,thereportwasofficiallysubmittedtotheILOCommitteeofExperts.

The concluding observations of the ILO CommitteeofExpertsconcludedthattheFinnmarkAct–asproposedbytheGovernmentin2003–wasincompatiblewithNorway’s obligations under ILO Convention No. 169.8) The Committee stated that the process(lackofconsultations)andthesubstance are inextricably intertwined in the requirements of the Convention and in theconflictconcerningthegovernmentalproposal.

Asaresultoftheseobservations,theNationalParliament of Norway entered into a direct dialogue with the Sami Parliament regarding thecontentsoftheAct.Thisdialogueprocessconcludedwiththeadoptionofaradicallyrevised and amended Finnmark Act by the NationalParliamentinJune2005–fullyendorsed by the Sami Parliament.

The observations of the Committee of Expertsdirectlyinfluencedtheoutcomeofthelegislativeprocessintwoways:

8) Concluding observations and recommendations from the ILO Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations (CEACR) of 2003, responding to the periodic report from the Government of Norway, concerning the implementation of Convention No. 169: ILO CEACR, 2003.

(a)itconvincedtheNorwegianNationalParliamentthatanadoptionoflegislationwithdirectimpactonSamilandrights,withoutconductingappropriateconsultationswiththeSamiParliament,wouldbeaviolationofNorway’sinternationalobligations;(b)itinfluencedthesubstantivenegotiationsbetween the National Parliament and the Sami Parliament. ThisexampleshowsthatthedevelopmentofadistinctprocedurepertainingtoConvention No. 169 - allowing indigenous peoples’organizationstoreportdirectlyontheimplementationofConventionNo.169(formallyorotherwise)-significantlycontributes to and strengthens the supervisorymechanisms.

TheprocedureadoptedbyNorwayhasbeenwelcomedbytheCommitteeofExpertsasapracticalexpressionoftheconsultationrequired under Convention No. 169 as well as ofpointVIIIofthereportformforConventionNo.169,whichstatesthat“governments may find it helpful to consult organizations of indigenous or tribal peoples in the country, through their traditional institutions where they exist, on the measures taken to give effect to the present Convention, and in preparing reports on its application. In so far as this is not already stated in the report, please indicate whether such consultations have been carried out, and what the result has been”.9)

9) Norway example cited in John Henriksen: Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008.


14.6. COmPLAINTS REGARDING NON-OBSERVANCE Of CONVENTION NO. 169

Inadditiontotheregularsupervision,theILOhas“specialprocedures”todealwithallegedviolationsof ILO Conventions. The most commonly used formofcomplaintintheILOsystemiscalleda“Representation”,asprovidedforunderArticle24oftheILOConstitution.ARepresentation,allegingaGovernment’sfailuretoobservecertainprovisionsofratifiedILOConventionscanbesubmittedtotheILObyaworkers’oremployers’organization.Theseshouldbesubmittedinwriting,andinvokeArticle24oftheILOConstitution,aswellasoutlinewhichprovisionsoftheConventioninquestionareallegedto have been violated.

The ILO Governing Body has to decide whether therepresentationis“receivable”-thatis,iftheformalconditionshavebeenmettofileit.Oncetherepresentationhasbeenfoundreceivable,theGoverningBodyappointsaTripartiteCommittee(i.e.onegovernmentrepresentative,oneemployerrepresentativeandoneworkerrepresentative)toexamineit.TheTripartiteCommitteedrawsupareport,whichcontainsconclusionsandrecommendations and submits it to the Governing Bodyforadoption.TheCommitteeofExpertsthenfollows-upontherecommendationsinthecontextofitsregularsupervision.ThereportsofTripartiteCommittees are available online at www.ilo.org/ilolex (seesection14.12).

Representationshavebeenreceivedsince1989ontheapplicationofConventionNo.169inArgentina,Bolivia,Brazil,Colombia,Denmark,Guatemala,Ecuador,MexicoandPeru.

14.7. THE CONVENTION IN NATIONAL COURTS.

Whendealingwithcasesrelatingtotherightsofindigenouspeoples,nationalcourtscanrelyonrelevantinternationallaw.Wherethenationallegalsystemprovidesthatratifiedinternationaltreatieshave the force of law and thus form an integral partofthelawofthecountry,theConventioncanbeinvokedbeforethecourts,which,inturncandirectlyrelyonitsprovisionsintheirdecisions.The

courts may use the Convention in the absence of -ortocomplement-anationalnorm.Frequently,the Convention has a higher rank than the laws generally,whichmeansthatincaseswherethenationallawisinconflictwiththeConvention,thelatterprevailsandistobeappliedbythecourts.

Followingtheprinciplethatnationallawshouldbeinterpretedinthelightofthecountry’sinternationalobligations,theConventionalsoplaysaroleasregardstheinterpretationofnationallawconcerningoraffectingindigenouspeoples.SuchaninterpretativeuseoftheConventionisalsopossibleincountrieswhereratificationofaConventiondoesnotautomaticallymakeitsprovisionspartofthenationallaw.Innon-ratifyingStates,thecourtscanrelyontheConvention,e.g.inordertodeterminegeneralprinciplesoflaworcustomaryinternationallaw.

TheexactlegalpositionoftheConventionneedstobe examined for each country on the basis of the relevantprovisionsofthenationalconstitutionorotherrelevantlaws,aswellasthejurisprudenceofthecourtsonthistopic.Theboxbelowthereforeprovidesonlyaverygeneralstartingpointforsuchan examination. The table nevertheless shows that in a large number of countries the Convention forms partofthenationallawandcanbedirectlyinvokedbefore the Courts.

ThepositionofConventionNo.169inthelegalsystemsofratifyingcountries

Argentina:• International treaties have force of lawuponratificationandtheirrankishigherthannationallaw(Constitution,arts.31and75,para.22);Bolivia:• Internationaltreatieshavetheforceoflaw,human rights conventions have the same rank astheConstitution(Constitution,arts.257(I)and410(II));Brazil:• International treaties have force of law uponratification,andtheirrankmaybehigherthannationallaw(Constitution,art.5);Chile:• Ratifiedinternationaltreatieshavetheforceof law. The Constitution establishes that sovereignty recognizes as a limitation in its exercise the essential rightsderivingfromhumannature,andthatitshallbethedutyofStatebodiestorespectandpromotesuchrights,asguaranteedbytheConstitution,aswellasbyinternationaltreatiesratifiedbyChileandcurrentlyinforce,whichisthecaseofConvention


No.169.(Constitution,art.5(2)):Colombia:• International treaties have force of law uponratification,humanrightsconventionshavethesamerankastheConstitution(Constitution,arts.53and93,para.1);CostaRica:• International treaties have force of lawuponratificationandtheirrankishigherthannationallaw(Constitution,art.7); Denmark:• International treaties do not have force oflawuponratification;Dominica:• International treaties do not have force oflawuponratification;Ecuador:• International treaties have the force of lawupontheratificationandhaveahigherrankthan ordinary laws. Treaties on human rights which recognize rights that are more favorable than those containedintheConstitutionwillprevailoveranyotherlegalnormoranyactofthepublicauthorities(Constitution,Articles417,424and425);Fiji:• International treaties do not have force of law uponratification; Guatemala:• International treaties have force of law uponratification,humanrightsconventionsprevailindomesticorder(Constitution,art.46);Honduras:• International treaties have force of lawuponratificationandtheirrankishigherthannationallaw(Constitution,arts.16and18);México:• International treaties have force of law uponratificationandtheirrankishigherthannationallaw(Constitution,art.133);Nepal:• Internationaltreatieshaveforceoflawuponratificationandprevailoverconflictingnationallaw(1990TreatyAct,sec.9);Netherlands:• International treaties are directly applicableandtheirrankisthesameastheConstitution(Constitution,art.94);Norway:• International treaties do not have force of lawuponratification(Constitution,art.110);Paraguay:• International treaties have force of lawuponratificationandtheirrankishigherthan

nationallaw(Constitution,137,para.1and141);Peru:• International treaties have the force of law uponratification.HumanrightstreatieshavethesamerankastheConstitution(Constitution,Articles3,55andFourthfinalandtransitoryprovision); Spain:• Internationaltreatieshaveforceoflawuponratificationandtheirrankishigherthannationallaw(Constitution,art.96,para.1);Venezuela:• International treaties have force of law uponratification,humanrightsconventionshavethesamerankastheConstitution(Constitution,arts22and23).

14.8. ENTRy INTO fORCE AND RETROACTIVITy

ConventionNo.169containsaprovision,stipulatingthat it comes into force 12 months after the registrationofitsratificationbytheILO.UntiltheConventioncomesintoforce,ithasnoeffectininternational law.

ILOConventionNo.169:Article 38(3) establishesthat:“thisConventionshall come into force for any Member twelve monthsafterthedateonwhichitsratificationhasbeenregistered.”

InitsanalysisoftheapplicationoftheConvention,theILOCommitteeofExpertshasreaffirmedonseveral occasions that the Convention cannot beappliedretroactively.However,onseveraloccasions,theCommitteehasalsostatedthatiftheconsequencesofdecisionstakenpriortoitsentryintoforcecontinuetoaffecttheindigenouspeoplesinquestion,theConventionwouldbeapplicablewithrespecttosuchconsequences.


