Western Civilization IIHIS-102

Unit 5 - The French Revolution and Napoleon

Introduction The ancien régime

Aristocrats resented monarchical inroads on freedom

Middle class resented a society of privilege that was outmoded

Peasants resented the increasing demands of the central government

Breakdown of the Revolution Moderate stage: 1789–1792 Radical stage: 1792–1794 The Directory: 1794–1799 Napoleon: 1799–1815

The Three Estates

Causes of the Revolution Social causes are based on the archaic estate

system First Estate (premier état) - The Church Second Estate (deuxieme état) - The Nobility Third Estate (tiers état) – Everybody else

Power was in the hands of the first two estates Made up only around 5% of the population Controlled most of the wealth and political power

Third Estate paid most of the taxes Did not enjoy any political power even though its

wealth and numbers were growing New elite blurring the boundaries between

aristocracy and middle class

Causes of the Revolution Social boundaries between noble and non-

noble ill-defined 50,000 new nobles created between 1700 and

1789 Nobility of the sword (ancient)—nobility of the robe

(purchased office) From bourgeois wealth to noble wealth Most noble wealth was proprietary—tied to land Influx of new wealth from banking, shipping, slave

trade, and mining Identified with the nobility, not the common people Prosperous members of the Third Estate aired their

frustrations in public debate

Causes of the Revolution The articulation of discontent Locke, Voltaire, and Montesquieu appeal to

discontented nobles and middle class Noble leaders as defenders of national political

community threatened by the king and his ministers

Economic reform and the physiocrats Simplify tax system Free the economy from mercantilist restrictions Government should lift controls on price of grain

Causes of the Revolution French economy was ailing

General price rise created hardship for the peasantry and urban workers

Poor harvests of the 1780s In 1789, 80% of income of the poor went to purchase

bread Reduced demand for manufactured goods, increasing

unemployment Finances

Inefficient tax system Based on tax farming

Taxation tied to social status and varied from region to region

Paying off the debts of Louis XIV through Louis XVI

Causes of the Revolution Administration

Louis XVI was anxious to serve as an enlightened monarch His efforts at reform undermined his own authority

Turgot and Necker as finance ministers Attempted to fix problems but both failed

Marie Antoinette and the dispensation of patronage among her friends

Tensions between the central governments and the provincial parlements slowed reform

Parlements defend nobility’s exemption from paying taxes to pay for the Seven Years’ War

Causes of the Revolution The peasantry

Owed obligations to landlord, church, and state Direct and indirect taxation a heavy burden

Included the gabelle, a salt tax The corvée

General conclusions on the eve of the Revolution Louis XVI was a weak monarch Chaotic financial situation Severe social tensions

Louis XVI (1774-1792)

Destruction of the Old Regime Moderate stage, June 1789–August 1792 Fiscal crisis

Calonne and Brienne proposed new taxes, a stamp duty, and direct tax on agricultural produce Parlements refused to pass such measures

Louis summons the Assembly of Notables Last called in 1626 Hoped that if the Assembly approved new taxes, the

Parlements would Aristocrats used the financial emergency to

extract constitutional reforms Insisted that any new tax scheme be approved by

the Estates-General

Destruction of the Old Regime In August 1788, the financial crisis had worsened

On August 8, he announced that the Estates General would meet in May 1789

On August 16, the government stops repaying loans Louis summons the Estates-General

First time since 1614 The three estates elected delegates

Delegates draw up the cahiers et doléances, a list of grievances

Delegates of the Third Estate represented the outlook of the elite 25 percent lawyers, 43 percent government officials Strong sense of common grievance and common

purpose

Destruction of the Old Regime There were numerous areas of disagreement Should the estates vote by estate or by individual?

