What is Research and What Research Methods

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Prepared for the

Ph. D Research Colloquium IIiBF

12 August 2009

By

Dr Turkhan Ali Abdul Manap

Department of Economics, KENMS

International Islamic University Malaysia



Research is all about addressing an issue or asking andanswering a question or solving a problem, so…

Identify an issue, question, or problem.

Talk with people who want or need your study.

Find out what's already known about it. Talk with experts and/or read their reviews and the original

research on the topic.

Plan, cost, and do your study accordingly.

Write it up and submit it for assessment.

Better still, do a good job on it and submit it for publication.▪ Undergrad projects are sometimes good enough to publish.▪ Your work will benefit more people if you publish it.▪ Rule No. 1 in academia is publish or perish.

4/21/2012 Turkhan Ali Abdul Manap 2




Source of New Idea

Prior Research

Need to know/

own experience

Curiosity

Statement of the

problem.

/Research

Question

The Heart &

Soul of it All

“The Blue Print”

How will you answer your RQ

Research Design

Population & Sample

Instrumentation

(or Source of Info

Data Collections

procedures

Data Analysis /

Reporting procedures

Findings, Conclusions,

recommendation & Implications

The “End Product” of your study



My understanding of the various kinds of research advanced when I identified variousdimensions (components) of research.

Meanwhile consider these dimensions:▪ topic: physical – biological – psychological – sociological ▪ novelty: create new vs review published data or info ▪ technology: develop new vs use existing methods ▪ scope: study a single case vs a sample ▪ mode: observe vs intervene ▪ methodology: qualitative vs quantitative (info vs numbers) ▪ ideology: objective vs subjective (positivist vs interpretivist) ▪ utility: pure vs applied▪ reassembling the dimensions




Examples Clinical: the effect of a herb on performance. Psychological: factors affecting work-place satisfaction. Behavioral: how can we reduce truancy at this school? Economic: characterize the productivity of new immigrants. Social: develop risk-management procedures at a gym.

Finding a good question/problem to address can behard. It helps to have a good supervisor, good colleagues, and/or

knowledge or practical experience of and affinity for atopic.

You must read journal articles to find out what's alreadyknown.▪ Authors also often point out topics for future research




Most research projects are so-called originalinvestigations.

You obtain new data or information about a phenomenon.

You reach a conclusion and try to publish it. Some research projects are reviews of the literature.

You use other researchers' published data or info about aphenomenon.

▪

A quantitative statistical review is called a meta-analysis. You should "earn your spurs" doing original research before

taking on a stand-alone review.

But a write-up of an original investigation always has toinclude a short review of literature




Sometimes a legitimate topic for study is methodological.

For example, development or novel investigation of …

a measuring device

a psychometric instrument (questionnaire or inventory) a protocol for a physical performance test

a diagnostic test

a method of analysis.

You usually include or focus on a reliability and/or validity

study of the measure provided by the method.

Validity = the relationship between observed and true values.

Reliability = reproducibility of observed values.




Are you solving a single case of something, or is it asample that will allow you to generalize to a population?

In a case study… You are interested in "what happened or will happen here".

Your finding applies only locally: to the case you studied. The quest for an answer can be like that in a court case.

Qualitative methods are often required.

You reach an answer by applying logic (= common sense?) andskepticism to your knowledge and to the information you gather.▪ Be wary of conventional wisdom and your own prejudices.

It may be possible to estimate probabilities of benefit or truth of various answers.




In a study of a sample… You are interested in "what happens in general".

Rarely, "what" is simply descriptive: the frequency, mean value or othersimple statistic of something in the sample.

Most often, the "what" is the value of an effect statistic: the relationshipbetween the thing of interest (a dependent variable, such as health, performance…) and something else (a predictor variable, such astraining, gender, diet…) in the sample.▪ Examples of effect statistics: difference or change in a mean value; ratio of

frequencies (relative risk); correlation coefficient.

You control for other possible predictor variables either by holdingthem constant or measuring and including them in the analysis.▪ Example: the effect of physical activity on health, controlling for the effect of age

on health.

▪ In controlled trials (interventions), a control group accounts for any effect of time that would have happened anyway.




More about studying a sample…

You study a sample, because it is impractical and wasteful(and therefore unethical) to study a population.

“What happens in general" refers to the average person orsituation in a population represented by your sample.

"Population" is a defined group, not the entire human raceor all possible situations.

You make inferences about that population; that is, yougeneralize from the sample to a population.

▪ You can make inferences to other populations only if you can arguethat those populations are similar to your sample with respect to theeffect you have studied.




Sample size is a big issue.

▪ The smaller the sample, the more the uncertainty.

▪ A stronger relationship needs less certainty.

▪ So a stronger relationship needs a smaller sample.

▪ Unfortunately most relationships are weak or trivial,

so you usually need large samples.

several ways to generalize from sample topopulation




In an observational study…

The aim is to gather data or information about the

world as it is.