Convention No. 169 came into force in Mexicoin1991.In1998,acomplaintwas raised under Article 24 of the ILO Constitution,allegingamongotherthingsthatthegovernmenthadnotprovidedtheaffectedcommunitieswiththepromisedquantityoflandtobeawardedincompensationfor the eviction from their lands due to the constructionofadam,orderedin1972.TheCommittee established to analyse the case observed the Government’s declaration that it “cannot be alleged that the decrees issued in 1972, 1973 and 1974 for the construction of the dam violate the provisions of Convention No. 169, as that Convention only came into force for Mexico in September 1991. This being the case, the Committee considers that the provisions of the Convention may not be applied retroactively, particularly as regards questions of procedure (including the types of consultations which would have been required at the time of taking these decisions if, hypothetically, the Convention had been in force). However, the effects of the decisions that were taken at that time continue to affect the current situation of the indigenous peoples in question, both in relation to their land claims and to the lack of consultations to resolve those claims. The Committee therefore considers that the Convention does currently apply with respect to the consequences of the decisions taken prior to its entry into force.” 10)

14.9. fLExIBILITy IN THE ImPLEmENTATION

ThediversityofindigenouspeoplesandthegeneralsituationofthecountriesthathaveratifiedConven-tionNo.169isenormous,forexamplewithregardstothepercentageofindigenouspopulation,geo-graphicalcharacteristicsandtheoveralldevelop-ment situation of the concerned countries. Further-more,theConventionspecifiestheneedtodevelopmeasuresofimplementationinconsultationwiththeconcernedindigenouspeoplesandinaccordance

10) Governing Body, 276th Session, November 1999, Representation under article 24 of the ILO Constitution, Mexico, GB.276/16/3, para. 36).

withtheirownprioritiesfordevelopment.There-fore,itisnotpossibletoapplyauniformapproachtoimplementationoftheConvention;theprocessneedstobecarefullydesignedanddevelopedbytheconcernedgovernmentsandindigenouspeoplesandtailoredtotheparticularcircumstances.

ILOConventionNo.169 in Article 34 providesforthenecessaryflexibilityofthe nature and scope of measures of implementation:Article 34:Thenatureandscopeofthemeasures to be taken to give effect to this Conventionshallbedeterminedinaflexiblemanner,havingregardtotheconditionscharacteristic of each country.

Article 34 does not limit the obligation of ratifying StatestomakeeffectivealltheprovisionsoftheConvention.However,themeasurestothisendshallbedeterminedinaflexiblemanner,takingintoaccounttheparticularcircumstances.Itisalsoimportanttorecallthatnolimitationsonthe obligations of an ILO Convention other than thosespecificallyprovidedforintheinstrumentarepossible(i.e.noreservations).

14.10. POSSIBILITy Of SEEkING CLARIfICA-TION ON PROVISIONS Of ILO CONVENTIONS

Itisprimarilyuptoconcernedgovernmentstojudgewhetherornottheirnationallawandpracticeareorcanbecompatiblewiththestandardslaiddownininternationallabourconventions,subject–intheeventofratification–totheproceduresestablishedbytheILOforthereviewofreportsrelatingtotheapplicationofratifiedConventions.ILOconstituentshavethepossibilityofseekingclarificationsregardingthemeaningofparticularprovisionsofILOConventionsbyrequestinganinformalopinionfromtheInternationalLabourOffice.Because the Constitution of the ILO confers no specialcompetenceupontheOfficetointerpretConventions,itmustlimititselftoprovidinginformation enabling the constituents to assess theappropriatescopeofanygivenprovisionofaConvention.Inthisprocess,theOfficetakes


into account any relevant elements that may have emergedfromtheILO’spreparatoryworkandthecommentsofitssupervisorybodies.

14.11. ILO TECHNICAL COOPERATION AND ADVISORy SERVICES

TheInternationalLabourStandardsDepart-mentoftheInternationalLabourOfficeinGenevatogetherwiththeILOstandardsspecialistsintheregionsworktogiveallkindsoftraining,explana-tions,adviceandassistanceonmattersrelatingtotheratificationandapplicationofinternationallabourConventions. Theseservicesareofferedbothinresponsetospecificrequestsreceivedfromgovernmentsoremployers’orworkers’organizationsandthroughroutine advisory missions and informal discussions initiatedbytheOffice.Matterswhichmaybedealtwithincludethecommentsofthesupervisorybodiesandmeasurestheymightcallfor;newlegislation;andgovernmentreportstobedrafted.Theconstituents may also send draft legislation to the ILO for comment and advice.TheInternationalLabourStandardsDepartmentalsohasaspecialtechnicalcooperationprogrammeonindigenousandtribalpeoples,whichprovidesassistancetogovernments,indigenousorganisationsandotherpartners:theProgrammetoPromoteILOConventionNo.169(PRO169),whichaimsatpromotingtherightsandimprovingthe socio-economic situation of indigenous and tribal peoples.

PRO 169 is based within the International Labour StandardsDepartment andhasfieldcoordinatorsinanumberofILOoffices.PRO169worksonawiderangeofthematicaswellasinternational,regionalandcountry-specificissues.PRO169combinesaflexibledemand-drivenapproach,respondingtoemergingneedsandopportunitieswithlonger-termstrategic initiatives at regional and country-level. InAfrica,comprehensiveresearchonthesituationofindigenouspeoplesisundertakenincollaborationwith the African Commission on Human and Peoples’Rightsandcountry-levelactivitiesinCameroon,Kenya and Namibia are addressing policyreform,capacity-buildingofgovernmentandindigenouspartnersaswellaslocaleconomic

development.InAsia,thefocusisondialogueandconflictresolutionaswellaspolicyreformandcapacity-buildingofindigenousandgovernmentpartners.InSeptember2007,amajorachievementwasreachedas NepalratifiedConventionNo.169aspartofthecurrentpeaceandstatereformprocess.In Latin America,PRO169isincreasinglyrespondingtoneedsandrequestsfortechnicalcooperationrelatedtotheimplementationofConvention No. 169,identifiedthroughtheILOsupervisorybodies. More information is available at http://www.ilo.org/indigenous or through email: [email protected]

14.12. ILO INfORmATION RESOURCES

TheILO’swebsiteonindigenousandtribalpeoplesissues(http://www.ilo.org/indigenous),containsaseriesofinformationresources,manuals,guidelinesandinformationaboutILOprogrammesandprojectsonindigenouspeoples’rights.The Programme to Promote ILO Convention No. 169(PRO169)hasestablishedatrainingwebsite,whichprovidesaseriesofmaterialsforconductingtrainingonindigenousandtribalpeoples’rights,includingvideos,powerpointpresentationsandbackgroundmaterials(http://www.pro169.org).ILOLEX(http://www.ilo.org/ilolex)istheILO’strilingualdatabase(Spanish,FrenchandEnglish),whichprovidesinformationaboutratificationofILOConventionsandRecommendations,commentsoftheCommitteeofExperts,Representations,Complaints,interpretationsofILOConventions,andnumerousrelateddocuments.InILOLEX,youcansearchforinformationaboutaspecificConventionand/oraparticularcountry.ILO’sdatabaseAPPLISprovidesinformationontheapplicationofInternationalLabourStandards.TheILOHandbookofproceduresrelatingto international labour Conventions and Recommendations(revisededition2006),offersdetailedinformationonissuessuchasratificationandsupervision.ThewebsiteoftheInternationalLabourStandardsDepartmentisacomprehensivesourceof information regarding the ILO standards system andrelatedactivities(http://www.ilo.org/normes)

annexes

ANNExES 187

TheGeneralConferenceoftheInternationalLabourOrganisation,Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the InternationalLabourOffice,andhavingmetinits76thSessionon7June1989,and

Noting the international standards contained in the Indigenous and TribalPopulationsConventionandRecommendation,1957,andRecallingthetermsoftheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,theInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,theInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,andthemanyinternationalinstrumentsonthepreventionofdiscrimination,and

Consideringthatthedevelopmentswhichhavetakenplaceininternationallawsince1957,aswellasdevelopmentsinthesituationofindigenousandtribalpeoplesinallregionsoftheworld,havemadeitappropriatetoadoptnewinternationalstandardsonthe subject with a view to removing the assimilationist orientation of theearlierstandards,and

Recognisingtheaspirationsofthesepeoplestoexercisecontrolovertheirowninstitutions,waysoflifeandeconomicdevelopmentandtomaintainanddeveloptheiridentities,languagesandreligions,withintheframeworkoftheStatesinwhichtheylive,and

Notingthatinmanypartsoftheworldthesepeoplesareunableto enjoy their fundamental human rights to the same degree as therestofthepopulationoftheStateswithinwhichtheylive,andthattheirlaws,values,customsandperspectiveshaveoftenbeeneroded,and

Calling attention to the distinctive contributions of indigenous and tribalpeoplestotheculturaldiversityandsocialandecologicalharmonyofhumankindandtointernationalco-operationandunderstanding,and

Notingthatthefollowingprovisionshavebeenframedwiththeco-operationoftheUnitedNations,theFoodandAgricultureOrganisationoftheUnitedNations,theUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisationandtheWorldHealthOrganisation,aswellasoftheInter-AmericanIndianInstitute,atappropriatelevelsandintheirrespectivefields,andthatitisproposedtocontinuethisco-operationinpromotingandsecuringtheapplicationoftheseprovisions,and

HavingdecidedupontheadoptionofcertainproposalswithregardtothepartialrevisionoftheIndigenousandTribalPopulationsConvention,1957(No.107),whichisthefourthitemontheagendaofthesession,and

Havingdeterminedthattheseproposalsshalltaketheformofan international Convention revising the Indigenous and Tribal PopulationsConvention,1957;adoptsthistwenty-seventhdayofJuneoftheyearonethousandninehundredandeighty-ninethefollowingConvention,whichmaybecitedastheIndigenousandTribalPeoplesConvention,1989;

PARTI.GENERALPOLICY

Article11. ThisConventionappliesto:(a)tribalpeoplesinindependentcountrieswhosesocial,culturaland economic conditions distinguish them from other sections of thenationalcommunity,andwhosestatusisregulatedwhollyorpartiallybytheirowncustomsortraditionsorbyspeciallawsorregulations;(b)peoplesinindependentcountrieswhoareregardedasindigenousonaccountoftheirdescentfromthepopulationswhichinhabitedthecountry,orageographicalregiontowhichthecountrybelongs,atthetimeofconquestorcolonisationortheestablishmentofpresentstateboundariesandwho,irrespectiveoftheirlegalstatus,retainsomeoralloftheirownsocial,economic,culturalandpoliticalinstitutions.2.Self-identificationasindigenousortribalshallberegardedasafundamentalcriterionfordeterminingthegroupstowhichtheprovisionsofthisConventionapply.3.TheuseofthetermpeoplesinthisConventionshallnotbeconstruedashavinganyimplicationsasregardstherightswhichmay attach to the term under international law.