Parlement of Paris stated that each of the estates would have only one vote each

Third Estate believed delegates should sit together and vote as individuals

Abbé Sieyès, What is the Third Estate? (1789) Third Estate also demanded double representation

Wanted to have as many delegates as the First and Second Estates combined

“Doubling the Third” Louis opposed, then changed his position (December

1788)

Meeting of the Estates General (May 5, 1789)

The Estates General The delegates for the Estates General met at

Versailles on May 2, 1789 First two estates were greeted by Louis in the Hall of

Mirrors Third Estate was forced to wait until four hours later to

meet the king in a different part of the palace The Estates General opened on May 5

The three estates were to be seated in different chambers

The Third Estate refused to be segregated Requested that all three estates sit in the same

chamber King announced that the voting would be by estate

with each having one vote Third Estate refused to pass any measures

The Estates General On May 28th, the Third Estate began meeting on its own

They now called themselves the Communes (“Commons”) Abbé Sieyès also told the Commons that they should

invite members of the other two estates to join them They were hoping to attract the parish priests as many of

them were poor A number of clergy did join them

Commons wanted to create a new legislative body This was because more than one estate was in attendance Sieyès stated that this body represented 98% of the country It should start work immediately on the restoration of France

Abbé Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (1748-1836)

The National Assembly Creation of the National Assembly

Created by vote on June 17, 1789 Passed a measure stating that all taxes could not be

collected unless passed by the National Assembly Assembly continued to invited members of the

other two estates to join By June 19, 1789, over 100 clergy and nobility had

joined Louis planned a séance royale (Royal Session)

The purpose was to try to get the three estates back on track

The location was to be in the Salle des États, the meeting place of the Assembly

When the National Assembly showed up to the Salle des États on June 20, 1789, they found the doors locked

The Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789)

The National Assembly The Assembly moved to a nearby indoor tennis

court Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789)

The members in attendance gave the following oath: “We swear never to separate ourselves from the

National Assembly, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of the realm is drawn up and fixed upon solid foundations.”

It was passed 576-1 by the members This was a key action by the National Assembly

They were going to put together a constitution with or without the king

The Assembly had true power of the country as it represented the people

The National Assembly On June 22, 1789, the Assembly found itself

locked out of the tennis court The group went on to meet in the church of St. Louis

Louis recalled over 18,000 soldiers to Versailles He would use them disband the Assembly by force if

necessary By June 24, most of the clergy had joined the

Assembly along with 48 nobility On June 27, Louis ordered all the delegates to

join the Assembly On July 9, the Assembly renamed itself the

National Constituent Assembly

Riots and looting in France (March-May

1789)

Revolution From Below The first stages of the French Revolution Popular revolts

Public attention to the events in Paris was high Price of bread soared Rumors circulated that Louis was about to stage a

coup d’état Parisian workers (sans-culottes) organized a militia

of volunteers Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)

Bastille as symbol of royal authority Its fall as symbol of the people’s role in

revolutionary change

Revolution From Below The Great Fear

Rumors that the king’s armies were on their way Peasants attacked and burned manor houses Destroyed manor records

The October Days Brought on by economic crisis Demanded Louis return to Paris Parisian women marched to Versailles (October 5)

and demanded to be heard The National Guard led Louis back to Paris

Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)

Liberal Revolution On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly

abolished all forms of privilege Church tithe, the corvée, hunting privileges, tax

exemptions, and monopolies Obliterated the remnants of feudalism

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Written in August, issued in September Declared natural rights Private property “Liberty, security, and resistance to oppression” Declared freedom of speech, religious toleration,

and liberty of the press to be inviolable Equality before the law

Liberal Revolution Man and citizen

“Passive citizen” was guaranteed rights under law “Active citizens” paid taxes, could vote and hold

office Represented about half of all male citizens They could only vote for “electors”

Women and the Revolution Olympe de Gouges - Declaration of the Rights of

Women and Citizen (1791) Women have the same rights as men

Mary Wollstonecraft - A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) Called for greater equality between the sexes

Illustration of the monks and nuns celebrating the end of ecclesiastical orders (February 16, 1790)

Liberal Revolution Religion and the Revolution

The most divisive issue National Assembly confiscated church property

(November 1789) Used this property as collateral for the issue of

assignats Revolutionary currency used to help pay off country’s

debt

Other religious changes: End to all ecclesiastical orders and monastic vows

(February 13, 1790) State control of all remaining church property (April

19, 1790)

Liberal Revolution Next was the reorganization of the church

This included putting control of the church in the hands of the state

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 1791) Bishops and clergy subject to the laws of the state Salaries to be paid from public treasury