So you hope the act of studying doesn't substantially

modify the thing you are interested in.

In an interventionist study…

You do something to the world and see what happens. You gather data or information almost always before

and after the intervention, then look for changes.




refer to observational and interventionist studies withsamples.

The estimate of the magnitude of a relationship is lesslikely to be biased (that is, not the same as in a population) if… the sample is selected randomly from the population, and…

you have a high compliance (low proportion of dropouts). An observational study of a sample…

usually establishes only an association between variablesrather than a causal relationship;

needs hundreds or even thousands of subjects for accurateestimation of trivial or small effects.




In an intervention with a sample…

You can establish causality: X really does affect Y.

You may need only scores of subjects for accurategeneralization about trivial or small effects.

The outcome is the effect of a treatment on the

average subject.

Researchers usually neglect the important question

of individual responses to the treatment.




In interventions, bias is less likely if…

Subjects are randomly assigned to treatments.

Assignment is balanced in respect of anycharacteristics that might affect the outcome.

▪ In other words, you want treatment groups to be similar.

Subjects and researchers are blind to the identity of

the active and control (placebo) treatments.▪ Single blind = subjects don't know which is which.

▪ Double blind = the researchers administering thetreatments and doing the measurements and analysis don'tknow either




With quantitative methods… You gather data with an instrument, such as a

stopwatch, a blood test, a video analysis package, or a

structured questionnaire. You derive measures or variables from the data, then

investigate relationships among the variables.▪ Some people think you have to do it by testing hypotheses.

Error of measurement is an important issue.▪ Almost all measures have noise or other errors.▪ Errors affect the relationship between measures.

▪ You attend to errors via validity and reliability.

▪ A pilot study to investigate error can be valuable.




With qualitative methods… You gather information or themes from texts, conversations

or loosely structured interviews, then tell a coherent story.▪ Software such as NVivo can help.

The open-ended nature of these methods allows for moreflexibility and serendipity in identifying factors and practicalstrategies than the formal structured quantitative approach.▪ The direction of the research may change mid-stream.

Formal procedures enhance trustworthiness of theinformation.▪ Triangulation – aim for congruence of info from various sources.

▪ Member checking or respondent validation – the subjects check theresearcher‟s analysis.

▪ Peer debriefing – colleagues or experts check the analysis




Others refer to this dimension as paradigmatic

or philosophical

Positivist or objective We make and share observations, identify problems

and solve them without disagreement about the

nature of meaning or reality.

This so-called dominant paradigm is responsiblefor our current understanding of life, the Universe,

and almost everything.




Post-structuralist The researcher views people as subjects of discourses

(interrelated systems of unstable social meanings).

Although the subjectivity of research is emphasized, the

researchers attempt to achieve objectivity. Do they succeed? Many people find post-structuralist papers hard to understand.

Interpretivist Part of the truth of a situation can be found in the researcher's

interpretation of the self-understandings of participants.

Truth is discovered partly by thought as well as by observation. Grounded theory of social science is interpretivist: truth emerges from your observations; you do not test a hypothesis.




Attempt to add or contribute to the “general bodyof knowledge in a particular area... attempts toimprove understanding of certain problems that

commonly occur in organizational settings”(Sekaran, pp.5-6). Attempts to solve a "currently existing problem

in the work setting... to solve specific problemsbeing experienced in an organization." (Sekaran,pp.5-6).

Pure is sometimes lab-based, lacking naturalness. Applied is sometimes field-based, lacking

control.




There are different kinds of research methods:

empirical, theoretical and case method

These are not exclusive

Being clear about your approach(s) helps to frame what

you need to do

Depending on your subject you will need to specialize in

one form of research

All have advantages and disadvantages




Case Method: analysis of a real world problem of which he or she has experience or been able to observe.

Projects involving other forms of conventional

empirical or experimental research (surveys, statistics,questionnaires, fieldwork) Theoretical projects looking mainly at a conceptual

issue

As your first task, you should clarify the kind of research approach you are following and the researchquestion that you are aiming to explore/explain.




Advantages: Systematic and 'Scientific' Demonstrates data collection skills Involves 'fieldwork' (variety and interest!) May have immediate application to work environmentDisadvantages: Time consuming Careful planning required Chances of measurement error (timing?) Have to read experimental data as well as theoretical

papers Fieldwork (expense?) Final preparation difficulties: tables, histograms, etc.




Advantages: Data is 'just a search away' Tests analytic and research abilities

Uses theoretical training taught in university trainingDisadvantages: Lacks variety Lots of reading and searching for data Needs careful scholarly skills Technical/difficult Requires high degree of literacy/verbal analytic skills May lack immediate business application




Pure/Basic/Fundamental:

Attempt to add or contribute to the “general body of

knowledge in a particular area... attempts to improve

understanding of certain problems that commonly

occur in organizational settings” (Sekaran, pp.5-6).