Article21.Governmentsshallhavetheresponsibilityfordeveloping,withtheparticipationofthepeoplesconcerned,co-ordinatedandsystematicactiontoprotecttherightsofthesepeoplesandtoguaranteerespectfortheirintegrity.2.Suchactionshallincludemeasuresfor:(a)ensuringthatmembersofthesepeoplesbenefitonanequalfootingfromtherightsandopportunitieswhichnationallawsandregulationsgranttoothermembersofthepopulation;(b)promotingthefullrealisationofthesocial,economicandculturalrightsofthesepeopleswithrespectfortheirsocialandculturalidentity,theircustomsandtraditionsandtheirinstitutions;(c)assistingthemembersofthepeoplesconcernedtoeliminatesocio-economicgapsthatmayexistbetweenindigenousandothermembersofthenationalcommunity,inamannercompatiblewiththeiraspirationsandwaysoflife.

Article31.Indigenousandtribalpeoplesshallenjoythefullmeasureofhuman rights and fundamental freedoms without hindrance or discrimination.TheprovisionsoftheConventionshallbeappliedwithout discrimination to male and female members of these peoples.2. No form of force or coercion shall be used in violation of the humanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsofthepeoplesconcerned,including the rights contained in this Convention.

Article41.Specialmeasuresshallbeadoptedasappropriateforsafeguardingthepersons,institutions,property,labour,culturesandenvironmentofthepeoplesconcerned.2. Suchspecialmeasuresshallnotbecontrarytothefreely-expressedwishesofthepeoplesconcerned.3. Enjoymentofthegeneralrightsofcitizenship,withoutdiscrimination,shallnotbeprejudicedinanywaybysuchspecialmeasures.

ANNEx A: INDIGENOUS AND TRIBAL PEOPLES CONVENTION, 1989 (CONVENTION NO. 169)


Article5InapplyingtheprovisionsofthisConvention:(a)thesocial,cultural,religiousandspiritualvaluesandpracticesofthesepeoplesshallberecognisedandprotected,anddueaccountshallbetakenofthenatureoftheproblemswhichfacethembothasgroupsandasindividuals;(b)theintegrityofthevalues,practicesandinstitutionsofthesepeoplesshallberespected;(c)policiesaimedatmitigatingthedifficultiesexperiencedbythesepeoplesinfacingnewconditionsoflifeandworkshallbeadopted,withtheparticipationandco-operationofthepeoplesaffected.

Article61.InapplyingtheprovisionsofthisConvention,governmentsshall:(a)consultthepeoplesconcerned,throughappropriateproceduresandinparticularthroughtheirrepresentativeinstitutions,wheneverconsideration is being given to legislative or administrative measures whichmayaffectthemdirectly;(b)establishmeansbywhichthesepeoplescanfreelyparticipate,toatleastthesameextentasothersectorsofthepopulation,atalllevels of decision-making in elective institutions and administrative andotherbodiesresponsibleforpoliciesandprogrammeswhichconcernthem;(c)establishmeansforthefulldevelopmentofthesepeoples’owninstitutionsandinitiatives,andinappropriatecasesprovidetheresourcesnecessaryforthispurpose.2. TheconsultationscarriedoutinapplicationofthisConventionshallbeundertaken,ingoodfaithandinaformappropriatetothecircumstances,withtheobjectiveofachievingagreementorconsenttotheproposedmeasures.

Article71.Thepeoplesconcernedshallhavetherighttodecidetheirownprioritiesfortheprocessofdevelopmentasitaffectstheirlives,beliefs,institutionsandspiritualwell-beingandthelandstheyoccupyorotherwiseuse,andtoexercisecontrol,totheextentpossible,overtheirowneconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.Inaddition,theyshallparticipateintheformulation,implementationandevaluationofplansandprogrammesfornationalandregionaldevelopmentwhichmayaffectthemdirectly.2.Theimprovementoftheconditionsoflifeandworkandlevelsofhealthandeducationofthepeoplesconcerned,withtheirparticipationandco-operation,shallbeamatterofpriorityinplansfortheoveralleconomicdevelopmentofareastheyinhabit.Specialprojectsfordevelopmentoftheareasinquestionshallalsobesodesignedastopromotesuchimprovement.3.Governmentsshallensurethat,wheneverappropriate,studiesarecarriedout,inco-operationwiththepeoplesconcerned,toassessthesocial,spiritual,culturalandenvironmentalimpactonthemofplanneddevelopmentactivities.Theresultsofthesestudiesshallbeconsideredasfundamentalcriteriafortheimplementationof these activities. 4. Governmentsshalltakemeasures,inco-operationwiththepeoplesconcerned,toprotectandpreservetheenvironmentoftheterritories they inhabit.

Article81.Inapplyingnationallawsandregulationstothepeoplesconcerned,dueregardshallbehadtotheircustomsorcustomarylaws. 2. Thesepeoplesshallhavetherighttoretaintheirowncustomsandinstitutions,wherethesearenotincompatiblewithfundamentalrightsdefinedbythenationallegalsystemandwithinternationally

recognisedhumanrights.Proceduresshallbeestablished,whenevernecessary,toresolveconflictswhichmayariseintheapplicationofthisprinciple.3. Theapplicationofparagraphs1and2ofthisArticleshallnotpreventmembersofthesepeoplesfromexercisingtherightsgrantedtoallcitizensandfromassumingthecorrespondingduties.

Article91. Totheextentcompatiblewiththenationallegalsystemandinternationallyrecognisedhumanrights,themethodscustomarilypractisedbythepeoplesconcernedfordealingwithoffencescommittedbytheirmembersshallberespected.2. Thecustomsofthesepeoplesinregardtopenalmattersshallbetaken into consideration by the authorities and courts dealing with such cases.

Article101. Inimposingpenaltieslaiddownbygenerallawonmembersofthesepeoplesaccountshallbetakenoftheireconomic,socialandcultural characteristics. 2.Preferenceshallbegiventomethodsofpunishmentotherthanconfinementinprison.

Article11Theexactionfrommembersofthepeoplesconcernedofcompulsorypersonalservicesinanyform,whetherpaidorunpaid,shallbeprohibitedandpunishablebylaw,exceptincasesprescribedbylawforallcitizens.

Article12Thepeoplesconcernedshallbesafeguardedagainsttheabuseoftheirrightsandshallbeabletotakelegalproceedings,eitherindividuallyorthroughtheirrepresentativebodies,fortheeffectiveprotectionoftheserights.Measuresshallbetakentoensurethatmembersofthesepeoplescanunderstandandbeunderstoodinlegalproceedings,wherenecessarythroughtheprovisionofinterpretationorbyothereffectivemeans.

PARTII.LAND

Article131. InapplyingtheprovisionsofthisPartoftheConventiongovernmentsshallrespectthespecialimportancefortheculturesandspiritualvaluesofthepeoplesconcernedoftheirrelationshipwiththelandsorterritories,orbothasapplicable,whichtheyoccupyorotherwiseuse,andinparticularthecollectiveaspectsofthisrelationship.2. The use of the term lands in Articles 15 and 16 shall include the conceptofterritories,whichcoversthetotalenvironmentoftheareaswhichthepeoplesconcernedoccupyorotherwiseuse.

Article141. Therightsofownershipandpossessionofthepeoplesconcernedoverthelandswhichtheytraditionallyoccupyshallberecognised.Inaddition,measuresshallbetakeninappropriatecasestosafeguardtherightofthepeoplesconcernedtouselandsnotexclusivelyoccupiedbythem,buttowhichtheyhavetraditionally had access for their subsistence and traditional activities.Particularattentionshallbepaidtothesituationofnomadicpeoplesandshiftingcultivatorsinthisrespect.2.Governmentsshalltakestepsasnecessarytoidentifythelandswhichthepeoplesconcernedtraditionallyoccupy,andtoguarantee

ANNExES 189

effectiveprotectionoftheirrightsofownershipandpossession.3. Adequateproceduresshallbeestablishedwithinthenationallegalsystemtoresolvelandclaimsbythepeoplesconcerned.

Article151.Therightsofthepeoplesconcernedtothenaturalresourcespertainingtotheirlandsshallbespeciallysafeguarded.Theserightsincludetherightofthesepeoplestoparticipateintheuse,management and conservation of these resources. 2. IncasesinwhichtheStateretainstheownershipofmineralorsub-surfaceresourcesorrightstootherresourcespertainingtolands,governmentsshallestablishormaintainproceduresthroughwhichtheyshallconsultthesepeoples,withaviewtoascertaining whether and to what degree their interests would be prejudiced,beforeundertakingorpermittinganyprogrammesfortheexplorationorexploitationofsuchresourcespertainingtotheirlands.Thepeoplesconcernedshallwhereverpossibleparticipateinthebenefitsofsuchactivities,andshallreceivefaircompensationfor any damages which they may sustain as a result of such activities.