There was much opposition to it from the clergy Many were upset at the church being subordinate to

the state Others believed it reduced the spiritual authority of the

pope Church reforms polarized France

Many resented the privileged position of the church Parish church an institution of great local importance

French sans-culotte

Radical Revolution The Radical Revolution, August 1792–July 1794

From moderate leaders to radical republicans Why did the Revolution become radical? The politicization of the common people,

especially in cities Newspapers Political clubs Greater political awareness heightened by

fluctuations in prices Demands for cheaper bread Demands for government to do something about

inflation

Radical Revolution Lack of effective national leadership

Louis XVI remained a weak and vacillating monarch Forced to accept the Civil Constitution of the Clergy Louis urged on by Marie Antoinette, sister of

Leopold II of Austria On June 20, 1791, the royal family attempted to

flee the country (“the Flight to Varennes”) Louis now a “prisoner” of the Revolution

War All Europeans took a side in the conflict Political societies formed outside France

proclaimed their allegiance to the Revolution

Edmund Burke (1729-1797)

The Counter Revolution The emigrés stirred up counterrevolutionary

sentiment Edmund Burke (1729–1797)

Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) Attacked the revolution as a crime against the social

order The French had turned their back on history Men and women had no natural rights Aroused sympathy for the counterrevolutionary cause

Thomas Paine (1737–1809) The Rights of Man (1791–92) Written in response to Burke’s Reflections Political liberalism

The Counter Revolution Outside France

Austria and Prussia declared support for French monarchy (August 1791)

On April 20, 1792, the National Assembly declared war on Austria and Prussia

National Assembly expected the war to bolster public opinion behind the Revolution Radicals hoped the war would expose “traitors”

In August 1792, Austria and Prussia close to capturing Paris

On August 10, 1792, Parisians attacked the king’s palace

The National Convention The Jacobins

Held the majority in the Convention More egalitarian leaders of the Third Estate Membership extended throughout France Jacobins proclaimed themselves the voice of the

people and the nation The September Massacres (September 1792)

Patriotic Paris mobs convened revolutionary tribunal to try traitors

Over a thousand killed in one week The estimated number of assassins involved was

150-200

Trial of Louis XVI

End of the Monarchy Declaration of a Republic (September 22, 1792)

Convention was to declare a republic and an end to the monarchy

This day would later become the first day of Year I What to do with the king?

Mountain wanted him executed for crimes against the nation

Girondins wanted to spare the king Smoking gun

On November 20, 1792, a locked box was found inside the palace at the Tuileries

It contained Louis’ correspondence with Austria This proved Louis was guilty of treason

End of the Monarchy Trial of Louis XVI (December 11, 1792-January 15,

1793) Louis was charged with “having committed a multitude of

crimes in order to establish your tyranny by destroying its liberty”

Convention voted 693-0 that Louis was guilty of all charges By a majority of 74, it voted him to be executed for his

crimes Execution (January 21, 1793)

Louis was executed in the place de la Concorde by guillotine

Over 20,000 people watched the execution take place Louis’ last words were “I die innocent of all the crimes of

which I have been charged. I pardon those who have brought about my death and I pray that the blood you are about to shed may never be required of France”

Execution of Louis XVI (January 21, 1793)

“Matter for reflection for the Crowned Jugglers of Europe”

Domestic Reforms National Convention put through key domestic

reforms Abolition of slavery in French colonies Repeal of primogeniture Confiscated property of enemies of the Revolution Set maximum prices for grain (loi du maximum) The revolutionary calendar

Small armies of sans-culottes attacked hoarders and profiteers

The Convention also had to put through key military reforms By February 1793, France was at war with Britain,

Netherlands, Spain, and Austria

Domestic Reforms Levée (February 24, 1793)

Convention put through its first draft It called for 300,000 men for its army

Committee of Public Safety (CPS) Set up by the Convention on April 6, 1793 Its purpose was defend the country from both

domestic and foreign enemies through the use of terror

The war continued to worsen for the French French forces were pushed out of the Austrian

Netherlands Spanish forces crossed over the Pyrenees and

Sardinian troops crossed the Alps into France The British also installed a naval blockade of France

Domestic Reforms Levée en Masse (August 23, 1793)

