X-ray Safety Training

7/29/2019 X-ray Safety Training

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Module Topic Go To

1 Radiation Basics

2 Operational Fundamentals of X-rays

3 Regulations / Requirements

4 Starting a New Project

5 Exposure Limits / Dosimetry

6 Biological Effects

7 Safety in the Laboratory8 Emergency Procedures

9 Additional Information

10 Contacting REM

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Complete modules 1-10 in order and then use the Go To arrows to navigate the modules for reviewing the material.


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RadiationBasics

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Radiation: energy given off by matter in the form of raysor high-speed particles.

One form of radiation is pure energy with no weight. This

form of radiation known as electromagnetic radiation is like vibrating or pulsating rays or "waves" of electricaland magnetic energy. Familiar types of electromagneticradiation include sunlight (cosmic radiation), x-rays, radar,and radio waves.

The other form of radiation known as particle radiation is tiny fast-moving particles that have both energy andmass (weight). This less-familiar form of radiation includesalpha particles, beta particles, and neutrons.

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Ionizing Radiation: refers to the radiation of sufficientenergy to strip electrons from the orbit of an atom,causing ionization. Particle Radiation (alpha, beta, neutron)

Electromagnetic Radiation (X-ray, gamma, UV)

Non-Ionizing Radiation: refers to radiation that hasenough energy to move atoms in a molecule around orcause them to vibrate, but not enough to remove

electrons. Microwave

Infrared

Radio waves

Magnet fields



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Alpha particles Have a very limited ability to penetrate other materials Can be blocked by a sheet of paper, skin, or even a few

inches of air Potentially dangerous if they are inhaled or swallowed, but

external exposure generally does not pose a danger Beta particles

Lighter than alpha particles

Generally have a greater ability to penetrate othermaterials Can travel a few feet in the air, and can penetrate skin Can be blocked by a thin sheet of metal or plastic or a

block of wood



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Neutrons Neutrons are high-speed nuclear particles that have an

exceptional ability to penetrate other materials.

Can travel great distances in air and require very thick

hydrogen-containing materials (such as concrete or water) toblock them

Gamma Rays Consist of high-energy waves that can travel great distances

at the speed of light and generally have a great ability topenetrate other materials

Can be blocked by several feet of concrete or a few inchesof dense material (such as lead)

X-rays (Covered in detail in Modules 2 10)



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Alpha

Beta

Gamma/X-ray

Neutron

Paper/Skin Plexiglas Lead Paraffin/Water/

Concrete

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Background radiation is thenaturally occurring ionizingradiation that we areexposed to on a daily basis.

Average AnnualBackground RadiationExposure in the US isapproximately 620 mrem.

Personal backgroundexposure may beinfluenced by location andlifestyle.

9NCRP Report #160


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Zone 1 (>4pCi/l)

Zone 2 (2-4 pCi/l)

Zone 3 (


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Internal Emitters

(40 mrem)

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Cosmic

(29 mrem)

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Terrestrial

(29 mrem)

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Consumer Products E.g.: Tobacco , building materials,

fossil fuel combustion

Industrial E.g.: Exposure from nuclear

medicine patients, research

Occupational E.g.: Medical practitioners,

aviation

Medical E.g.: X-Rays, Nuclear Medicine

Treatment


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Exposure Describes the amount of radiation traveling through the air.

Units: roentgen (R) or coulomb/kilogram (C/kg)

Absorbed dose Describes the amount of radiation absorbed by an object or

person (that is, the amount of energy that radioactive sourcesdeposit in materials through which they pass).

Units: radiation absorbed dose (rad) or gray (Gy)

Dose equivalent (or effective dose) Combines the amount of radiation absorbed and the medical

effects of that type of radiation.

Units: roentgen equivalent man (rem) or sievert (Sv)

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Quality Factor (Q)

The factor by which the absorbeddose (rad or gray) must bemultiplied to obtain a quantity that

expresses, on a common scale forall ionizing radiation, the biologicaldamage (rem or sievert) to theexposed tissue. This quantity isknown as the dose equivalent (oreffective dose).

This factor is used because sometypes of radiation, such as alphaparticles, are more biologicallydamaging to live tissue than othertypes of radiation when theabsorbed dose from both is equal.

http://hps.org/publicinformation/radterms/radfact116.html

Quality Factors by Type

Type Q

Alpha () 20Beta () 1

Gamma () 1

X-ray 1Neutron 5-20 ** Varies depending on neutron energy

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When working with x-rays

1 R = 1 rad = 1 rem

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Operational Fundamentals of X-rays

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X-rays are the expression of extra electromagnetic energy emitted asthe result of the change in energy state or momentum of an electronnear the nucleus of an atom.

They consist of high-energy waves that can travel great distances

at the speed of light and generally have a great ability to penetrate othermaterials.

They can be blocked by several feet of concrete or a few inches of densematerial (such as lead).

They differ from gamma rays in origin only. X-rays originate from the

energy shells of an atom, while gamma rays are produced in the nucleusof the atom.

X-ray wavelengths range from 10-12 m to 10-8 m on the ElectromagneticSpectrum.

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X-rays are produced when a high-voltage source is used to accelerateelectrons through a target material.

The penetrating ability of the x-rays produced is dependent on theirenergy (hard vs. soft x-rays).

Soft x-rays generally fall into the range of 10-8 to 10-10 meters on theelectromagnetic spectrum and have energies ranging from less than 1 keV toabout 10 keV.

Hard x-rays generally fall into the range of 10-10 to 10-12 meters on theelectromagnetic spectrum and have energies ranging from about 10 keV to120 keV.

Only a small percentage of the energy carried by the electrons isconverted to x-rays upon striking the target. Typically, greater than 99percent of the energy will be converted to heat and absorbed by thetarget. The target is usually cooled with water or oil to prevent it frommelting and rotates to avoid constant exposure to the same area.

