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Table 2. Characteristics of the 21 articles reviewed.

Authors (year) Sample

size,

gender

Age(years

)

Measure(s) of motor

skills

Assessment of motor

skills

Measure(s) of

cognitive skills

Assessment of

cognitive skills

Resultsa

Gross motor

skills

Roebers &

Kauer6

112,

boys/

girls

7 Jumping Jumping Executive

functions

The Backwards

Colour Recall task,

the Flanker task,

the Simon task, the

Cognitive

Flexibility task

Jumping showed significant positive

correlations, only with 2 out of the 4 executive

functions tests (Flanker: r=-.26*; cognitive

flexibility: r=-.26*).

Davis et al.7b 248,

boys/

girls

4-11 Strength/agility BOT-2 Visual processing,

short-term

memory, long-term

memory, fluid

intelligence,

crystallized

intelligence

KABC-II Significant correlations were found between

strength/agility and visual processing

(r=.32**), short-term memory (r=.27**), long-

term memory (r=.22**), and crystallized

intelligence (r=.24*). The correlation between

strength/agility and fluid intelligence was not

significant.

Davis et al.8b 242,

boys/

4-11 Strength/agility BOT-2 Visual processing,

short-term


girls, memory, long-term

memory, fluid

intelligence,

crystallized

intelligence

strength/agility and visual processing


term memory (r=.23**), fluid intelligence

(r=.23**), and crystallized intelligence

(r=.24**).

Jenni et al.10 252,

boys/

girls

7-16 Static and dynamical

Balance

ZNA General IQ, verbal

IQ, performance

IQ, visuomotor IQ

WPPSI, WISC-R,

AID

Static balance was significantly related to

general IQ (r=.20**), verbal IQ (r=.16*),

performance IQ (r=.16*), and visuomotor IQ

(r=.15*). The correlations between dynamical

balance and all IQ score were not significant.

Cameron et

al.24

213,

boys/

girls

4 Gross motor skills ESI-R Reading, verbal

comprehension,

mathematics,

general

knowledge,

crystallized

intelligence

WJ III,

Word-reading,

letter–word

identification,

reading

comprehension,

passage

comprehension,

There were significant correlations between

gross motor skills and reading (r=.17*), verbal

comprehension (r=.16*), and mathematics

(r=.18*). The correlations between gross

motor skills and general knowledge and

crystallized intelligence were not significant.

Kovac &

Strel25

1859,

girls

10-16 Strength/agility,

balance

ACDSi Fluid intelligence TN-20 The correlation between strength/agility and

fluid intelligence in 10-16 year old girls was

not significant, except for 12 year old girls

(r=.26**). The correlation between balance

and fluid intelligence was not significant,

except for 11 year old girls (r=.29**).

Rigoli et al.26c 93, boys/

girls

12-16 Balance MABC-2 (Visuospatial)

working memory,

academic skills,

verbal

comprehension,

executive

functions

WIAT – II, WISC

– IV, N-back task

Balance only showed a significant correlation

with executive functions (r=.26*) and not with

the other cognitive skills.

Livesey et al.27 36, boys/

girls

5-6 Balance MABC Executive

functions

Modified stop-

signal task,

Modified Day-

night Stroop task

Balance was not significantly related to

executive functions.


girls

12-16 Balance MABC-2 Attention,

executive

functions,

working memory,

verbal

comprehension

WISC – IV, N-

back task, NEPSY

Balance did not show significant correlations

with cognitive skills.

Katic & Bala29 162, girls 10-14 Agility, jumping, Board balance, seated Cognitive capacity Raven’s SPM In 10-12 year old children, cognitive

sprinting, strength straddle stretch, standing

broad jump, 20-m dash,

medicine ball throw from

supine position, crossed-

arm sit-ups bent-arm

hang

to encode and

analyze

information

functioning was implicated in their motor

efficiency by agility. In 13-14 year old

children, cognitive functioning was implicated

in their motor efficiency by jumping,

sprinting, agility, and trunk strength.