Applied:

Attempts to solve a "currently existing problem in

the work setting... to solve specific problems being

experienced in an organization." (Sekaran, pp.5-6).




Qualitative („exploratory‟) research employs casestudy methods or action research to exploreparticular management problems (which may be

pure or applied/empirical or theoretical). It asks: “what are the relationships between

variables x and y?” E.g., How are conflicts between owners and

managers which are resolved in the board of directors of a big business resolved in a smallprofessional practice without a board of directors?




Quantitative

Deductive

Linear

Qualitative

Inductive

Spiraling




A construct is an abstract entity, it is not something physical.

For example, “employee satisfaction” or “customer

satisfaction” are constructs, as is “short term pressure on

interest rates”.

You must be clear how the constructs can be made operational (objectively testable).

You need to ask yourself questions such as these:

How do I decide what “customer satisfaction” means?

How can it be measured? What counts as an example of “customer satisfaction”? …

and so on.

Similarly, constructs like: “intelligence”, “company

performance”, and “interest”.




An hypothesis is a statement that relates two or more

constructs.

For example: The greater the stress experienced in

the job, the lower the job satisfaction of employees. Here you need a clear operational definition of

“stress” and “job satisfaction”.

A good hypothesis is tested by the research that you

propose to do. Note that assumptions are not the same as

hypotheses.




Assumptions are not tested in the research, but hypotheses are.

You carry out research by taking assumptions to be true but

you cannot do this with the hypothesis(es)

You might assume the truth of the proposition

that stress results in employee dissatisfaction and begin your research.

However, you cannot assume the truth of the hypothesis

that the greater the stress the lower the job satisfaction.

This is, in fact, what you will test.




All research has flaws!

Selectivity

Indeterminacy

Subjectivity

Reductionism

Decontextualisation

Reification

Situatedness

Your aim is to identify these in other research andavoid them in your own!




Construct validity means selecting the most appropriatemeasurement tool for the concepts being studied.

Does your tool really measure what you want to assess?

Internal validity is another term for using differentmethodological tools to “triangulate” the data.

What other methods can you use to check for the same phenomenon?

External validity refers to how well the data can beapplied beyond the circumstances of the case to moregeneral situations.

Can you apply your data across the industry and to othersas well?




Reliability means the extent to which the results can

be repeated and to yield the same results.

It refers to the accuracy and stability of the results.

Are you confident that your study can be repeated

by others and the results will be the same?




Usually has 7 main stages

Observation

Data gathering Theory formulation

Hypothesizing

Further data gathering Data Analysis

Deduction from theory




Noticing that “things are not as they should be” in amanagement situation (noticing that customers areunhappy...)

Noticing a problem in the application of managementtheory etc........ Situation: Assume that a manager observes that

customers are not as happy as they used to be.

He talks to the customers and finds out that the shop isfrequently out of stock and see the salespeople as unhelpful.

Further discussion uncovers that the delivery dates are notkept though the salespeople inform the customers of thelater delivery dates.




Talking to people in the work setting

(customers, salespeople...)

Identifying how the problem is tackled inother similar situations;

Beginning the process of formal interviews

etc.......

Conducting research on the issue. Finding the

“Gap” in Research (Literature Review)




Making associations/identifying the variables

which help to explain situation (anticipated

and actual delivery times, importance of itemsin stock for customers, other commitments of

service providers, JIT management

practices...)

Attempting to justify why these variables are

relevant....




Draw associations between variables; (stock, supply

and unhappiness...)

Making conjectures about how they may be

manipulated; (new provider, different deliveryarrangements....)

Using conjectures to arrive at an understanding of the

situation (if make new arrangement to stock items

twice weekly then there will be a reduction in

customer dissatisfaction...)




Making measurements (if empirical)

Collecting resources (if theoretical) BOTH (if

case study) Analyzing the circumstances hypothesized in

different, carefully monitored situations

(measure customer dissatisfaction under

situation S1, S2....)

Collecting this data




Statistical and/or qualitative analysis of results---

test/analyze significance.

Correlational analysis of relationship between stock

levels and customer dissatisfaction...)

Here validity and reliability are crucial




Interpreting conclusions of data analysis

(increasing stock is positively correlated to

increased levels of customer satisfaction...)

Making recommendations




Inductive research is the first stage in this process

(steps 1-3 inclusive): from observation to theoretical

understanding.

Deductive research is the second stage in thisprocess (steps 4- 7 inclusive): This involves arriving

a conclusion about data from one‟s theoretically

informed perspective/understanding.

The entire process is called the hypothetico-

deductive method.




Wassalam



Theory

Make Observation

Invent Hypothesis to

explain observation

Test Hypothesis

Hypothesis

Test Theory

LawTheory

FailPass

FailPass

Fail

Pass many

Pass many

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What is Research and What Research Methods