Article161.SubjecttothefollowingparagraphsofthisArticle,thepeoplesconcernedshallnotberemovedfromthelandswhichtheyoccupy.2.Wheretherelocationofthesepeoplesisconsiderednecessaryasanexceptionalmeasure,suchrelocationshalltakeplaceonlywiththeirfreeandinformedconsent.Wheretheirconsentcannotbeobtained,suchrelocationshalltakeplaceonlyfollowingappropriateproceduresestablishedbynationallawsandregulations,includingpublicinquirieswhereappropriate,whichprovidetheopportunityforeffectiverepresentationofthepeoplesconcerned.3. Wheneverpossible,thesepeoplesshallhavetherighttoreturntotheirtraditionallands,assoonasthegroundsforrelocationceaseto exist. 4. Whensuchreturnisnotpossible,asdeterminedbyagreementor,intheabsenceofsuchagreement,throughappropriateprocedures,thesepeoplesshallbeprovidedinallpossiblecaseswith lands of quality and legal status at least equal to that of thelandspreviouslyoccupiedbythem,suitabletoprovidefortheirpresentneedsandfuturedevelopment.Wherethepeoplesconcernedexpressapreferenceforcompensationinmoneyorinkind,theyshallbesocompensatedunderappropriateguarantees.5.Personsthusrelocatedshallbefullycompensatedforanyresulting loss or injury.

Article171.Proceduresestablishedbythepeoplesconcernedforthetransmissionoflandrightsamongmembersofthesepeoplesshallberespected.2. Thepeoplesconcernedshallbeconsultedwheneverconsiderationisbeinggiventotheircapacitytoalienatetheirlandsor otherwise transmit their rights outside their own community. 3. Personsnotbelongingtothesepeoplesshallbepreventedfromtaking advantage of their customs or of lack of understanding of thelawsonthepartoftheirmemberstosecuretheownership,possessionoruseoflandbelongingtothem.

Article18Adequatepenaltiesshallbeestablishedbylawforunauthorisedintrusionupon,oruseof,thelandsofthepeoplesconcerned,andgovernmentsshalltakemeasurestopreventsuchoffences.

Article19Nationalagrarianprogrammesshallsecuretothepeoplesconcerned treatment equivalent to that accorded to other sectors of thepopulationwithregardto:(a)theprovisionofmorelandforthesepeopleswhentheyhavenottheareanecessaryforprovidingtheessentialsofanormalexistence,orforanypossibleincreaseintheirnumbers;(b)theprovisionofthemeansrequiredtopromotethedevelopmentofthelandswhichthesepeoplesalreadypossess.

PARTIII.RECRUITMENTANDCONDITIONSOFEMPLOYMENT

Article201.Governmentsshall,withintheframeworkofnationallawsandregulations,andinco-operationwiththepeoplesconcerned,adoptspecialmeasurestoensuretheeffectiveprotectionwithregardtorecruitmentandconditionsofemploymentofworkersbelongingtothesepeoples,totheextentthattheyarenoteffectivelyprotectedbylawsapplicabletoworkersingeneral.2. Governmentsshalldoeverythingpossibletopreventanydiscriminationbetweenworkersbelongingtothepeoplesconcernedandotherworkers,inparticularasregards:(a)admissiontoemployment,includingskilledemployment,aswellasmeasuresforpromotionandadvancement;(b)equalremunerationforworkofequalvalue;(c)medicalandsocialassistance,occupationalsafetyandhealth,allsocialsecuritybenefitsandanyotheroccupationallyrelatedbenefits,andhousing;(d)the right of association and freedom for all lawful trade union activities,andtherighttoconcludecollectiveagreementswithemployersoremployers’organisations.3.Themeasurestakenshallincludemeasurestoensure:(a)thatworkersbelongingtothepeoplesconcerned,includingseasonal,casualandmigrantworkersinagriculturalandotheremployment,aswellasthoseemployedbylabourcontractors,enjoytheprotectionaffordedbynationallawandpracticetoothersuchworkersinthesamesectors,andthattheyarefullyinformedof their rights under labour legislation and of the means of redress availabletothem;(b)thatworkersbelongingtothesepeoplesarenotsubjectedtoworkingconditionshazardoustotheirhealth,inparticularthroughexposuretopesticidesorothertoxicsubstances;(c)thatworkersbelongingtothesepeoplesarenotsubjectedtocoerciverecruitmentsystems,includingbondedlabourandotherformsofdebtservitude;(d)thatworkersbelongingtothesepeoplesenjoyequalopportunitiesandequaltreatmentinemploymentformenandwomen,andprotectionfromsexualharassment.4.Particularattentionshallbepaidtotheestablishmentofadequatelabourinspectionservicesinareaswhereworkersbelongingtothepeoplesconcernedundertakewageemployment,inordertoensurecompliancewiththeprovisionsofthisPartofthisConvention.

PARTIV.VOCATIONALTRAINING,HANDICRAFTSANDRURALINDUSTRIES

Article21Membersofthepeoplesconcernedshallenjoyopportunitiesatleastequaltothoseofothercitizensinrespectofvocationaltrainingmeasures.


Article221. Measuresshallbetakentopromotethevoluntaryparticipationofmembersofthepeoplesconcernedinvocationaltrainingprogrammesofgeneralapplication.2.Wheneverexistingprogrammesofvocationaltrainingofgeneralapplicationdonotmeetthespecialneedsofthepeoplesconcerned,governmentsshall,withtheparticipationofthesepeoples,ensuretheprovisionofspecialtrainingprogrammesandfacilities. 3.Anyspecialtrainingprogrammesshallbebasedontheeconomicenvironment,socialandculturalconditionsandpracticalneedsofthepeoplesconcerned.Anystudiesmadeinthisconnectionshallbecarriedoutinco-operationwiththesepeoples,whoshallbeconsultedontheorganisationandoperationofsuchprogrammes.Wherefeasible,thesepeoplesshallprogressivelyassumeresponsibilityfortheorganisationandoperationofsuchspecialtrainingprogrammes,iftheysodecide.

Article231.Handicrafts,ruralandcommunity-basedindustries,andsubsistenceeconomyandtraditionalactivitiesofthepeoplesconcerned,suchashunting,fishing,trappingandgathering,shallberecognisedasimportantfactorsinthemaintenanceoftheirculturesandintheireconomicself-relianceanddevelopment.Governmentsshall,withtheparticipationofthesepeopleandwheneverappropriate,ensurethattheseactivitiesarestrengthenedandpromoted.2.Upontherequestofthepeoplesconcerned,appropriatetechnicalandfinancialassistanceshallbeprovidedwhereverpossible,takingintoaccountthetraditionaltechnologiesandculturalcharacteristicsofthesepeoples,aswellastheimportanceofsustainableandequitabledevelopment.

PARTV.SOCIALSECURITYANDHEALTH

Article24Socialsecurityschemesshallbeextendedprogressivelytocoverthepeoplesconcerned,andappliedwithoutdiscriminationagainstthem.

Article251. Governments shall ensure that adequate health services are madeavailabletothepeoplesconcerned,orshallprovidethemwith resources to allow them to design and deliver such services undertheirownresponsibilityandcontrol,sothattheymayenjoythehighestattainablestandardofphysicalandmentalhealth.2. Healthservicesshall,totheextentpossible,becommunity-based.Theseservicesshallbeplannedandadministeredinco-operationwiththepeoplesconcernedandtakeintoaccounttheireconomic,geographic,socialandculturalconditionsaswellastheirtraditionalpreventivecare,healingpracticesandmedicines.3. Thehealthcaresystemshallgivepreferencetothetrainingandemploymentoflocalcommunityhealthworkers,andfocusonprimaryhealthcarewhilemaintainingstronglinkswithotherlevelsof health care services. 4. Theprovisionofsuchhealthservicesshallbeco-ordinatedwithothersocial,economicandculturalmeasuresinthecountry.

PARTVI.EDUCATIONANDMEANSOFCOMMUNICATION

Article26Measuresshallbetakentoensurethatmembersofthepeoplesconcernedhavetheopportunitytoacquireeducationatalllevelsonat least an equal footing with the rest of the national community.

Article271. Educationprogrammesandservicesforthepeoplesconcernedshallbedevelopedandimplementedinco-operationwiththemtoaddresstheirspecialneeds,andshallincorporatetheirhistories,theirknowledgeandtechnologies,theirvaluesystemsandtheirfurthersocial,economicandculturalaspirations.2. Thecompetentauthorityshallensurethetrainingofmembersofthesepeoplesandtheirinvolvementintheformulationandimplementationofeducationprogrammes,withaviewtotheprogressivetransferofresponsibilityfortheconductoftheseprogrammestothesepeoplesasappropriate.3. Inaddition,governmentsshallrecognisetherightofthesepeoplestoestablishtheirowneducationalinstitutionsandfacilities,providedthatsuchinstitutionsmeetminimumstandardsestablishedbythecompetentauthorityinconsultationwiththesepeoples.Appropriateresourcesshallbeprovidedforthispurpose.

Article281. Childrenbelongingtothepeoplesconcernedshall,whereverpracticable,betaughttoreadandwriteintheirownindigenouslanguageorinthelanguagemostcommonlyusedbythegrouptowhichtheybelong.Whenthisisnotpracticable,thecompetentauthoritiesshallundertakeconsultationswiththesepeopleswithaviewtotheadoptionofmeasurestoachievethisobjective.2. Adequatemeasuresshallbetakentoensurethatthesepeopleshavetheopportunitytoattainfluencyinthenationallanguageorinoneoftheofficiallanguagesofthecountry.3. Measuresshallbetakentopreserveandpromotethedevelopmentandpracticeoftheindigenouslanguagesofthepeoplesconcerned.

Article29Theimpartingofgeneralknowledgeandskillsthatwillhelpchildrenbelongingtothepeoplesconcernedtoparticipatefullyandonanequal footing in their own community and in the national community shallbeanaimofeducationforthesepeoples.