All able-bodied men in France between the ages of 18-25 were to prepare for war

It also mobilized the French people to help with the war effort

By September 1794, the Republican Army had over 1.1 million soldiers This was the largest army seen in Europe to date This army was then able to turn the war to the

advantage of the French

Reign of Terror

Reign of Terror New radical leaders

Helped to shift the Revolution into more dangerous territory

Jean-Paul Marat (1743–1793) Did not admire Great Britain Opposed moderates Edited The Friend of the People On July 13, 1793, he was assassinated by Girondin

Charlotte Corday She claimed she “killed one man to save 100,000” This event sparked anti-Girondist attacks

throughout Paris

“Death of Marat” Jacques-Louis

David (1793)

Reign of Terror Georges-Jacques Danton (1759–1794)

Popular political leader Member of the CPS Wearied of the Terror

Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) Trained as a lawyer Became president of the National Convention Member of the CPS Enlarged the Terror

Things seemed to fall apart both from outside and within France

Reign of Terror On September 5, 1793, CPS declared “terror is

the order of the day” Announced by the Committee Would be willing to use whatever means necessary

to end the counter-revolutionary movement inside France

This starts the “Reign of Terror” From this point on, the Committee is the one

running the country One of the first executed was Marie Antoinette

She was brought to trial on October 14, 1793 The “Widow Capet” was found guilty the next day She was executed by the guillotine on October 16,

1793

Execution of Marie Antoinette (October 16, 1793)

Reign of Terror Over the next few months, thousands were

arrested and executed at the guillotine By the end of the Terror, over 100,000 were

“officially” arrested Modern estimates are around 300,000 Over 16,000 were executed “officially” 3,000 in Paris alone Many historians believe that the actual death total

was as high as 40,000-50,000 The areas hit hardest were those where the

counter-revolution was located

Reign of Terror At the beginning, the executions were many

held in the cities In Lyons alone, almost 2,000 were killed

At one point, the Committee’s agent in the city believe the executions were not going fast enough so he ordered executions by cannon as well

By 1794, the Terror moved into the provinces There were no class boundaries: 6% of those

executed were clergy, 8% nobility, 15% middle class, and 70% peasants and working class

The peasants were mainly accused of hoarding bread and avoiding the draft

Reign of Terror In the city of Nantes, those found guilty were

placed in barges in the middle of the Loire River In the middle of the night, men would punch open

trapdoors in the boats causing them to sink Over 2,000 died this way with another 3,000 dying

of disease in overcrowded prisons In Bordeaux, some of the worst atrocities took

place One woman was forced to sit under the blade of a

guillotine with blood dripping on her for hours before she was executed just because she cried over her husband’s death

Reign of Terror The executions took on a festival atmosphere

Tens of thousands would witness them with cries of “á la guillotine!”

Executions became known as the “red mass” with the guillotine as the “altar”

Bets would be taken on the order of who would be executed first

Many lived in fear of being brought up on charges

Others became sick of all the death Madame Roland said “The time as come which was

foretold when the people would ask for bread and be given corpses”

Fashion of the French Revolution

Culture of the Revolution Revolution had impact on all aspects of life Fashion was guided strongly by those in power

Prior to the Revolution, fashioned was focused on the elite and privileged

During the radical revolution, fashion mimicked the clothing of the sans-culottes

People would wear the Red Cap of Liberty Hairstyles changed

Instead of long powdered hair, encouraged short hair Short hair “is the only one which is suited to

republicans: being simple, economical and requiring little time, it is care-free and so assures the independence of a person; it bears witness to a mind given to reflection, courageous enough to defy fashion.”

