Xinjiang: A Case Study in China’s Minority Policies

Kara AbramsonCongressional-Executive Commission on China

Overview of Today’s Talk

• China’s Minority Policies

• Case Study: Xinjiang– Setting the Scene: The geography and people of the

region known today as Xinjiang– “Contested Histories”: Xinjiang’s Past– Xinjiang Under PRC Rule: Current Issues– What Happened in Urumqi in July 2009?– Xinjiang Beyond the Headlines: Contemporary Uyghur

Culture

少数民族Shǎoshù Mínzú

China’s Minority Policies

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Historical Overview

• Ethnicity in Chinese history• Ethnic Groups/Minzu in the PRC– System of categorization– Soviet Tradition• Fixed identities• Stalinist definition

– Common territory, language, economy, and psychological nature

– 民族识别 Mínzú shíbié– 民族工作 mínzú gōngzuò

Ethnic Minorities Today

• 8.49% of the population, including:–Tibetan–Korean–Mongol–Russian–Tajik–Uyghur (Uighur/Uygur)

• Also:–Zhuang–Hui–Miao–Yi–Lhoba

China’s Minorities

• Location:– About 5/8ths of China’s total area

• Languages:– Over 60, at least 5 different language families

• Religions:– Muslim, Buddhist, “minority” religions, Christian

Regional Autonomy

• By end of 2003:– 5 Provincial-level autonomous regions – 30 autonomous prefectures– 120 autonomous counties

Legal Framework for Autonomy: Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law (REAL)

- Grants additional legislative powers - Describes scope of regional autonomy

- Freedom to use and develop minority languages– Freedom of religious belief– Preferential policies– Administration of finances– Education in minority languages– Train local cadres but also send skilled personnel from

elsewhere in China to these regions

REAL successes and limitations

• Gives recognition and protection for minority groups

• Some leeway for local customs BUT• Vague wording• Legislation must be submitted to higher bodies

for approval and must not contradict basic policies

• Limited enforcement and monitoring• General Rule of Law issues

Case Study: Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR) 新疆维吾尔自治区

Xīnjiāng Wéiwúěr Zìzhìqū

Setting the Scene: The geography and people of the region known today as Xinjiang

http://johomaps.com/as/china/xinjiang/xinjiang1.html http://xinjiang_noite.images9.com/map_prc_xinjiang.html

Population• Total population 21.81 million (1.63% of China’s

total)• Uyghurs (ئۇيغۇر ，维吾尔族， Wéiwú‘ěrzú ，维

族 )– Turkic– Speak Uyghur (close to Uzbek and Turkish)– Sunni Muslim

• Other groups include:– Han, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Mongols, Russian, Hui

“Contested Histories”: Xinjiang’s Past

新疆，古称西域，自古以来就是中国不可分割的一部分

“Contested Histories”: Xinjiang’s Past

http://www.ewas.us/Spring.Death.2010.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/asia/19mummy.html

“Contested Histories”• Uyghur Empire (744-840, based in Mongolia)• Uyghur state in the north (840-1370)• Karakhanid dynasty in the south (840-1211)• Chaghataids Mongols (14th-17th c.)– Local rulers strong– Sufi influence

• Jungars (late 17th c.- mid-18th c.)• Qing (1750s-1911)• East Turkistan Republic (aka East Turkistan

Islamic Republic) (1933-1934)• East Turkistan Republic (1944-1949)

“Contested Histories”—Modern Uyghur Identity

• East Turkistan/Uyghuristan• Turkic identity

Xinjiang Under PRC Rule: Current Issues

• 1955 Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region established

• Minority Policy—Uyghurs as 少数民族

• Xinjiang in the news: human rights, terrorism, and Guantanamo

Security Measures and Terrorism• Reports of terrorist attacks in 1990s and 2000s

• East Turkistan Islamic Movement (aka East Turkistan Islamic Party) placed on State Dept. Terrorist Exclusion List, UN list

• Scope of Terrorist Threat Appears Unclear• Chinese government reporting on terrorism limited and

inconsistent• Restrictions on free press hinder information gathering• Government has conflated ordinary criminal activity with

terrorism and peaceful expressions of dissent with separatism

Religion

• Constitution protects freedom of religious belief and “normal” religious activities

• 5 recognized religions, including Islam• Islam in Xinjiang:– “Religious extremism” and “illegal religious

activities” identified as threats to region’s security– Campaigns against private religious schools, curbs

over access to mosques, observance of Ramadan, veiling and beards

Freedom of Expression

• Regulation on Ethnic Unity• Nurmemet Yasin• Mehbube Ablesh

Representation in Government

• NPC Representation• Head of Autonomous govt to be ethnic

minority

Employment

• Law encourages hiring of ethnic minorities and prohibits discrimination in employment, but…

招聘 汉族服务员 Zhāopìn Hànzú fúwùyuán

Language and Education

• Language and Education– Law says ethnic minorities may use own languages– Traditionally had 2 tracks for Schooling and Exams

for minorities in China (including in Xinjiang) • 民考民 Mínkǎomín and 民考汉 Mínkǎohàn

– New efforts to promote “Bilingual Education” have translated into decrease in Uyghur in Xinjiang

Development

• Government support• Great Western Development• Some improvements, but also problems:– Distribution of resources– Lack of Input from local communities– Demographic pressures

What Happened in Urumqi in July 2009?

• Reported attack on Uyghur factory workers in Guangdong in late June 2009

• Uyghurs demonstrate on July 5– Initially peaceful, police reportedly use force,

violent attacks take place

What Happened in Urumqi in July 2009?

• Authorities blame World Uyghur Congress and its leader Rebiya Kadeer for organizing “riots” and instigating people in China

What Happened in Urumqi in July 2009?

• July 7—Han revenge attacks, Uyghur women demonstrate

• Internet shut down until May 2010• Trials ongoing—for violent crimes and acts of

free expression or peaceful protest• New Party head appointed, government

unveils cure-all development plan in May 2010

Xinjiang Beyond the Headlines

• Contemporary society

• Literary tradition

• Uyghur music