Article301. Governmentsshalladoptmeasuresappropriatetothetraditionsandculturesofthepeoplesconcerned,tomakeknowntothemtheirrightsandduties,especiallyinregardtolabour,economicopportunities,educationandhealthmatters,socialwelfareandtheirrights deriving from this Convention. 2.Ifnecessary,thisshallbedonebymeansofwrittentranslationsand through the use of mass communications in the languages of thesepeoples.

Article31Educational measures shall be taken among all sections of the nationalcommunity,andparticularlyamongthosethatareinmostdirectcontactwiththepeoplesconcerned,withtheobjectofeliminatingprejudicesthattheymayharbourinrespectofthesepeoples.Tothisend,effortsshallbemadetoensurethathistorytextbooksandothereducationalmaterialsprovideafair,accurateandinformativeportrayalofthesocietiesandculturesofthesepeoples.

ANNExES 191

PARTVII.CONTACTSANDCO-OPERATIONACROSSBORDERS

Article32Governmentsshalltakeappropriatemeasures,includingbymeansofinternationalagreements,tofacilitatecontactsandco-operationbetweenindigenousandtribalpeoplesacrossborders,includingactivitiesintheeconomic,social,cultural,spiritualandenvironmentalfields.

PARTVIII.ADMINISTRATION

Article331. ThegovernmentalauthorityresponsibleforthematterscoveredinthisConventionshallensurethatagenciesorotherappropriatemechanismsexisttoadministertheprogrammesaffectingthepeoplesconcerned,andshallensurethattheyhavethemeansnecessaryfortheproperfulfilmentofthefunctionsassignedtothem. 2. Theseprogrammesshallinclude:(a)theplanning,co-ordination,executionandevaluation,inco-operationwiththepeoplesconcerned,ofthemeasuresprovidedforinthisConvention;(b)theproposingoflegislativeandothermeasurestothecompetentauthoritiesandsupervisionoftheapplicationofthemeasurestaken,inco-operationwiththepeoplesconcerned.

PARTIX.GENERALPROVISIONS

Article34ThenatureandscopeofthemeasurestobetakentogiveeffecttothisConventionshallbedeterminedinaflexiblemanner,havingregard to the conditions characteristic of each country.

Article35TheapplicationoftheprovisionsofthisConventionshallnotadverselyaffectrightsandbenefitsofthepeoplesconcernedpursuanttootherConventionsandRecommendations,internationalinstruments,treaties,ornationallaws,awards,customoragreements.

PARTX.FINALPROVISIONS

Article36ThisConventionrevisestheIndigenousandTribalPopulationsConvention,1957.

Article37TheformalratificationsofthisConventionshallbecommunicatedtotheDirector-GeneraloftheInternationalLabourOfficeforregistration.

Article381.ThisConventionshallbebindingonlyuponthoseMembersoftheInternationalLabourOrganisationwhoseratificationshavebeenregistered with the Director-General. 2. It shall come into force twelve months after the date on which the ratificationsoftwoMembershavebeenregisteredwiththeDirector-General. 3. Thereafter,thisConventionshallcomeintoforceforanyMember

twelvemonthsafterthedateonwhichitsratificationhasbeenregistered.

Article391. AMemberwhichhasratifiedthisConventionmaydenounceitaftertheexpirationoftenyearsfromthedateonwhichtheConventionfirstcomesintoforce,byanactcommunicatedtotheDirector-GeneraloftheInternationalLabourOfficeforregistration.Such denunciation shall not take effect until one year after the date on which it is registered. 2. EachMemberwhichhasratifiedthisConventionandwhichdoesnot,withintheyearfollowingtheexpirationoftheperiodoftenyearsmentionedintheprecedingparagraph,exercisetherightofdenunciationprovidedforinthisArticle,willbeboundforanotherperiodoftenyearsand,thereafter,maydenouncethisConventionattheexpirationofeachperiodoftenyearsunderthetermsprovidedforinthisArticle.

Article401.TheDirector-GeneraloftheInternationalLabourOfficeshallnotify all Members of the International Labour Organisation of the registrationofallratificationsanddenunciationscommunicatedtohim by the Members of the Organisation. 2. WhennotifyingtheMembersoftheOrganisationoftheregistrationofthesecondratificationcommunicatedtohim,theDirector-General shall draw the attention of the Members of the OrganisationtothedateuponwhichtheConventionwillcomeintoforce.

Article41TheDirector-GeneraloftheInternationalLabourOfficeshallcommunicate to the Secretary-General of the United Nations for registration in accordance with Article 102 of the Charter of theUnitedNationsfullparticularsofallratificationsandactsofdenunciationregisteredbyhiminaccordancewiththeprovisionsoftheprecedingArticles.

Article42At such times as it may consider necessary the Governing Body oftheInternationalLabourOfficeshallpresenttotheGeneralConferenceareportontheworkingofthisConventionandshallexaminethedesirabilityofplacingontheagendaoftheConferencethequestionofitsrevisioninwholeorinpart.

Article431. ShouldtheConferenceadoptanewConventionrevisingthisConventioninwholeorinpart,then,unlessthenewConventionotherwiseprovides-(a)theratificationbyaMemberofthenewrevisingConventionshallipsojureinvolvetheimmediatedenunciationofthisConvention,notwithstandingtheprovisionsofArticle39above,ifandwhenthenewrevisingConventionshallhavecomeintoforce;(b)as from the date when the new revising Convention comes into forcethisConventionshallceasetobeopentoratificationbytheMembers. 2. This Convention shall in any case remain in force in its actual formandcontentforthoseMemberswhichhaveratifieditbuthavenotratifiedtherevisingConvention.

Article44The English and French versions of the text of this Convention are equally authoritative.


The General Assembly,

GuidedbythepurposesandprinciplesoftheCharteroftheUnitedNations,andgoodfaithinthefulfilmentoftheobligationsassumedbyStatesinaccordancewiththeCharter,

Affirmingthatindigenouspeoplesareequaltoallotherpeoples,whilerecognizingtherightofallpeoplestobedifferent,toconsiderthemselvesdifferent,andtoberespectedassuch,

Affirmingalsothatallpeoplescontributetothediversityandrichnessofcivilizationsandcultures,whichconstitutethecommonheritageofhumankind,

Affirming further thatalldoctrines,policiesandpracticesbasedonoradvocatingsuperiorityofpeoplesorindividualsonthebasisofnationaloriginorracial,religious,ethnicorculturaldifferencesareracist,scientificallyfalse,legallyinvalid,morallycondemnableandsociallyunjust,

Reaffirmingthatindigenouspeoples,intheexerciseoftheirrights,shouldbefreefromdiscriminationofanykind,

Concerned thatindigenouspeopleshavesufferedfromhistoricinjusticesasaresultof,interalia,theircolonizationanddispossessionoftheirlands,territoriesandresources,thuspreventingthemfromexercising,inparticular,theirrighttodevelopmentinaccordancewiththeirownneedsandinterests,

Recognizing theurgentneedtorespectandpromotetheinherentrightsofindigenouspeopleswhichderivefromtheirpolitical,economicandsocialstructuresandfromtheircultures,spiritualtraditions,historiesandphilosophies,especiallytheirrightstotheirlands,territoriesandresources,

Recognizingalsotheurgentneedtorespectandpromotetherightsofindigenouspeoplesaffirmedintreaties,agreementsandotherconstructivearrangementswithStates,

Welcomingthefactthatindigenouspeoplesareorganizingthemselvesforpolitical,economic,socialandculturalenhancementand in order to bring to an end all forms of discrimination and oppressionwherevertheyoccur,

Convincedthatcontrolbyindigenouspeoplesoverdevelopmentsaffectingthemandtheirlands,territoriesandresourceswillenablethemtomaintainandstrengthentheirinstitutions,culturesandtraditions,andtopromotetheirdevelopmentinaccordancewiththeiraspirationsandneeds,

Recognizingthatrespectforindigenousknowledge,culturesandtraditionalpracticescontributestosustainableandequitabledevelopmentandpropermanagementoftheenvironment,

Emphasizing the contribution of the demilitarization of the lands and territoriesofindigenouspeoplestopeace,economicandsocialprogressanddevelopment,understandingandfriendlyrelations

amongnationsandpeoplesoftheworld,

Recognizinginparticulartherightofindigenousfamiliesandcommunitiestoretainsharedresponsibilityfortheupbringing,training,educationandwell-beingoftheirchildren,consistentwiththerightsofthechild,

Considering thattherightsaffirmedintreaties,agreementsandother constructive arrangements between States and indigenous peoplesare,insomesituations,mattersofinternationalconcern,interest,responsibilityandcharacter,

Considering alsothattreaties,agreementsandotherconstructivearrangements,andtherelationshiptheyrepresent,arethebasisforastrengthenedpartnershipbetweenindigenouspeoplesandStates,

Acknowledging thattheCharteroftheUnitedNations,theInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights1) andtheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,2aswellastheViennaDeclarationandProgrammeofAction,2)affirmthefundamentalimportanceoftherighttoself-determinationofallpeoples,byvirtueofwhichtheyfreelydeterminetheirpoliticalstatusandfreelypursuetheireconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment,

Bearing in mind that nothing in this Declaration may be used to denyanypeoplestheirrighttoself-determination,exercisedinconformitywithinternationallaw,

Convinced thattherecognitionoftherightsofindigenouspeoplesinthisDeclarationwillenhanceharmoniousandcooperativerelationsbetweentheStateandindigenouspeoples,basedonprinciplesofjustice,democracy,respectforhumanrights,non-discriminationandgoodfaith,

EncouragingStatestocomplywithandeffectivelyimplementalltheirobligationsastheyapplytoindigenouspeoplesunderinternationalinstruments,inparticularthoserelatedtohumanrights,inconsultationandcooperationwiththepeoplesconcerned,

Emphasizing thattheUnitedNationshasanimportantandcontinuingroletoplayinpromotingandprotectingtherightsofindigenouspeoples,

BelievingthatthisDeclarationisafurtherimportantstepforwardfortherecognition,promotionandprotectionoftherightsandfreedomsofindigenouspeoplesandinthedevelopmentofrelevantactivitiesoftheUnitedNationssysteminthisfield,

Recognizingandreaffirmingthatindigenousindividualsareentitledwithout discrimination to all human rights recognized in international law,andthatindigenouspeoplespossesscollectiverightswhichareindispensablefortheirexistence,well-beingandintegraldevelopmentaspeoples,

1) See resolution 2200 A (XXI), annex.