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Potential( ~ 60 keV )

Current

Target(Typically Tungsten

or Copper)

X-rays

e-

e-

e-

e-

1% of E99% of E

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Depending on the type of interaction withinthe target material, two forms of x-rays will

be produced: Bremsstrahlung Radiation

Characteristic X-rays

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Bremsstrahlung radiation: occurs when a high speedelectron is deflected from its original course by the nucleus(due to the negatively charged electron being attracted tothe positively charged nucleus), causing it to lose part of its

original energy as it slows down. This loss of energy results inan x-ray photon being produced in order to maintainconservation of energy.

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Characteristic x-rays: produced when an energeticelectron being accelerated through the target directly hitsanother electron in the inner shell of a target atom. Theinner shell electron is knocked out, leaving a vacant spot

for the outer shell electrons to fall into the lower energyinner shell. This process releases electromagnetic energyin the form of photons or x-rays. The energy of the photonproduced is characteristic of the target material.

Characteristic radiation is important in research becauseeach element produces a characteristic spectrum that canbe used to identify unknown samples.

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The energies of theBremsstrahlung radiationemitted can range from 0keV to the max energy of

the electrons acceleratedthrough the target.Therefore, the spectrum forBremsstrahlung iscontinuous.

The Characteristic x-rayenergies will be spiked andwill be specific to the targetmaterial.

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Voltage potential (kVp) Proportional to the number of x-rays and energy

Current (mA) Proportional to the number of x-rays

Time Proportional to the number of x-rays

Target material (analytical) Z (characteristic x-ray energy)

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X-ray producing tubes consists of:

High-voltage source

Electron producing source (cathode) Electron target (anode)

These components are normally sealed in aglass tube, both to create a vacuum and toact as an insulator between the anode andthe cathode.

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Cathode Most common filaments are made of Tungsten

The filament is located in a concave cup that focuses theelectron beam onto a small area of the target called the focal

spot. Anode

Tungsten is the most commonly used target material becauseof its high atomic number, high melting point, high thermalconductivity and low vapor pressure.

Other target materials may be used if different characteristic X-ray energies are desired.

The material used, and subsequently the energy of the x-raysproduced, will have an effect on the penetrating abilities ofthose x-rays (hard vs. soft x-rays).

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Copper rod: Used forheat dissipation of theanode.

Electron producing

source (cathode):Contains an electronproducing filament in afocusing cup that directsthe electrons to theanode. Most commonlycomposed of Tungsten.

High voltage source:Used to accelerateelectrons from thecathode into theanode.

Glass envelope: Used tocreate a vacuum neededfor x-ray production andto act as an insulatorbetween the cathodeand the anode.

Image courtesy of Joshua R. Calvert, Butler International

Electron target (anode): Site ofelectron interaction and x-rayproduction. Can be made from awide variety of materials(usually composed of Tungstenor Copper).


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Copper rod: Used forheat dissipation of theanode.

Electron producing

source (cathode):Contains an electronproducing filament in afocusing cup that directsthe electrons to theanode. Most commonlycomposed of Tungsten.

High voltage source :Used to accelerateelectrons from thecathode into theanode.

Glass envelope : Used tocreate a vacuum neededfor x-ray production andto act as an insulatorbetween the cathodeand the anode.

Electron producingfilament in thefocusing cup

Image courtesy of Joshua R. Calvert, Butler International

Electron target (anode): Site ofelectron interaction and x-rayproduction. Can be made from awide variety of materials(usually composed of Tungstenor Copper).


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X-ray machines are just that machines.

When the power is turned off (i.e. no current or

voltage), that machine no longer producesradiation. Therefore, there is no danger presentfrom an x-ray machine when the unit is powereddown.

X-ray machines differ from radionculides in thisaspect. Radionuclides cannot be turned off witha switch. Nuclides such as P-32, H-3 and C-14 arealways radioactive unless decayed away.

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Primary Use

Utilizing x-rays to determine the elemental composition or to examinethe microstructure of materials through x-ray diffraction orfluorescence analysis.

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410 IAC 5 Rule 8


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Open-Beam: an analytical x-ray system in which an individual could accidentallyplace some part of his body in the primary beam path during normal operation. Open-beam units present the greatest potential for injury due to the fact that the primary

beams is exposed and accessible to the user.

Closed-Beam: an analytical system in which all possible x-ray paths (primary and

diffracted) are completely enclosed so that no part of a human body can beexposed to the beam during normal operation.

Cabinet: an x-ray system with the x-ray tube installed in an enclosure (hereinaftertermed "cabinet") which, independent of existing architectural structures exceptthe floor on which it may be placed, is intended to contain at least that portion ofa material being irradiated, provide radiation attenuation, and exclude personnel

from its interior during generation of x-radiation. The cabinet units are the safest of the analytical unit types because they prevent exposure tothe primary beam by including numerous safety interlocks

The cabinet units also have built-in shielding within the unit to prevent excess exposures tothe users

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Units usually operate at low x-ray energies( 50 kVp).

The currents for analytical units can rangefrom less than 1 mA to greater than 200 mA.

This will produce a wide range of x-rayenergies depending on the specific operatingconditions of the unit.

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Primary Beam: radiation which passes through anaperture of the source housing by a direct path from the x-ray tube or a radioactive source located in the radiationsource housing.

The exposure rate from the primary beam of an analyticalx-ray unit can be as intense as 400,000 R/min.

The exposure area resulting from the primary beam can be

less than 1 cm2. The hands, fingers and eyes are the parts of the body most

commonly at risk.

35410 IAC 5 Rule 8


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Scatter Radiation: radiation which has changed directionby virtue of its contact with matter after emerging fromthe radiation head.