Culture of the Revolution Everything associated with the ancien regime

was to be destroyed and a new civilization built on top of it

How you addressed a person was changed No longer would a person be addressed as monsieur

or madame Now they were to be addressed as Citizen

In the arts, there were no longer to be any religious images Artwork now focused on more patriotic images This included personifying ideas such as virtue,

republic, liberty It also included images of battle and heroism, with

people dying to save the Republic

Revolution playing cards with the king and queen replaced with the elements “La Terre” and “L’Air”

Revolutionary Calendar Revolutionary Calendar

The purpose was to rid France of every aspect of Christianity including the Gregorian calendar

It was adopted on October 5, 1793 There would still be twelve months

Months had new names based on nature They were all 30 days long Weeks (décades) were divided up into ten day slots

instead of seven The days were also renamed as well: primidi (first

day), duodi (second day), tridi (third day), etc. The new year would start on the Autumnal Equinox

Revolutionary Calendar Remaining five days would be holidays

They were to be known as the sans-culottides Devoted to festivals representing the Revolutionary ideals

In leap years, an extra day known as “Fraciade” was put in Be a celebration of a Revolution four years in the making

Not everyone was enamored with the new calendar Many peasants and workers were upset Others did not like the removal of Sundays and saints’ days

The British enjoyed making fun of the new calendar They translated the months as “Wheezy, Sneezy and

Freezy; Slippy, Drippy and Nippy; Showery, Flowery and Bowery; Wheaty, Heaty and Sweety”

Autumn Winter Spring Summer

Vendémiaire (“grape

harvest”)September 22

Nivôse (“snowy”)

December 21

Germinal (“seeding”)March 21

Messidor (“harvest”)

June 19

Brumaire (“foggy”)

October 22

Pluviôse (“rainy”)

January 20

Floréal(“flowering”)

April 20

Thermidor (“summer

heat”)July 19

Frimaire(“frosty”)

November 21

Ventôse (“windy”)

February 19

Prairial (“pasture”)

May 20

Fructidor(“fruitful”)August 18

Dechristianization Dechristianization of France

All of these efforts were part of a greater effort to dechristianize France

This had been going on since the passage of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy

During the Reign of Terror, there were even greater moves to rid the country of Christianity Many pushed for a culte de la Raison (Cult of Reason) Demonstrations broke out to bring an end to Christianity Notre Dame cathedral was rechristened the Temple of

Reason Convention outlawed Catholic mass on November 24,

1793 In its place, the Cult of Reason was considered the

“official” religion

Thermidor

End of the Terror The Ninth of Thermidor (July 27, 1794)

Robespierre kicked out of the Convention Guillotined the following day (along with twenty-

one other “conspirators”) After Thermidor

Jacobins driven into hiding Law of maximum prices repealed National Convention adopted new conservative

constitution (1795) Suffrage for all adult males who could read and write Indirect elections Citizens voted for electors, who chose the legislative

body Wealthy citizens held authority

The Directory The Directory

Five men chosen by the legislative body Could not stabilize the government

Faced discontent on the radical left and conservative right On the left

Stopped radical movements to abolish private property Gracchus Babeuf

On the right Elections in March 1797 returned a large number of

constitutional monarchists Could not control developments Called Napoleon Bonaparte to their assistance

Napoléon Bonaparte (1769-1821)

Napoleon Napoleone di Buonaparte (1769-1821)

Recaptured Toulon from the British (1793) Made brigadier general at age twenty-four Delivered the “whiff of grapeshot” that saved the

Convention (1795) Victories in the Italian campaign Attempted to defeat Britain by attacking British

forces in Egypt and the Near East French fleet defeated by Nelson at Abukir Bay

(1798) Napoleon declared a “temporary consul” (18

Brumaire, November 9, 1799)

Napoleon The Haitian Revolution

Led by Toussaint-Louverture (c. 1743–1803) Victorious over French planters, the British, and the

Spanish Set up a constitution (1801) Slavery abolished

In January 1802, Napoleon sends twenty thousand troops to bring the island under control Toussaint captured and brought to France (died in

1803) The war became a French nightmare, the army

collapsed (December 1803) Haiti declared its independence (1804)

Napoleon Did Napoleon consolidate or repudiate the

Revolution? Consolidating authority, 1799–1804

Napoleon rose from obscurity to become the savior of France

Was able to master his plans in every detail Assumed title of First Consul and governed in the name

of the Republic (1799) New constitution

Universal male suffrage Two legislative bodies The plebiscite—put questions directly to popular vote Bypassed politicians and legislative bodies

Napoleon and Imperial France Asked the legislature to proclaim him consul

for life (1802) The reorganization of the state

Abolition of privileges “Careers open to talent” Generally fair system of taxation Halted the inflationary spiral Replaced local elected officials with centrally

appointed prefects and subprefects

Napoleon and Imperial France The Napoleonic Code (1804)