Planinsec30 665,

boys/

girls

5-6 Strength and agility,

balance

Stepping sideways,

running with changing

directions, running in a

zigzag, standing long

jump, standing triple

jump, standing high

jump, stepping on a

bench, sideway jumps,

sideway jumps with hand

support, standing on a

block, longitudinally

standing on a block

crosswise, standing on a

vertical block

Fluid intelligence The Test Razkol Strength and agility and balance did not

significantly contribute to fluid intelligence.

Planinsec31 550, boys 10,12,14 Trunk flexibility/ Eurofit Test Battery Fluid intelligence TN-20 There were no significant relationships

strength, shoulder

flexibility, agility,

balance

between the gross motor skills and fluid

intelligence in 10 and 14 year old boys. In 12

year old boys, trunk flexibility and shoulder

frame flexibility did significantly contribute to

fluid intelligence (resp. β=.18* and β=.15*).

Fine motor

skills

Davis et al.7b 248,

boys/

girls

4-11 Fine manual control,

manual dexterity

BOT-2 Visual processing,

short-term

memory, long-term

memory, fluid

intelligence,

crystallized

intelligence

KABC-II Significant relations were found between fine

manual control and visual processing



(r=.40**) and crystallized intelligence

(r=.40**). There were also significant

relations between manual dexterity and visual

processing (r=.34**) and short-term memory

(r=.20**), but not between manual dexterity

and long-term memory and crystallized

intelligence.

Davis et al.8b 242,

boys/

girls

4-11 Fine manual control,

manual dexterity

BOT-2 Visual processing,

short-term

memory, long-term

memory, fluid


fine manual control and visual processing



intelligence,

crystallized

intelligence


(r=.40**). There were also significant

correlations between manual dexterity and

visual processing (r=.34**), short-term

memory (r=.21**), and fluid intelligence

(r=.23**). There were no significant

correlations between manual dexterity and

long-term memory and crystallized

intelligence.

Cameron et

al.24

213,

boys/

girls

4 Fine motor skills ESI-R General

knowledge,

reading, verbal

comprehension,

mathematics,

crystallized

intelligence

WJ III,

Word-reading,

Reading

comprehension,

passage

comprehension

Fine motor skills showed significant

correlations with general knowledge

(r=.16**), reading (r=.35**), verbal

comprehension (r=.25**), mathematics


(r=.19**).


girls

12-16 Manual coordination MABC-2 (visuospatial)

working memory,

verbal

comprehension,

academic skills

WIAT–II, WISC–

IV, N-back task

There were no significant correlations between

manual coordination and the different

cognitive skills.


girls

5-6 Fine manual control MABC Executive

functions

Modified stop-

signal task,

Modified Day-

night Stroop task

Fine manual control was significantly related

to executive functions (r=-.36*).


girls

12-16 Manual coordination MABC-2 Attention,

executive

functions

WISC–IV, N-back

task, NEPSY

There was a significant correlation between

manual coordination and attention (r=.52*)

and executive functions (r=.23*).

Morales et

al.32

487,

boys/

girls

9-16 Fine manual control The Tower of Cubes test Oral skills,

mathematics

GABT, DAT The correlations between fine motor skills and

mathematics (r=-.73*) and oral skills (r=-.72*)

were significant in 9-12 year old children. In

the 13-16 age group, fine motor skills were

also significantly correlated with mathematics

(r=-.64*) and oral skills (r=-.74*).

Bilateral

body

coordination

Roebers &

Kauer6

112,

boys/

girls

6-9 Body coordination,

postural flexibility,

moving sideways

The Postural flexibility

task

Executive

functions

The Backwards

Color Recall task,

the Flanker task,

the Simon task, the

Cognitive

There were no significant correlations between

body coordination tasks, postural flexibility,

and moving sideways and executive functions.

Flexibility task

Davis et al.7b 248,

boys/

girls

4-11 Body coordination BOT-2 Visual processing,

short-term

memory, long-term

memory, fluid

intelligence,

crystallized

intelligence


body coordination and visual processing




(r=.34**).