2) A/CONF.157/24 (Part I), chap. III.

ANNEx B: UNITED NATIONS DECLARATION ON THE RIGHTS Of INDIGENOUS PEOPLESAdoptedbyGeneralAssemblyResolution61/295on13September2007

ANNExES 193

Recognizingthatthesituationofindigenouspeoplesvariesfrom region to region and from country to country and that thesignificanceofnationalandregionalparticularitiesandvarious historical and cultural backgrounds should be taken into consideration,

Solemnly proclaims the following United Nations Declaration on the RightsofIndigenousPeoplesasastandardofachievementtobepursuedinaspiritofpartnershipandmutualrespect:

Article1Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttothefullenjoyment,asacollectiveorasindividuals,ofallhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsasrecognizedintheCharteroftheUnitedNations,theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights3) and international human rights law.

Article2Indigenouspeoplesandindividualsarefreeandequaltoallotherpeoplesandindividualsandhavetherighttobefreefromanykindofdiscrimination,intheexerciseoftheirrights,inparticularthatbased on their indigenous origin or identity.

Article3Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoself-determination.Byvirtueofthatrighttheyfreelydeterminetheirpoliticalstatusandfreelypursuetheireconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.

Article4Indigenouspeoples,inexercisingtheirrighttoself-determination,have the right to autonomy or self-government in matters relating totheirinternalandlocalaffairs,aswellaswaysandmeansforfinancingtheirautonomousfunctions.

Article5Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttomaintainandstrengthentheirdistinctpolitical,legal,economic,socialandculturalinstitutions,whileretainingtheirrighttoparticipatefully,iftheysochoose,inthepolitical,economic,socialandculturallifeoftheState.

Article6Every indigenous individual has the right to a nationality.

Article71. Indigenousindividualshavetherightstolife,physicalandmentalintegrity,libertyandsecurityofperson.2. Indigenouspeopleshavethecollectiverighttoliveinfreedom,peaceandsecurityasdistinctpeoplesandshallnotbesubjectedtoanyactofgenocideoranyotheractofviolence,includingforciblyremovingchildrenofthegrouptoanothergroup.

Article81.Indigenouspeoplesandindividualshavetherightnottobesubjected to forced assimilation or destruction of their culture. 2. Statesshallprovideeffectivemechanismsforpreventionof,andredressfor:

3) Resolution 217 A (III).

(a)Anyactionwhichhastheaimoreffectofdeprivingthemoftheirintegrityasdistinctpeoples,oroftheirculturalvaluesorethnicidentities;(b)Anyactionwhichhastheaimoreffectofdispossessingthemoftheirlands,territoriesorresources;(c)Anyformofforcedpopulationtransferwhichhastheaimoreffectofviolatingorundermininganyoftheirrights;(d)Anyformofforcedassimilationorintegration;(e)Anyformofpropagandadesignedtopromoteorinciteracialorethnic discrimination directed against them.

Article9Indigenouspeoplesandindividualshavetherighttobelongtoanindigenouscommunityornation,inaccordancewiththetraditions and customs of the community or nation concerned. No discrimination of any kind may arise from the exercise of such a right.

Article10Indigenouspeoplesshallnotbeforciblyremovedfromtheirlandsorterritories.Norelocationshalltakeplacewithoutthefree,priorandinformedconsentoftheindigenouspeoplesconcernedandafteragreementonjustandfaircompensationand,wherepossible,withtheoptionofreturn.

Article111.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttopractiseandrevitalizetheirculturaltraditionsandcustoms.Thisincludestherighttomaintain,protectanddevelopthepast,presentandfuturemanifestationsoftheircultures,suchasarchaeologicalandhistoricalsites,artefacts,designs,ceremonies,technologiesandvisualandperformingartsand literature.2.Statesshallprovideredressthrougheffectivemechanisms,whichmayincluderestitution,developedinconjunctionwithindigenouspeoples,withrespecttotheircultural,intellectual,religiousandspiritualpropertytakenwithouttheirfree,priorandinformedconsentorinviolationoftheirlaws,traditionsandcustoms.

Article121.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttomanifest,practise,developandteachtheirspiritualandreligioustraditions,customsandceremonies;therighttomaintain,protect,andhaveaccessinprivacytotheirreligiousandculturalsites;therighttotheuseandcontroloftheirceremonialobjects;andtherighttotherepatriationof their human remains. 2.Statesshallseektoenabletheaccessand/orrepatriationofceremonialobjectsandhumanremainsintheirpossessionthroughfair,transparentandeffectivemechanismsdevelopedinconjunctionwithindigenouspeoplesconcerned.

Article131.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttorevitalize,use,developandtransmittofuturegenerationstheirhistories,languages,oraltraditions,philosophies,writingsystemsandliteratures,andtodesignateandretaintheirownnamesforcommunities,placesandpersons.2. States shall take effective measures to ensure that this right


isprotectedandalsotoensurethatindigenouspeoplescanunderstandandbeunderstoodinpolitical,legalandadministrativeproceedings,wherenecessarythroughtheprovisionofinterpretationorbyotherappropriatemeans.

Article141.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoestablishandcontroltheireducationalsystemsandinstitutionsprovidingeducationintheirownlanguages,inamannerappropriatetotheirculturalmethodsofteaching and learning.2.Indigenousindividuals,particularlychildren,havetherighttoalllevels and forms of education of the State without discrimination. 3.Statesshall,inconjunctionwithindigenouspeoples,takeeffectivemeasures,inorderforindigenousindividuals,particularlychildren,includingthoselivingoutsidetheircommunities,tohaveaccess,whenpossible,toaneducationintheirowncultureandprovidedintheirownlanguage.

Article151. Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttothedignityanddiversityoftheircultures,traditions,historiesandaspirationswhichshallbeappropriatelyreflectedineducationandpublicinformation.2. Statesshalltakeeffectivemeasures,inconsultationandcooperationwiththeindigenouspeoplesconcerned,tocombatprejudiceandeliminatediscriminationandtopromotetolerance,understandingandgoodrelationsamongindigenouspeoplesandall other segments of society.

Article161.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoestablishtheirownmediain their own languages and to have access to all forms of non-indigenous media without discrimination. 2. States shall take effective measures to ensure that State-owned mediadulyreflectindigenousculturaldiversity.States,withoutprejudicetoensuringfullfreedomofexpression,shouldencourageprivatelyownedmediatoadequatelyreflectindigenousculturaldiversity.

Article171.Indigenousindividualsandpeopleshavetherighttoenjoyfullyallrightsestablishedunderapplicableinternationalanddomesticlabour law. 2.Statesshallinconsultationandcooperationwithindigenouspeoplestakespecificmeasurestoprotectindigenouschildrenfromeconomicexploitationandfromperforminganyworkthatislikelytobehazardousortointerferewiththechild’seducation,ortobeharmfultothechild’shealthorphysical,mental,spiritual,moralorsocialdevelopment,takingintoaccounttheirspecialvulnerabilityandtheimportanceofeducationfortheirempowerment.3. Indigenous individuals have the right not to be subjected to any discriminatoryconditionsoflabourand,interalia,employmentorsalary.

Article18Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoparticipateindecision-makinginmatterswhichwouldaffecttheirrights,throughrepresentativeschosenbythemselvesinaccordancewiththeirownprocedures,aswellastomaintainanddeveloptheirownindigenousdecision-making institutions.

Article19Statesshallconsultandcooperateingoodfaithwiththeindigenouspeoplesconcernedthroughtheirownrepresentativeinstitutions

inordertoobtaintheirfree,priorandinformedconsentbeforeadoptingandimplementinglegislativeoradministrativemeasuresthat may affect them.

Article201. Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttomaintainanddeveloptheirpolitical,economicandsocialsystemsorinstitutions,tobesecure in the enjoyment of their own means of subsistence and development,andtoengagefreelyinalltheirtraditionalandothereconomic activities. 2.Indigenouspeoplesdeprivedoftheirmeansofsubsistenceanddevelopmentareentitledtojustandfairredress.

Article211. Indigenouspeopleshavetheright,withoutdiscrimination,totheimprovementoftheireconomicandsocialconditions,including,interalia,intheareasofeducation,employment,vocationaltrainingandretraining,housing,sanitation,healthandsocialsecurity.2. Statesshalltakeeffectivemeasuresand,whereappropriate,specialmeasurestoensurecontinuingimprovementoftheireconomicandsocialconditions.Particularattentionshallbepaidtotherightsandspecialneedsofindigenouselders,women,youth,childrenandpersonswithdisabilities.

Article221. Particularattentionshallbepaidtotherightsandspecialneedsofindigenouselders,women,youth,childrenandpersonswithdisabilitiesintheimplementationofthisDeclaration.2.Statesshalltakemeasures,inconjunctionwithindigenouspeoples,toensurethatindigenouswomenandchildrenenjoythefullprotectionandguaranteesagainstallformsofviolenceanddiscrimination.