Uniformity and individualism Abolition of all feudal privileges Paternal authority and the subordination of women and

children Equality before the law Outlawed arbitrary arrest and imprisonment

Rationalized the educational system Established lycées (high schools) to train civil servants Brought military and technical schools under state

control Founded a national university to supervise the entire

system Benefited the new elites (businessmen, bankers,

and merchants)

Napoleon and Imperial France Made allies without regard to their political past

or affiliations Readmitted the émigrés The Concordat of 1801

Ended hostility between France and the church Pope had the right to depose bishops and discipline

the clergy Church lands expropriated by the Revolution would

not return to the church Married the ambitious Josephine de Beauharnais Napoleon crowns at Notre Dame (December

1801)

Napoleon’s Coronation

Napoleonic Empire Collapse of the First Coalition (1795)

Both Austria and Prussia signed peace agreements after continued French successes

Was renewed again in 1798 This was after Napoleon’s failed attempt to take

Egypt Included Austria, Prussia, Britain, and Russia Russia and Austria withdrew (1801)

The new empire Series of small republics from Austria’s empire and

old German kingdoms France’s revolutionary “gift” of independence to

all European patriots Military buffers and system of client states The Confederation of the Rhine

Napoleonic Empire Napoleon introduced his reforms throughout

the new empire Eliminated manorial and church courts Careers open to talent Equality before the law Created a vast bureaucratic networks All government emanated from Paris and

Napoleon The new empire as a mixed blessing

In some areas of Europe, Napoleon was regarded as the great liberator

In other areas, the local lord and priest had been replaced by the French tax collector

Napoleonic Empire The Continental System

Blockade of British goods from the continent (1806) As Britain was the only enemy left, he wanted to hurt it

economically Forced all of his allies to join

Napoleon’s first serious mistake British developed trade with South America Europe divided into economic camps

Napoleon’s ambition Remaking Europe as new Roman Empire, ruled from

Paris Republican Roman ideals—art, architecture, clothing Made his brothers and sisters monarchs of newly created

kingdoms

Napoleonic Empire Divorced Josephine (1809)

She could not provide him with an heir Married Marie Louise, daughter of Francis I

(Habsburg) Continuing war

France against Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, and Britain

Napoleon on the battlefield Personally led his men

Shock attacks The Grande Armee Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805) Prussian army humiliated at Jena (1806)

Napoleonic Empire (1810)

Napoleonic Empire French defeat at Trafalgar (1805)

British navy was led by Lord Horatio Nelson Even with Spanish ships, French unable to defeat the

British The invasion of Spain (1808)

Invasion aimed at conquest of Portugal Napoleon installed his brother on the Spanish throne Guerilla warfare

The Russian campaign (1812) Ended in disaster Russians drew the French further into Russia Napoleon ordered his troops to retreat (October 19,

1812) The Russian winter

Graphic by Charles Minard illustrating the fate of the Grand Army’s Russia campaign (1869)

Napoleonic Empire France was incredibly weakened by the failed

Russian campaign Renewed attacks by Prussia, Russia, Austria,

Sweden, and Britain Wars of liberation The Battle of Nations (October 1813) Tsar Alexander I and Frederick William III enter

Paris (March 31, 1814) Napoleon’s abdication

Exile at Elba Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, took the throne

Hundred Days On February 26, 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba

Rumor had spread that the coalition wanted to move him to the much more remote island of St. Helena in the Atlantic

Also, he was miserable on Elba He landed on mainland France on February 28

He had his guards with him Was quickly joined by French forces once he landed

He arrived in Paris on March 20 Louis XVIII fled Paris

Napoleon declared himself emperor He took control over both the government and the army This is considered the start of his “Hundred Days” in

power

Hundred Days Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815)

Napoleon met British forces just south of Brussels France had 72,000 troops against Wellington’s

68,000 By that evening, 50,000 Prussia troops joined the

British Decisive defeat against Napoleon He was once again forced to abdicate

Napoleon was once again forced into exile This time was to St. Helena He died there in 1821 most likely due to stomach

cancer