Davis et al.8b 242,

boys/

girls

4-11 Body coordination BOT-2 Visual processing,

short-term

memory, long-term

memory, fluid

intelligence,

crystallized

intelligence

KABC-II There were significant correlations between

body coordination and visual processing




(r=.32**).

Planinsec &

Pisot9

550, boys 13 Body coordination,

complex coordination

movements, coordination

of movements in rhythm,

climbing and descending

ACDSi Fluid intelligence TN-20 The above average intelligence group scored

significantly better on whole body

coordination, complex coordination

movements, and coordination of movements

in rhythm. There were no significant

differences between above and below average

intelligence groups in the motor coordination

test climbing and descending.

Kovac &

Strel25

1859,

girls

10-16 Coordination of

movements in rhythm

ACDSi Fluid intelligence TN-20 The correlation between coordination of

movement in rhythm and fluid intelligence

was significant in 10, 11 and 14 year old

children (resp. r=.20**, r=.27** and r=.26**).

Katic & Bala29 162, girls 10-14 Muscle tone regulation,

coordination.

Steps laterally,

Obstacle course

backwards

Cognitive capacity

to encode and

analyze

information

The Raven’s SPM In 10-12 year old children, cognitive

functioning was implicated in their motor

efficiency by muscle tone regulation and

coordination. In 13-14 year old children,

cognitive functioning was not implicated in

their motor efficiency.

Planinsec30 665,

boys/

girls

5-6 Body coordination Walking on rungs

backwards, walking

through hoops

backwards, polygon

backward, crawling

under the bench, running

after crawling

Fluid intelligence The Test Razkol Body coordination significantly contributed to

fluid intelligence (boys: β=.41*; girls:

β=.24*).

Planinsec31 550, boys 10,12,14 Coordination of

movements in rhythm,

body coordination,

Eurofit Test Battery Fluid intelligence TN-20 Coordination of movement in rhythm

significantly contributed to fluid intelligence

(10 years: β=.20*, 12 years: β=.22*, 14 years:

complex coordination

movements

β=.19*). Body coordination and complex

coordination movements did not significantly

contribute to fluid intelligence.

Nourbakhsh36 400,

boys/

girls

10-11 General static

coordination, general

dynamic coordination

The Oseretsky scale Academic skills A grade-point

average of the

final exams

There was a significant correlation between

general static coordination and academic skills

(0.22*) and between general dynamic

coordination and academic skills (0.20**).

Timed

performance

in movements

Roebers &

Kauer6

112,

boys/

girls

6-9 Speed of movement The Pegboard task Executive

functions

The Backwards

Color Recall task,

the Flanker task,

the Simon task, the

Cognitive

Flexibility task

There was no significant correlation between

the pegboard task and executive functions.

Jenni et al.10 252,

boys/

girls

7-16 Repetitive/sequenced

movements, hand-foot

motor tasks

Speed of movement

ZNA General IQ, verbal

IQ, performance

IQ, visuomotor IQ

WPPSI, WISC-R,

AID

Correlations between sequenced finger

movements and general IQ (r=.23**), verbal

IQ (r=.20**), performance IQ (r=.16*), and

visuomotor IQ (r=.22**) were systematically

higher than those between repetitive finger

movements and general IQ (r=.16*), verbal IQ

(r=.13*), performance IQ (r=.11*), and

visuomotor IQ (r=.15*). There were also

significant correlations between hand-foot

motor tasks and general IQ (r=.25**), verbal

IQ (r=.21**), performance IQ (r=.16*), and

visuomotor IQ (r=.22**).

Correlations were found between the pegboard

task and performance IQ (r=.31**),

visuomotor IQ (r=.35**), and general IQ

(r=.18*). There was no correlation between

the pegboard task and verbal IQ.

Martin et al.11 136,

boys/

girls

6-16 Repetitive/sequenced

movements

PANESS General IQ, verbal

IQ

WISC-III, WISC-

IV

Verbal IQ added a significant proportion of

unique variance to the prediction of the

sequenced motor speed factor (R2=.02*). For

the repetitive factor, verbal IQ was not a

significant predictor of motor speed, after

controlling for age and sex. The same was

found for general IQ and repetitive/sequenced

movements.