Article23Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodetermineanddevelopprioritiesandstrategiesforexercisingtheirrighttodevelopment.Inparticular,indigenouspeopleshavetherighttobeactivelyinvolvedindevelopinganddetermininghealth,housingandothereconomicandsocialprogrammesaffectingthemand,asfaraspossible,toadministersuchprogrammesthroughtheirowninstitutions.

Article241. Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttotheirtraditionalmedicinesandtomaintaintheirhealthpractices,includingtheconservationoftheirvitalmedicinalplants,animalsandminerals.Indigenousindividualsalsohavetherighttoaccess,withoutanydiscrimination,to all social and health services. 2. Indigenous individuals have an equal right to the enjoyment of the highestattainablestandardofphysicalandmentalhealth.Statesshalltakethenecessarystepswithaviewtoachievingprogressivelythe full realization of this right.

Article25Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttomaintainandstrengthentheirdistinctivespiritualrelationshipwiththeirtraditionallyownedorotherwiseoccupiedandusedlands,territories,watersandcoastalseasandotherresourcesandtoupholdtheirresponsibilitiestofuture generations in this regard.

Article261. Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttothelands,territoriesandresourceswhichtheyhavetraditionallyowned,occupiedorotherwise used or acquired.

ANNExES 195

2.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoown,use,developandcontrolthelands,territoriesandresourcesthattheypossessbyreasonoftraditionalownershiporothertraditionaloccupationoruse,aswellasthosewhichtheyhaveotherwiseacquired.3. Statesshallgivelegalrecognitionandprotectiontotheselands,territories and resources. Such recognition shall be conducted with duerespecttothecustoms,traditionsandlandtenuresystemsoftheindigenouspeoplesconcerned.

Article27Statesshallestablishandimplement,inconjunctionwithindigenouspeoplesconcerned,afair,independent,impartial,openandtransparentprocess,givingduerecognitiontoindigenouspeoples’laws,traditions,customsandlandtenuresystems,torecognizeandadjudicatetherightsofindigenouspeoplespertainingtotheirlands,territoriesandresources,includingthosewhichweretraditionallyownedorotherwiseoccupiedorused.Indigenouspeoplesshallhavetherighttoparticipateinthisprocess.

Article281. Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoredress,bymeansthatcanincluderestitutionor,whenthisisnotpossible,just,fairandequitablecompensation,forthelands,territoriesandresourceswhichtheyhavetraditionallyownedorotherwiseoccupiedorused,andwhichhavebeenconfiscated,taken,occupied,usedordamagedwithouttheirfree,priorandinformedconsent.2. Unlessotherwisefreelyagreeduponbythepeoplesconcerned,compensationshalltaketheformoflands,territoriesandresourcesequalinquality,sizeandlegalstatusorofmonetarycompensationorotherappropriateredress.

Article291.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttotheconservationandprotectionoftheenvironmentandtheproductivecapacityoftheir lands or territories and resources. States shall establish and implementassistanceprogrammesforindigenouspeoplesforsuchconservationandprotection,withoutdiscrimination.2. States shall take effective measures to ensure that no storage ordisposalofhazardousmaterialsshalltakeplaceinthelandsorterritoriesofindigenouspeopleswithouttheirfree,priorandinformed consent. 3. Statesshallalsotakeeffectivemeasurestoensure,asneeded,thatprogrammesformonitoring,maintainingandrestoringthehealthofindigenouspeoples,asdevelopedandimplementedbythepeoplesaffectedbysuchmaterials,aredulyimplemented.

Article301.Militaryactivitiesshallnottakeplaceinthelandsorterritoriesofindigenouspeoples,unlessjustifiedbyarelevantpublicinterestor otherwise freely agreed with or requested by the indigenous peoplesconcerned.2. States shall undertake effective consultations with the indigenous peoplesconcerned,throughappropriateproceduresandinparticularthroughtheirrepresentativeinstitutions,priortousingtheirlands or territories for military activities.

Article311.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttomaintain,control,protectanddeveloptheirculturalheritage,traditionalknowledgeandtraditionalculturalexpressions,aswellasthemanifestationsoftheirsciences,technologiesandcultures,includinghumanandgeneticresources,seeds,medicines,knowledgeofthepropertiesoffaunaandflora,oraltraditions,literatures,designs,sportsandtraditional

gamesandvisualandperformingarts.Theyalsohavetherighttomaintain,control,protectanddeveloptheirintellectualpropertyoversuchculturalheritage,traditionalknowledge,andtraditionalculturalexpressions.2.Inconjunctionwithindigenouspeoples,Statesshalltakeeffectivemeasurestorecognizeandprotecttheexerciseoftheserights.

Article321. Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodetermineanddevelopprioritiesandstrategiesforthedevelopmentoruseoftheirlandsorterritories and other resources.2.Statesshallconsultandcooperateingoodfaithwiththeindigenouspeoplesconcernedthroughtheirownrepresentativeinstitutionsinordertoobtaintheirfreeandinformedconsentpriortotheapprovalofanyprojectaffectingtheirlandsorterritoriesandotherresources,particularlyinconnectionwiththedevelopment,utilizationorexploitationofmineral,waterorotherresources.3. Statesshallprovideeffectivemechanismsforjustandfairredressforanysuchactivities,andappropriatemeasuresshallbetakentomitigateadverseenvironmental,economic,social,culturalorspiritualimpact.

Article331.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodeterminetheirownidentityormembershipinaccordancewiththeircustomsandtraditions.ThisdoesnotimpairtherightofindigenousindividualstoobtaincitizenshipoftheStatesinwhichtheylive.2.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodeterminethestructuresandtoselectthemembershipoftheirinstitutionsinaccordancewiththeirownprocedures.

Article34Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttopromote,developandmaintaintheirinstitutionalstructuresandtheirdistinctivecustoms,spirituality,traditions,procedures,practicesand,inthecaseswheretheyexist,juridicalsystemsorcustoms,inaccordancewithinternational human rights standards.

Article35Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttodeterminetheresponsibilitiesof individuals to their communities.

Article361. Indigenouspeoples,inparticularthosedividedbyinternationalborders,havetherighttomaintainanddevelopcontacts,relationsandcooperation,includingactivitiesforspiritual,cultural,political,economicandsocialpurposes,withtheirownmembersaswellasotherpeoplesacrossborders.2.States,inconsultationandcooperationwithindigenouspeoples,shall take effective measures to facilitate the exercise and ensure theimplementationofthisright.

Article371.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttotherecognition,observanceandenforcementoftreaties,agreementsandotherconstructivearrangements concluded with States or their successors and to haveStateshonourandrespectsuchtreaties,agreementsandother constructive arrangements.2.NothinginthisDeclarationmaybeinterpretedasdiminishingoreliminatingtherightsofindigenouspeoplescontainedintreaties,agreements and other constructive arrangements.


Article38Statesinconsultationandcooperationwithindigenouspeoples,shalltaketheappropriatemeasures,includinglegislativemeasures,to achieve the ends of this Declaration.

Article39Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttohaveaccesstofinancialand technical assistance from States and through international cooperation,fortheenjoymentoftherightscontainedinthisDeclaration.

Article40IndigenouspeopleshavetherighttoaccesstoandpromptdecisionthroughjustandfairproceduresfortheresolutionofconflictsanddisputeswithStatesorotherparties,aswellastoeffectiveremedies for all infringements of their individual and collective rights.Suchadecisionshallgivedueconsiderationtothecustoms,traditions,rulesandlegalsystemsoftheindigenouspeoplesconcerned and international human rights.

Article41TheorgansandspecializedagenciesoftheUnitedNationssystemand other intergovernmental organizations shall contribute to thefullrealizationoftheprovisionsofthisDeclarationthroughthemobilization,interalia,offinancialcooperationandtechnicalassistance.Waysandmeansofensuringparticipationofindigenouspeoplesonissuesaffectingthemshallbeestablished.

Article42TheUnitedNations,itsbodies,includingthePermanentForumonIndigenousIssues,andspecializedagencies,includingatthecountrylevel,andStatesshallpromoterespectforandfullapplicationoftheprovisionsofthisDeclarationandfollowuptheeffectiveness of this Declaration.

Article43The rights recognized herein constitute the minimum standards for thesurvival,dignityandwell-beingoftheindigenouspeoplesoftheworld.

Article44All the rights and freedoms recognized herein are equally guaranteed to male and female indigenous individuals.

Article45Nothing in this Declaration may be construed as diminishing or extinguishingtherightsindigenouspeopleshavenowormayacquire in the future.

Article461.NothinginthisDeclarationmaybeinterpretedasimplyingforanyState,people,grouporpersonanyrighttoengageinanyactivityortoperformanyactcontrarytotheCharteroftheUnitedNationsor construed as authorizing or encouraging any action which would dismemberorimpair,totallyorinpart,theterritorialintegrityorpoliticalunityofsovereignandindependentStates.2. IntheexerciseoftherightsenunciatedinthepresentDeclaration,humanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsofallshallberespected.The exercise of the rights set forth in this Declaration shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law and in accordance with international human rights obligations. Any such limitations shall be non-discriminatory and strictly necessary solely forthepurposeofsecuringduerecognitionandrespectfortherights and freedoms of others and for meeting the just and most compellingrequirementsofademocraticsociety.3. TheprovisionssetforthinthisDeclarationshallbeinterpretedinaccordancewiththeprinciplesofjustice,democracy,respectforhumanrights,equality,non-discrimination,goodgovernanceandgood faith.

ANNExES 197

ANNEx C: fURTHER READING

Theliteratureonindigenouspeoples’rightsisrichanddiverse.Somekeypublications,elaboratedbyILOandotherinstitutions/authorsare:Anaya,J.:Indigenous Peoples in International Law,OxfordUniversityPress,secondedition,2004.

BedoyaandBedoya:Trabajo Forzoso en la Extracción de la Madera en la Amazonia Peruana,ILO,2005.