Leakage Radiation: all radiation emanating from thesource assembly except the useful beam and thatradiation produced when the exposure switch or timer isnot activated. ISDH has placed a limit on leakage radiation to no more than

0.25 mrem/hr at a distance of 5 cm from the surface of the unit

Present the potential for low-level chronic exposure thatmay lead to unnecessary over-exposures and biologicaleffects for the users.

36410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1
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X-ray machines are just that machines.

When the power is turned off (i.e. no current or

voltage), that machine no longer producesradiation. Therefore, there is no danger presentfrom an x-ray machine when the unit is powereddown.

X-ray machines differ from radionculides in thisaspect. Radionuclides cannot be turned off witha switch. Nuclides such as P-32, H-3 and C-14 arealways radioactive unless decayed away.

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Primary Use

An x-ray system designed

for irradiation of any part of

the human body fordiagnosis or visualization.

Procedures include:

Fluoroscopy

Radiography

Dental X-rays Veterinary X-rays

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http://www.missouristate.edu/hper/Radiography.htm

410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1
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Medium energy x-rays

Typically operate between 70-120 kVp

Depends on procedure being performed

Added filtration

Typically >2.5 mm aluminum

Added to remove low energy x-rays that would

lead to skin exposure and excessive scatterradiation

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Primary Beam: radiation which passes through anaperture of the source housing by a direct path fromthe x-ray tube or a radioactive source located in theradiation source housing.

The exposure rate from the primary beam of adiagnostic x-ray unit can be as intense as 50 R/hr. Thelength of exposure is very short though, usually only amatter of seconds.

The exposure area will vary depending on theprocedure being performed, but collimation of thebeam prevents exposure to unnecessary areas.

40410 IAC 5 Rule 8


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Regulations / Requirements

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Due to the potential risks involved regardingthe operation of x-ray units, there arerestrictions that must be met. These

restrictions are meant to minimize thepossibility and severity of exposure fromthese units.

Regulatory authority comes from the State ofIndiana, Purdue University and specificlaboratory requirements.

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The Indiana State Department of Health (ISDH) regulates the useof x-ray equipment in Indiana through Title 410 IndianaAdministrative Code Article 5: Radiological Health. (All regulationsare available in the Web Links tab in Blackboard.) 410 IAC 5 Rule 2: Registration of Radiation Machine Facilities and

Services. 410 IAC 5 Rule 4: Protection and Exposure Standards. 410 IAC 5 Rule 5: Non-Medical Radiography (includes x-ray fluorescent

lead based analyzers). 410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1: X-rays in the Healing Arts.

410 IAC 5 Rule 8: Radiation Safety Requirements for Analytical X-RayEquipment. 410 IAC 5 Rule 9: Radiation Safety Requirements for Particle

Accelerators. 410 IAC 5 Rule 10: Notices, Instructions and Reports to Workers;

Inspections.

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Radiation Safety Program: Authorized byPurdue University Executive Memorandum

No. B-14 Radiation Safety Committee (RSC)

Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) in the Department

of Radiological and Environmental Management

Radiation Safety Staff

Purdue Radiation Safety Manual

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The Department of Radiological and EnvironmentalManagement (REM) administers the radiation safetyprogram for all sources of ionizing and nonionizingradiation at Purdue University. With regard to x-ray

equipment, REM is responsible for: registering all x-ray equipment with the ISDH

performing a radiation survey and compliance inspection whenx-ray equipment is first installed, and when equipment isrelocated or reconfigured in any way that affects radiationsafety;

performing an annual survey and inspection of each x-raymachine;

providing radiation monitoring badges for x-ray users;

providing x-ray safety training for x-ray users.

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REM serves as a consultant to the University Community in thefollowing areas: Construction Health and Safety, Environmental Health, Fire and Safety Equipment Service, Hazardous Material Management, Industrial Hygiene, Laser Safety, Radiation Safety and Safety and Ergonomics

REM assists in monitoring regulatory compliance with variousfederal, state and university regulations involving environmental,health and safety issues. Services include training, consultation,emergency response and waste removal.

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Responsible for complying with regulations setforth by the US NRC, as well as the Indiana StateDepartment of Health, for the safe use of

radioactive materials and radiation producingdevices.

This is accomplished by providing several typesof training, radioactive waste pickups,

calibration services, personnel dosimetry tomonitor radiation exposure and consultingsupport for any safety issues identified byPurdue University employees and students.

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The mission of the Radiation SafetyCommittee is to ensure the safety of theUniversity and community in the utilization ofall radioactive materials and radiationproducing devices at the University or byUniversity faculty, staff or students.

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Lab / Unit Specific Requirements Training: The PI of each x-ray project shall ensure that every

individual operating the x-ray unit on on their projectsuccessfully receives unit-specific training, in addition to REM X-ray Safety Training, prior to their working with the equipmentunsupervised. The PI will signify such training by signing theApplication to Use Radioactive Materials and/or RadiationProducing Devices (New User Application) or A-4 form.

Standard/Normal Operating Procedures: Step-by-stepinstructions necessary to accomplish the analysis. These

procedures shall include sample insertion and manipulation,equipment alignment, routine maintenance by the registrant,and data-recording procedures which are related to radiationsafety. (ISDH 410 IAC 5 Rule 8 )

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Equipment Requirements All equipment must have the following:

An easily visible, fail-safe, warning light labeled with thewords "X-RAY, ON," or words having a similar intent

A readily discernible sign or signs bearing the radiationsymbol and the words: "CAUTION HIGH INTENSITY X-RAY BEAM," or words having a similar

intent, on the x-ray source housing; and "CAUTION RADIATION THIS EQUIPMENT PRODUCES RADIATION

WHEN ENERGIZED" or words having a similar intent, near any switchthat energizes an x-ray tube if the radiation source is an x-ray tube

Each x-ray tube housing shall be equipped with an interlockthat shuts off the tube if it is removed from the radiationsource housing or if the housing is disassembled.