Kovac &

Strel25

1859,

girls

10-16 Speed of simple

movements

ACDSi Fluid intelligence TN-20 There was a significant relation between speed

of simple movements and fluid intelligence in

11 year old girls (r=.27**) and in 12 year old

girls (r=.26*). There were no significant

relationships between speed of simple

movements and fluid intelligence in 10 and

13-16 year old girls.

Planinsec30 665,

boys/

girls

5-6 Speed of simple/complex

movements

Hand tapping in two

fields, foot tapping, hand

tapping in four fields

Fluid intelligence The Test Razkol Speed of simple and complex movements

significantly contributed to fluid intelligence

(resp. boys: β=.32*; girls: β=.28* and boys:

β=.17*; girls: β=.25*).

Planinsec31 550, boys 10,12,14 Speed of movement Eurofit Test Battery Fluid intelligence TN-20 Speed of movement did not significantly

contribute to fluid intelligence.

Pangelinan et

al.33

315,

boys/

girls

6-13 Speed of movement The Purdue Pegboard

bimanual task

IQ, spatial working

memory

WASI, CANTAB There was a significant correlation between

the pegboard task and IQ (r=.27**), but not

between the pegboard task and spatial working

memory.

Nourbakhsh36 400,

boys/

girls

10-11 Movement speed The Oseretsky scale Academic skills A grade-point

average of the

final exams


movement speed and academic skills.

Object

control

Planinsec & 550, boys 13 Object control ACDSi Fluid intelligence The Pogačnik Test The above average intelligence group scored

Pisot9 of Series significantly better on object control skills

(p<0.05).


girls

12-16 Ball skills MABC-2 (visuospatial)

working memory,

reading, verbal

comprehension,

spelling,

mathematics

WIAT–II, WISC–

IV, N-back task

There were significant correlations between

ball skills and working memory (r=.25*),

visuospatial working memory (r=.28**),

reading (r=.28**), and mathematics (.23*).

Balls skills were not related to verbal

comprehension and spelling.


girls

5-6 Ball skills MABC Executive

functions

Modified stop-

signal task,

Modified Day-

night Stroop task

Ball skills were not significantly related to

executive functions.


girls

12-16 Ball skills MABC-2 Attention,

executive

functions,

(visuospatial)

working memory,

verbal

comprehension

WISC–IV, N-back

task, NEPSY

Ball skills were significantly related to

working memory (r=.25**) and visuospatial

working memory (r=.28**), but not to

executive functions, attention, and verbal

comprehension.

Planinsec30 665,

boys,

5-6 Object control Rolling the ball around

the hoop, crawling with a

Fluid intelligence The Test Razkol Object control skills did significantly

contribute to fluid intelligence (β=.17*).

girls ball, circling the ball

around the body, rolling

the ball around the feet,

leading the ball with two

hands in a standing

position, building a tower

from big foam rubber

cubes, insertion into

hollow cubes, building a

tower from small wooden

cubes

Morales et

al.32

487,

boys/

girls

9-16 Ball skills The Target-Throwing test Oral skills,

mathematics

GABT, DAT There were significant correlations between

ball skills test and mathematics (r=-.44*) and

oral skills (r=-.34*) in 9-12 years old children.

In the 13-16 age group, ball skills

demonstrated much lower correlations with

mathematics (r=-.16*) and oral skills (r=-17*).

Castelli et al.34 37, boys 7-12 Ball skills Basketball, bowling Executive

functions

The Stroop Color-

Word Task

There was a significant relationship between

balls skills and executive functions (r=.40**).