Eliminating Discrimination against Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Employment and Occupation: A Guide to ILO Convention No. 111,ILO,2007.

Erni,C.(ed.):The Concept of Indigenous Peoples in Asia: A Resource Book,IWGIAandAIPP,2008.

Guidelines for Combating Child Labour among Indigenous and TribalPeoples,ILOIPECandPRO169,2006.

Guidelines on Indigenous Peoples Issues,UnitedNationsDevelopmentGroup,2008.

Handbook on Combating Child Labour Among Indigenous and Tribal Peoples,PRO169/IPEC,ILO,2006.

ILO Convention on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, 1989(No. 169): A Manual,ProjecttoPromoteILOPolicyonIndigenousandTribalPeoples,2000.

Including Indigenous Peoples in Poverty Reduction Strategies: A Practice Guide Based on Experiences from Cambodia, Cameroon and Nepal;ProgrammetoPromoteILOConventionNo.169,2008.

Indigenous Peoples and the Millennium Development Goals: Perspectives from Communities in Bolivia, Cambodia, Cameroon and Nepal,ILO,2006.

Indigenous Women and the United Nations System: Good Practice and Lessons Learned; Secretariat of the UN Permanent Forum on IndigenousIssues,2006.

Report of the African Commission’s Working Groups of Experts on Indigenous Populations/Communities, adopted by the ACHPR, at its 28th Session, 2005,ACHPRandIWGIA,2006.

Resource Kit on Indigenous Peoples’ Issues, Secretariat of the UN PermanentForumonIndigenousIssues,2008.

Roy,C.andKaye,M.:The International Labour Organization: A Handbook for Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Minority Rights Group,2002.

Roy,R.D.:The ILO Convention on Indigenous and tribal Populations, 1957 and the Laws of Bangladesh: A Comparative Review, ILO,Forthcoming

Roy,R.D.:Challenges for Juridical Pluralism and Customary Laws of Indigenous Peoples: The Case of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, 2004

Tauli-Corpuz,V.&Cariño,J.(eds.):Reclaiming Balance: Indigenous Peoples, Conflict Resolution and Sustainable Development,

TebtebbaFoundation,2004.

The Overview Report of the Research Project by the International Labour Organization and the African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights on the Constitutional and Legislative Protection of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in 24 African Countries, ACHPR & ILO, 2009.

Tool Kit: Best Practices for Including Indigenous Peoples in Sector Programme Support, Danida,2004.

Tomei,M., Indigenous and Tribal Peoples and Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs): an Ethnic Audit of Selected PRSPs,ILO,2005.

Thomas,V.(ed.),Traditional Occupations of Indigenous Tribal Peoples: Emerging Trends, Project to Promote ILO Policy on IndigenousandTribalPeoples,2000.

CasestudiescontributingtotheGuide:BigombeL.,P.&LoubakyM.C.: La consultation et la participation des populations autochtones « pygmées» à l’identification et la protection de leurs usages des ressources forestières et fauniques dans l’aménagement forestier: expérience de l’UFA Kabo de la CIB Nord du Congo, ILO 2008.

CentrodeEstudiosJurídicoseInvestigaciónSocial(CEJIS):Impactos sociales, económicos, culturales y políticos de la aplicación del Convenio No. 169 de la OIT, a través del reconocimiento legal del Territorio Multiétnico II, a favor de los pueblos indígenas Ese Ejja, Tacana y Cavineño en el norte amazónico de Bolivia,ILO,2009.

CentrodePolíticasPúblicasparaelSocialismo(CEPPAS)&GrupodeApoyoJurídicoporelAccesoalaTierra(GAJAT):Del derecho consagrado a la práctica cotidiana: La contribución del Convenio 169 de la OIT en el fortalecimiento de las comunidades Mapuches de la Patagonia Argentina,ILO,2007.

Henriksen,J.:Key Principles in Implementing ILO Convention No. 169, ILO, 2008 Henriksen,J.:The Finnmark Act (Norway), a Case Study, ILO,2008.

Messe,V.:Bonnes pratiques de la mise en œuvre des principes de la convention nº 169 de l’OIT En matière d’éducation. Le cas de l’éducation des enfants baka de la commune rurale de Mbang au Cameroun,ILO,2008

Molinas,R.:Los Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas en un proceso de cambio de la naturaleza de la Nación y del Estado,ILO,2009.

Organisation Tamaynut: La politique de gestion du dossier Amazigh au Maroc a la Lumière de la Convention 169,ILO,2008

Rasmussen,H.:Oqaatsip Kimia: The Power of the Word,ILO,2008.

Uzawo,K:Challenges in the process of self- recognition, ILO,2008

Xanthaki,A.:Good Practices of Indigenous Political Participation: Maori Participation in New Zealand Elective Bodies,ILO,2008.


ANNEx D: INDEx Of COUNTRy CASES AND REfERENCES

COUNTRIES SECTIONS:Algeria 10.4.Argentina 1.3.;3.5.;10.4.;14.3.;14.6.;14.7.Australia 3.6.1.;3.6.2.;5.3.2.;6.2.;11.2.Bangladesh 1.4.;4.2.;6.4.;9.2.;14.1.Bolivia 1.4.;3.5.;3.6.1.;5.3.1.;6.4.;7.5.;8.3.;9.2.;12.4.;14.3.;14.6.;14.7.Brazil 11.2.;14.3.;14.6.;14.7.BurkinaFaso 3.6.1.Burundi 3.6.1.Canada 8.3.;13.2.Cameroon 9.2.;10.4.;14.11.CentralAfricanRepublic 3.6.1.;9.2.Chile 14.3.Colombia 1.3.;4.2.;5.2.;5.3.2.;6.4.;7.4.;13.2.;14.3.;14.4.;14.6.;14.7.Congo 3.6.1.;8.3.CostaRica 14.3.;14.4.;14.7.DemocraticRepublicCongo 3.6.1.Denmark 1.3.;2;4.2.;6.4.;9.2.;10.4.;13.2.;14.3.;14.6.;14.7.Dominica 14.3.;14.7.Ecuador 3.6.1.;5.3.2.;6.4.;8.2.;13.2.;14.3.;14.6.;14.7.Ethiopia 3.6.1.Fiji 14.3.;14.4.;14.7.Finland 5.3.2.;6.4.;13.1.;13.2.Greenland 1.3.;2;4..2.;6.4.;10.4.;13.2.Guatemala 1.4.;3.5.;4.2.;5.2.;5.3.2.;10;12.2.;14.3.;14.6.;14.7.Honduras 14.3.;14.7.India 1.4.;3.6.2.;5.3.2.;7.5.;11.1.;11.2.;14.1.Indonesia 1.4.

ANNExES 199

COUNTRIES SECTIONS:Japan 1.4.Kenya 1.4.;5.3.3.;6.4.;9.2.;14.11.Morocco 5.3.1.Mexico 1.4.;3.5.;5.2.;10;14.3.;14.6.;14.8.Namibia 6.4.Nepal 1.2.;1.4.;3.6.1.;5.3.3.;9.2.;11.2.;12.4.;14.3.;14.4.;14.7.;14.11.Netherlands 14..3.;14.7.NewCaledonia 4.2.NewZealand 5.3.3.;9.2.Nicaragua 4.2.;6.4.;7.5.;9.2.;11.2.;12.4.Norway 1.4.;4.2.;5.3.1.;5.3.2.;6.4.;7.5.;9.1.;10;10.4.;13.1.;13.2.;14.3.;14.4.;

14.5.;14.7.Panama 5.3.4.;7.5.;14.1.Paraguay 1.3.;6.4.;12.4.;14.3.;14.7.Peru 1..4.;7.4.;10;10.4.;12.2.;12.4.;13.2.;14.3.;14.6.;14.7.Philippines 1.2.;3.6.1.;5.3.2.;6.4.;8.3.Russia 1.4.;5.3.2.;13.1.;13.2.Rwanda 3.6.1.Spain 9.1.;14.3.;14.7.SouthAfrica 1.4.Sweden 2;5.3.2.;6.4.;13.1.;13.2.Taiwan 8.3.Tanzania 8.3.;9.2.Thailand 8.3.Uganda 1.4.;3.6.1.;7.5.UnitedStates 11.2.;13.2.Venezuela 3.6.1.;6.4.;8.3.;13.2.;14.3.;14.7.

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IWGIAJennekeArens:page60,81JensDahl:page155JoséeDuranleau:page49ChristianErni:page27,72,83,89,109,135,137,139,168,162MarianneJensen:page28,31,183PalleKjærulff-Schmidt:page10,57,80ArthurKrasilnikoff:page4,54,132NinaMeshtyp:page171AlejandroParellada:page62KathrinWessendorf:page67,88

TimWhytePage32,37,40,70,71,74,76,77,85,151,161

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GreenlandexpoPage13,52,180

KimHansenPage 138

Copyright©InternationalLabourOrganization2009Firstpublished2009

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ILOIndigenousandtribalpeoples’rightsinpractice:aguidetoILOConventionNo.169/InternationalLabourOffice.–Geneva,ILO,2009190p.

ISBN:978-92-2-122378-8(print)ISBN:978-92-2-122379-5(web)

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AlsoavailableinFrench:Lesdroitsdespeuplesautochtonesettribauxdanslapratique,unguidesurlaconventionn°169del’OIT(ISBN978-92-2-222378-7),Geneva,2009,inSpanish:Losderechosdelospueblosindígenasytribalesenlapráctica,unaguíasobreelconvenionúm.169delaOIT(ISBN978-92-2-322378-6),Geneva,2009andinRussian:Правакоренныхнародовинародов,ведущихплеменнойобразжизни,напрактике.РуководствокКонвенцииМОТ№169(ISBN978-92-2-422378-5),Geneva,2009.

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