50IAC 5 Rule 8


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Equipment Requirements (Contd)

Diagnostic x-ray systems

Signage/labeling must be present on the x-ray controlpanel:

"WARNING: This x-ray system may be dangerous to patient andoperator unless safe exposure factors and operating instructionsare observed."

51410 IAC 5-6.1


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Area Requirements Each area or room containing x-ray equipment shall be conspicuously

posted with a sign or signs bearing the radiation symbol and thewords "CAUTION X-RAY EQUIPMENT," or words having a similarintent in accordance with 410 IAC 5-4-11.

Radiation surveys are required: Upon installation of the equipment, and at least once every 12 months

thereafter (24 months for veterinary facilities);

Following any change in the initial arrangement, number or type of localcomponents in the system;

Following any maintenance requiring the disassembly or removal of a localcomponent in the system;

During the performance of maintenance and alignment procedures if theprocedures require the presence of a primary x-ray beam when any localcomponent in the system is disassembled or removed;

Whenever personnel monitoring devices show a significant increase over theprevious monitoring period or the readings are approaching the limits specifiedin 410 IAC 5-4-2.

52IAC 5 Rule 8


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Exposure rates within the area will be determined when the unit isfirst installed. The initial inspection will ensure that there are noexposures in the area that would result in harm to the users.

Annual inspections will be performed by qualified Radiation Safety

staff to ensure that the exposure rates from the equipment are stillwithin acceptable standards.

Inspections of the unit should be requested by the lab staff if anyof the following occur: The unit is moved The unit is altered in any way that may affect the interlocked safety

features The processes performed with the unit are significantly altered (for

example: radically different target materials may have differentscatter patterns which will result in different exposures)

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Self-monitoring of equipment is not required forcabinet units. The exposure rates from these types ofunits are well below harmful levels and in most cases,the exposure rate is nearly zero. All units are

monitored with area badges that will indicate anyexcess exposure rates in the laboratory.

If a user wishes to monitor their equipment, exposurerates can be determined by using a radiation survey

meter.

More information on radiation survey meters can befound in Module 7: Safety in the Laboratory GO

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Failure to comply with the rules or regulationsset for by the ISDH or Purdue University canresult in (depending on the severity of theviolation): Re-training Loss of work privileges with x-ray producing devices Obtaining an injunction or court order to prevent a

violation Civil penalties Criminal penalties

For willful violation of, attempted violation of or conspiracy toviolate any regulation

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Starting a New Project

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The following forms must be completed by the userand approved by the Radiation Safety Officer and theRadiation Safety Committee:

Form A-1: Project Summary & Evaluation for Use ofRadioactive Materials and Radiation Producing Devices(New/Amend Project Form)

Form A1-S: Radiation Facility Approval Request (New LabApplication)

Form A-4: Application to Use Radioactive Materials and/orRadiation Producing Devices (New User Application)

Form SM-1: Survey Meter Registration

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Available Training: (General) Radiation Safety Training for Use of Radioactive Materials Sealed Source Training (includes irradiator and nuclear gauges) Diagnostic x-ray (includes DEXA)

Analytical x-ray (diffraction) Laser Safety Declared Pregnant Worker DOTTraining (Transport of Hazardous Materials) Radiofrequency/Electromagnetic Safety Training Others, as needed

Some retraining may be required. Awareness training is alsoavailable as needed.

**TRAINING MUST BE COMPLETED BY ALL USERS**

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When adding a new student/employee to yourauthorization, the following items must becompleted by the individual before they can be

added as an authorized user: Unit specific training (provided by the PI)

REM X-ray Safety Training X-ray Safety Training On-line quiz

Radiation Safety Manual Agreement A-4 form: Application to Use Radioactive Materials

and/or Radiation Producing Devices (New UserApplication)

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Under the Radiation Control Act of Indiana, theIndiana State Department of Health hasestablished the Indiana Rule of Radiation Controlfor your protection against radiation hazards.This Rule includes safety standards, theavailability of notices, instructions and reports,and provides for periodic inspections. TheIndiana Rule for Radiation Control further

establishes the following provisions for workersengaged in activities conducted under a licenseor registration granted by the Indiana StateDepartment of Health. ISDH Board Form X

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See Module 7 of this training.

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All radiation-labeled equipment must becertified HAZARD FREE prior to service ordisposal.

Prior to moving out of an area andabandoning equipment - notify REM.

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For questions about starting a new project,contact: Chris Echterling, Health Physicist

49-41478 [email protected]

Sharon Rudolph 49-47969

[email protected]

Submit completed forms to: Sharon Rudolph, REM, CIVL B173

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mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Exposure Limits / Dosimetry

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Under the Radiation Control Act of Indiana, theIndiana State Department of Health hasestablished the Indiana Rule of Radiation Controlfor your protection against radiation hazards.This Rule includes safety standards, theavailability of notices, instructions and reports,and provides for periodic inspections. TheIndiana Rule for Radiation Control further

establishes the following provisions for workersengaged in activities conducted under a licenseor registration granted by the Indiana StateDepartment of Health. ISDH Board Form X

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In an effort to reduce the potential health effects caused byradiation, regulatory agencies (NRC, ISDH, etc.) set exposurelimits for those working with radiation and radiation producingdevices.

These limits are put in place to create an upper limit of how muchradiation a worker is allowed to be exposed to within a certaintime period.

The limits are created such that, an individual who is exposed tothe maximum allowable quantity of radiation, is still well below

the cut-off for the onset of serious health effects.

X-ray limits are set forth by the Indiana State Department ofHealth (ISDH).

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ISDH Occupational Exposure Limits

Section Limit (rem/quarter)

Whole Body (Head and trunk; active blood-formingorgans, lens of eyes; or gonads)

1.25

Skin of the whole body 7.5

Extremities (Hands and forearms; feet and ankles) 18.75

Additional Exposure Limits

Pregnant Workers 0.5 rem/9 months

Non-Occupational (General Public) 0.1 rem/year

Minors 10% of ISDH occupationallimits for adult workers

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Declaration of Pregnancy Declaration of pregnancy is voluntary.