Decker et al.35 846,

boys/

girls

4-7 Copy, recall SB5 Fluid intelligence,

knowledge,

quantitative

Bender-Gestalt II Cognitive skills were tested verbally and non-

verbally. There were significant

(nonverbal/verbal) correlations between copy

reasoning,

(visuospatial)

working memory

and fluid intelligence (r=.19**/r=.20**),

knowledge (r=.20**/r=.18**), quantitative

reasoning (r=.25**/r=.30**), visuospatial

working memory (r=.23**/r=.24**), and

working memory (r=.21**/r=.21**). There

were also significant correlations

(nonverbal/verbal) between the recall test and

fluid intelligence (r=.25**/r=.24**),

knowledge (r=.25**/r=.26**), quantitative

reasoning (r=.29**/r=.34**), visuospatial

working memory (r=.31**/r=.30**), and

working memory (r=.28**/r=.28**).

Total motor

score

Davis et al.7b 248,

boys/

girls

4-11 Total motor score BOT-2 Total cognitive

score

KABC-II There was a significant positive correlation

between the total motor score and the total

cognitive score (r=.52**).


girls

5-6 Total motor score MABC Executive

functions

Modified stop-

signal task,

Modified Day-

night Stroop task


total motor score and executive functions.

Rigoli, et al.28c 93, boys/

girls

12-16 Total motor score MABC-2 Attention,

executive

functions, working

memory, verbal

comprehension

WISC–IV, N-back

task, NEPSY

The total motor score accounted for a

significant proportion of the variance in

executive functions (r=.28**) but not for

attention, working memory, and verbal

comprehension.

Smits-

Engelsman &

Hill37

460,

boys/

girls

4-13 Total motor score MABC IQ WISC-III, WISC-

IV, WPPSI,

KABC, SON-test

the Raven’s SPM ,

RAKIT

The correlation between total motor score and

general IQ was significant (r=.44**).

Wassenberg et

al.38

378,

boys/girls

5-6 Total motor score MMT Visual motor

integration,

executive

functions, visual

processing,

working memory

The Beery VMI,

The Picture

Vocabulary test,

RAKIT, KABC,

ANT

Visual motor integration significantly

contributed to total motor score (β=.05***).

Total motor score was not significantly related

to the cognitive tasks, except for the working

memory task word order ( β=.04*). The

executive functions task verbal fluency was

only related to a quantity motor score

(β=.16*).

Abbreviations: ACDSi, The Analysis of Children’s Development in Slovenia 2013; AID, Adaptives Intelligenz Diagnostikum; ANT, Amsterdam Neuropsychological Tasks; Beery VMI, The

Beery Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration; Bender-Gestalt II, Bender Visual–Motor Gestalt Test - 2nd Edition; BOT-2, Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2nd Edition;

CANTAB, The Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery; DAT, the Differential Aptitude Test; ESI-R, the Early Screening Inventory-Revised; GABT, The General

Aptitude Test Battery; KABC-II, Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children – 2nd Edition; MABC, Movement Assessment Battery for Children; MABC-2, Movement Assessment Battery for

Children – 2nd Edition; MMT, the Maastricht Motor Test; NEPSY, A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment; ns, not significant; PANESS, Physical and Neurological Examination for

Soft Signs; RAKIT, Revisie Amsterdamse Kinder Intelligentie Test; Raven’s SPM, Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices; R2, explained variance; SB5, Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale - 5th

Edition; SON-test, the Snijders-Oomen Non Verbal Intelligence Test–Revision; TN-20, The Pogačnik Test of Series; WASI, Wechsler Abbreviated Scales of Intelligence; WIAT-II; Wechsler

Individual Achievement Test – 2nd Edition; WISC-R, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Revised version; WISC-III, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – 3 rd Edition, WISC-IV,

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – 4th Edition; WPPSI, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence; WJ II, The Woodcock-Johnson III test; ZNA, Te Zurich Neuromotor

Assessment; β, regression coefficient.

a, r <0.3, weak correlation; r between 0.3 and 0.5, moderate correlation; and r >0.5, strong correlation22

b, studies of Davis et al.7,8 reporting on the same sample size

c, studies of Rigoli et al.26,28 reporting on the same sample size

*p<0.05

**p<0.01

***p<0.00

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