If a declaration is made, it must be given to the

Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) in writing. If the pregnancy is declared by a worker, that worker

will be given a fetal badge to monitor the dosereceived by the fetus.

Once in effect, the pregnant workers exposure limitwill be reduced from 5 rem/year to 0.5 rem/year.

The declaration will remain in effect until the workerdeclares, in writing, that the pregnancy is over.

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Doses to radiation workers are measured indirectly by whole bodyand ring TLD's (thermoluminescent dosimeter).

These devices DO NOT actively protect against radiation. Theyare after-the-fact indicators of radiation exposures received.

Whole body dosimeters should be worn on the torso between theneck and pelvic area. Ring dosimeters are to be worn on the handthat is closest to the source of exposure.

The TLD's that REM utilizes offer a wide variety of response to

radiations such as beta, gamma, neutron and x-ray. They aredesigned for longer wear periods than film badges.

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Monitoring is required for those likely to receive, in 1 year fromsources external to the body, a dose in excess of 10 percent of theoccupational exposure limits.

REM monitors exposure through your dosimetry and survey

guidelines are based on 10% of the regulatory limits. REM willinvestigate any personnel exposures of 100 mrem or more, at aminimum of issuing a letter to the exposed individual and theindividuals supervisor which: Seeks an explanation for the cause for the exposure, and Seeks a plan to minimize exposures to ALARA.

If you would like a copy of your exposure records, please contactSharon Rudolph at [email protected] or 765-494-7969.

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Passive (most commonly issued at Purdue)

Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)

Film Badges

Active

Pocket

Electronic

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Wear this on

palm side.

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Should be worn on the collar, pocket or belt area.If a shielded apron is worn, the dosimeter shouldbe worn outside the apron.

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In many cases, because of the low potential for exposures, analytical x-ray users are not required to wear dosimetry.

However, if you have been issued a dosimeter:

ALWAYS wear your badge when working with an x-ray unit Notify REM if your badge is lost (a replacement will be issued as soon as

possible)

Don't wear your badge during medical tests (e.g. - dental visits)

Do not deliberately expose your badge to radiation or place badges inside thex-ray units

Don't share your badge (your badge is assigned to you only)

Don't expose it to heat (this may erase any recorded exposures)

Please make sure your badges are available for exchange at the end of thewear period. Depending on the user, the wear period may be monthly, bi-monthly or quarterly.

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Return dosimetry promptly at the end of thewear period! If dosimetry is not returned, itcannot be processed. Dosimeters returned latemay be considered degraded and unreadable.Also, there is a cost (late fee) associated withunreturned dosimetry.

Notify REM if you will not work with devices

requiring dosimetry for extended periods. Wecan suspend your service and reactivate it whenit is needed.

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Biological Effects

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Many types of radiation present the danger forexternal and internal exposure, as well as thepotential for contamination. X-rays present a hazardfor external exposure.

Depending on the energy of the x-rays, damage mayoccur to the skin by absorption of the x-rays (lowenergy) or to vital organs due to penetration of the x-rays deeper into the body (high energy).

X-ray radiation is considered to be a form of ionizingradiation. X-rays will pass through the body, causingionization and indirect damage.

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When an x-ray strikes the body, it is mainlyaffecting water (since our bodies are 70%water). Most damage to intracellular molecules

is done by an indirect process. When an x-rayinteracts with a water molecule, free radicals areproduced, which may cause cellulardeath. Changes in cellular material or DNA

damage may also occur by direct interaction ofthe ionizing radiation with DNA or otherimportant intracellular molecules.

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Length of exposure

Dose received

Energy of the x-rays

Sensitivity of the individual

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Acute exposures One time event High-level doses involved (>100 rem)

Effects appear quickly (within days to weeks)

Chronic exposures Long-term Low-level doses involved Effects will appear slowly because the body has time

to heal itself after exposure. The effects, if any, willappear 20-30 years after exposure.

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Low energy x-rays (< 50 kVp)

easily absorbed

produce surface (skin) effects

High energy x-rays (> 50 kVp)

capable of penetrating deep into the body

produce internal effects

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Injuries experienced as a result of radiationexposure include the following:

Radiation burns from acute exposures

Radiation sickness from both acute and chronic

exposures

Long-term effects from acute and chronic

exposures

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Occur as a result of an acute localized exposure.

Radiation burns can occur from a wide range of exposures andusually result from a direct exposure to the primary beam.

The hands, fingers and eyes are the parts of the body mostcommonly at risk.

The severity of the burn will depend on the dose received, thelength of the exposure , the energy of the x-rays and thesensitivity of the individual.

Burns can be caused with exposures of 300 rem, but normally donot become apparent below exposures of at least 600 rem.

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Occurs when a large dose is received to the whole-body.

Symptoms usually will not start to appear unless the exposure isgreater than 100 rem delivered within a few hours. Blood changescan occur at exposures as low as 25 rem.

If a whole-body dose of 400-500 rem is received, approximately50% of those exposed will die within 30 days if untreated(LD50/30). Recovery is likely with medical care although theexposed individual will suffer several months of illness.

Exposure to a dose in excess of 700 rem to the entire body in ashort period of time will likely result in death within a few weeks.

If the radiation dose is spread over several weeks, a person maysurvive a whole-body dose as large as 1000 to 2000 rem.



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Acute Whole-Body Exposure

Symptom Dose (rem)

Blood Cell Changes 25-50

Nausea, Diarrhea 100

Hair Loss 250

Erythema 300

Sterility/Death (LD50/30*) - no treatment 450 - 500

No Recovery Expected ( LD100

**)

Gastrointestinal Syndrome 1000Central Nervous System Syndrome >2000

* The dose of radiation expected to cause death to 50 percent of an exposed population within 30 days

** The dose of radiation expected to cause death to 100 percent of an exposed population

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Long-term effects resulting from chronic exposure to ionizingradiation include carcinogenesis, life span shortening, and cataractformation. The principle delayed effect from chronic exposure toradiation is an increased incidence of cancer.

Long-term effects of an acute exposure to radiation are oftenclassified as leukemia and other cancers, radiation-induced lifeshortening, genetic effects and embryonic effects. Genetic defects are less likely than cancer, and not as serious,

therefore, the risk of developing cancer from radiation exposure ismore significant.

Radiation exposure in-utero can result in spontaneous abortions,congenital abnormalities, impairment of growth and mentalfunctions, and increased incidences of leukemia.



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Safety in the Laboratory

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Among the most important aspects of an x-raysafety program are the attitudes and actions ofthe individual users.

Taking personal responsibility for ones ownsafety can have a tremendous impact on thesafety of the lab as a whole.

The following slides will describe ways forindividual users to protect both themselves andthose around them while working with x-rays.

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Keep exposures As Low As ReasonablyAchievable (ALARA)

Methods for achieving ALARA

Time

Distance

Shielding

Monitoring exposure

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Minimize the time that you are near the unit.

The less time spent in a radiation area, the lower

the accumulated exposure to the worker.Therefore:

Plan the work efficiently. A user should not spend any

more time in the area than is absolutely necessary. The work space should also be set up in such a way

that a worker, while monitoring the experiment, is notbeing exposed unnecessarily.

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Maximize the distance that you are from the unit.

The greater the distance, the lower the exposure. Yourgoal should be to never allow the distance betweenyou and any source to become zero. Therefore:

Stay as far from the unit as possible when performing anexperiment.

Set up the work area in such a way that the lab occupants

will not be exposed unnecessarily inside the lab while thex-ray unit is operating.

Within the lab, place the unit as far away from public areas(i.e. hallways) as is possible.

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Inverse Square Law (Point Source)

The intensity of radiation decreases as the inverse

square of the distance.

Doubling distance, exposure = of original;

Tripling distance, exposure = 1/9 of original.

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2

1

22I1d = I2 d


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I1 = 20 mR/hrI2 = ??

d1 = 1 ft

d2 = 2 ft

(I1)(d1)2 = (I

2)( d

2)2

(20 mR/hr)(1ft)2 = (I2)(2ft)2

(20 mR/hr)(1ft)2 = I2(2ft)2

(20 mR/hr)(1ft2) = I2

(4ft2)

I2

= 5 mR/hr

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Have appropriate Shielding between the unit and yourself.

Always use shielding. The greater the shielding the lower theexposure to workers.

Use lead for gammas or x-rays. Cabinet x-ray units have shielding built into the housing. In addition to the

shielding provided by the units housing, leaded glass is used to preventexposures.

It is important to be sure that the leaded glass has not been replaced with

regular glass or plexiglass. Neither of these materials are effective inpreventing harmful exposures.

In order to be sure that the shielding is appropriate, check theeffectiveness of the shielding with a meter.

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Alpha

Beta

Gamma or X-ray

Neutron

Paper/Skin Plexiglas Lead Paraffin/Water/ Concrete

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Radiation Survey Meters Geiger-Mueller (GM) or Ion Chambers can be used to detect x-

ray radiation. Either can be used to take measurements. IonChambers are better at making quantitative x-raymeasurements than the GM meters.

However, if any leak is found in the unit, the appropriate stepsshould be taken to fix the leak and decrease exposure levels.

Dosimetry Be sure to turn in dosimetry when the wear period is over.

An exposure limit of 100 mrem is set for the dosimetry. If ananalyzed dosimeter shows a reading at or above this level, boththe PI and the user will be notified by REM.

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Signs and Labels

ISDH Board Form X: Notice to Employees

should be posted in plain sight.

The lab area, x-ray room and control room should

have appropriate signage posted.

The x-ray unit should have appropriate signage

and labeling.

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Fail-Safe Characteristics: a design feature which causes beam portshutters to close, or otherwise prevents emergence of the primarybeam, upon the failure of a safety or warning device (410 IAC 5-8).All safety and warning devices must be failsafe.

Unit Enclosure: Equipment housing designed to prevent exposurefrom the primary beam. These enclosures may be fitted withleaded glass windows and safety interlocks which all work toprevent the operator from being exposed to the primary beam.

Interlocks: A series of switches that must all be connected in order

for the primary beam to operate. The switches are generallyconnected to the warning lights, doors, beam shutter andcollimator. If any of these switches are triggered and opened, thebeam will shut down.

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Beam Shutter: Opens or closes, allowing or preventingthe primary beam to pass.

Beam Stop: Composed of a high Z-number material

that will absorb the primary beam that passes throughand around the sample. This device works to stop theprimary beam and to reduce the scatter radiation thatwould be caused if the primary beam were to strikecomponents of the unit housing.

Beam Collimation: Focus the primary beam on thearea of interest. Collimation prevents exposure tounwanted areas.

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Warning Lights: Signal to the lab occupants that thex-ray beam is on or that the beam shutter is open.These are all failsafe, meaning that the beam will notbe energized if the lights are not operational.

Standard/Normal Operating Procedures: Step-by-stepinstructions necessary to accomplish the analysis.These procedures shall include sample insertion and

manipulation, equipment alignment, routinemaintenance by the registrant, and data-recordingprocedures which are related to radiation safety.(ISDH 410 IAC 5 Rule 8 )

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The safety features of analytical units will vary depending on thetype of unit being employed (i.e. open-beam, closed beam orcabinet).

Open-beam units have the highest potential for dangerous

exposures to occur because they allow the user to have access tothe primary beam. Closed-beam and cabinet units are much saferto work with because they, in one way or another, prevent the userfrom accessing the primary beam.

Every unit, regardless of type, should include the necessary safety

features needed to prevent access to the primary beam and keepthe potential exposures to the users at safe levels.

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Safety Features Tube housing

Beam shutter

Beam collimation

Primary beam stops

Warning lights (e.g. X-ray on, shutter open)

Shielding from entry into primary beam

Safety interlocks

Other Safety Measures

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

Annual surveys of equipment

Personnel Dosimetry

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ShutterOn/Off

WarningLights

SafetyInterlocks

LeadedGlass

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WarningSign

InterlockSensors


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105

WarningSigns

LeadedGlass

Shielding

InterlockedDoor

Panels


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106

X-ray OnWarning

Light


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107

RemovableInterlockedSide Panels

WarningLights


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Since diagnostic machines are used in the diagnosis and treatmentof humans and animals, additional safety measures must be put inplace when dealing with such units.

Diagnostic units will have an exposed primary beam delivering

treatment directly to the user. Because this primary beam isaccessible, extra care must be taken to ensure that those in the x-ray room are not exposed to levels of radiation that exceed what isnecessary for treatment.

All appropriate safety features and protective measures must be

put in place to ensure that the exposures to the individualsreceiving treatment and the users delivering the treatment are aslow as possible.

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Shielded room

Operator protected by shielding (or located in a

separate control room)

Additional shielding for the control of scatterradiation

Collimation (exposed area visible)

Aluminum filtration

Warning lights signaling when the unit is beingenergized

Dead-man switch that allows the operator to

control when the unit is energized109410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1


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No person other than the veterinarian, or someoneworking under the direct supervision of the veterinarian, isallowed to administer radiation to the animals.

Aluminum filtration of 0.5 millimeters is required for unitsoperating up to 50 kvp. Aluminum filtration of 1.5 mm isrequired for units operating from 50-70 kvp. Aluminumfiltration of 2.5 millimeters is required for units operatingabove 70 kvp.

A dead-man switch, with a cord long enough to allowthe operator to be at least 6 feet from the beam, must beprovided.

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The operator must stand as far away from the animaland the useful beam as is reasonably possible.

No other individuals are allowed into the x-ray room

unless they are needed for proper completion of theprocedure.

If an animal must be held during a procedure, the user

holding the animal must be protected withappropriate personal protective equipment (i.e.leaded gloves, lead apron and thyroid collar). Theindividual must also be wearing personnel dosimetry.

111410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1


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Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Lead aprons Thyroid collars Leaded gloves Gonadal shielding

Personnel Dosimetry Not an active protector; simply an after the fact indication of exposure Discussed further in modules 5 and 7

Annual Evaluations by Certified Inspectors Diagnostic x-ray systems

Every 24 months for veterinary facilities Every 12 months for hospitals, medical facilities and chiropractic facilities

Fluoroscopy x-ray systems Every 12 months

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Performance Standards on Leakage Must be less than 0.5 mR/hr at 1 meter from the source housing Must be less than 2 mR/hr at 2 centimeters from any other surface of

the unit

Fluoroscopy units should be set up so that no one other than thepatient is in the x-ray room during the procedure.

Written safety procedures must be available to all working withthe x-ray unit.

Complete regulations for Diagnostic X-ray Devices can be foundhere.

113410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1
http://www.in.gov/isdh/24369.htmhttp://www.in.gov/isdh/24369.htmhttp://www.in.gov/isdh/24369.htmhttp://www.in.gov/isdh/24369.htm


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Since diagnostic machines are used in the diagnosis and treatmentof humans and animals, additional safety measures must be put inplace when dealing with such units.

Diagnostic units will have an exposed primary beam delivering

treatment directly to the user. Because this primary beam isaccessible, extra care must be taken to assure that those in the x-ray room are not exposed to levels of radiation that exceed what isnecessary for treatment.

All appropriate safety features and protective measures must be

put in place to ensure that the exposures to the individualsreceiving treatment and the users delivering the treatment are aslow as possible.

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Shielded room Operator protected by shielding (or located in a

separate control room) Additional shielding for the control of scatter

radiation Collimation (exposed area visible) Aluminum filtration Warning lights signaling when the unit is being

energized Dead-man switch that allows the operator to

control when the unit is energized

115410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1


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No person other than the veterinarian, or someoneworking under the direct supervision of the veterinarian, isallowed to administer radiation to the animals.

Aluminum filtration of 0.5 millimeters is required for unitsoperating up to 50 kvp. Aluminum filtration of 1.5 mm isrequired for units operating from 50-70 kvp. Aluminumfiltration of 2.5 millimeters is required for units operatingabove 70 kvp.

A dead-man switch, with a cord long enough to allowthe operator to be at least 6 feet from the beam, must beprovided.

116410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1


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The operator must stand as far away from the animaland the useful beam as is reasonably possible.

No other individuals are allowed into the x-ray room

unless they are needed for proper completion of theprocedure.

If an animal must be held during a procedure, the user

holding the animal must be protected withappropriate personal protective equipment (i.e.leaded gloves, lead apron and thyroid collar). Theindividual must also be wearing personnel dosimetry.

117410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1


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Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Lead aprons Thyroid collars Leaded gloves Gonadal shielding

Personnel Dosimetry Not an active protector; simply an after the fact indication of exposure Discussed further in modules 5 and 7

Annual Evaluations by Certified Inspectors Diagnostic x-ray systems

Every 24 months for veterinary facilities

Every 12 months for hospitals, medical facilities and chiropractic facilities Fluoroscopy x-ray systems

Every 12 months

118410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1


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Performance Standards on Leakage

Must be less than 0.5 mR/hr at 1 meter from the source housing

Must be less than 2 mR/hr at 2 centimeters from any other

surface of the unit

Fluoroscopy units should be set up so that no one other than

the patient is in the x-ray room during the procedure.

Written safety procedures must be available to all working with

the x-ray unit.

Complete regulations for Diagnostic X-ray Devices can be found here.

119410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1
http://www.in.gov/isdh/24369.htmhttp://www.in.gov/isdh/24369.htmhttp://www.in.gov/isdh/24369.htm


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Unsafe equipment configuration Examples:

Open beam units without appropriate shielding

Lack of safety interlocks

Bypassing of interlocks Interlocks are put in place to prevent access and exposure to the primary

beam.

Bypassing or manipulating these interlocks presents the potential for

dangerous exposures.

Inadequate Training

In addition to this x-ray awareness training provided by REM, all users

must be trained on the specific units that they will be operating.

Willful violation of established safety guidelines 120


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Personal Issues

Rushing through an experiment or procedure and ignoringsafety procedures in order to save time

Complacency as a result of repetitive experiments and

procedures

Fatigue due to long hours worked and stress fromperforming continuous experiments and the desire toobtain specific results

Lack of communication between those working with oraround the x-ray unit

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Emergency Procedures

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Response is dependent on type ofemergency:

Personal Injury

Fire

Human life always comes before concerns

regarding exposure to radioactive material.

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Personal Injury

Treat injured personnel first.

Do not move a seriously injured person unless he

or she is in further danger.

Contact medical personnel (i.e. call 911)

Notify REM (49-46371)

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Fire Activate the building fire alarm system (fire pull station). If

not available or operational, verbally notify persons in thebuilding.

Notify the Fire Department at 911. Isolate the area and evacuate the building:

Shut down equipment in the immediate area, if possible. Close doors to isolate the area. Use a portable fire extinguisher to control a small fire or assist in

evacuation if possible.

Provide the fire/police teams with the details of theproblem upon their arrival.

Notify REM (49-46371)

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Additional Information

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Only the individuals that are listed as ApprovedAuthorized Users on the specific x-ray project as definedby REM may have the ability to operate the x-ray unit(s). If an unauthorized user is found using the unit, immediately

notify the PI. REM should be contacted to schedule a training

for the user in order for them to become authorized. It is important for all those using the x-ray equipment to be:

Trained on the specific unit Trained on x-ray awareness in order to be informed of safety

requirements, hazards involved and ways to prevent unnecessaryexposures

Energized equipment must be attended by an authorizeduser at all times.

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More information is available from these agencies

Indiana State Department of Health

Radiation Machine Registration and Compliance GO

Indoor and Radiologic Health General Information GO

United States Food and Drug Administration

Radiation-Emitting Products GO

Medical X-Rays GO

Nationwide Evaluation of X-Ray Trends (NEXT) GO

United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Radiation Protection GO

Radiation Related Information GO

128
http://www.in.gov/isdh/24345.htmhttp://www.in.gov/isdh/24338.htmhttp://www.fda.gov/Radiation-EmittingProducts/default.htmhttp://www.fda.gov/Radiation-EmittingProducts/RadiationEmittingProductsandProcedures/MedicalImaging/MedicalX-Rays/default.htmhttp://www.fda.gov/Radiation-EmittingProducts/RadiationSafety/NationwideEvaluationofX-RayTrendsNEXT/default.htmhttp://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation.htmlhttp://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/related-info.htmlhttp://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/related-info.htmlhttp://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation.htmlhttp://www.fda.gov/Radiation-EmittingProducts/RadiationSafety/NationwideEvaluationofX-RayTrendsNEXT/default.htmhttp://www.fda.gov/Radiation-EmittingProducts/RadiationEmittingProductsandProcedures/MedicalImaging/MedicalX-Rays/default.htmhttp://www.fda.gov/Radiation-EmittingProducts/default.htmhttp://www.in.gov/isdh/24338.htmhttp://www.in.gov/isdh/24345.htm


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Contacting REM

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You know or suspect there has been anoverexposure to an individual

The x-ray unit is to be moved or modified

Personnel working on the project has been

changed (added/dropped)

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Information: (765) 49-46371

Fax: (765) 49-47403

Office Location: CIVL B173

Campus Mail: REM, CIVL

Mailing Address: Radiological and Environmental Management

550 Stadium Mall DriveWest Lafayette, IN 47907-2051

Web: http://www.purdue.edu/rem/

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James Schweitzer, Ph.D. 49-42350Radiation Safety Officer [email protected]

Mary Handy, CLSO 49-42721Laser Safety Officer, Assistant RSO [email protected]

Chris Echterling 49-41478Health Physicist [email protected]

Sharon K. Rudolph 49-47969Isotope Ordering & Distribution [email protected]

Mike Nicholson 49-40205Waste Handling & Animal Hospital Support [email protected]

Jerry J. Gibbs 49-40207Waste Handling & Meter Calibration [email protected]

Click here for the Radiation Safety Group webpage

132
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.purdue.edu/rem/rs/rs.htmhttp://www.purdue.edu/rem/rs/rs.htmmailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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This concludes the PowerPoint portion of the training. Complete the test indicated below. You must have 75% of correct

responses to pass.

Your results will be emailed to you, and will constitute as your certificationof your successful completion of the online portion of your training, if youhave passed.

Submit a completed Form A-4 (make sure that both you AND yourPrincipal Investigator have signed the form), and send trough campusmail to: Sharon Rudolph/REM/CIVL

Click here to begin the test
http://www.purdue.edu/rem/home/forms/A-4.dochttps://purdue.qualtrics.com/SE/?SID=SV_6RvbyqlnOlC6yjihttps://purdue.qualtrics.com/SE/?SID=SV_6RvbyqlnOlC6yjihttp://www.purdue.edu/rem/home/forms/A-4.dochttp://www.purdue.edu/rem/home/forms/A-4.dochttp://www.purdue.edu/rem/home/forms/A-4.doc

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X-ray Safety Training