Download pdf - 24794002 the Islamic Work Ethic

7/31/2019 24794002 the Islamic Work Ethic

1/20

A study in aIslamic countr

settin

28

Journal of Managerial Psychol

Vol. 15 No. 4, 2000, pp. 283-3

# MCB University Press, 0268-3

Received December 19Revised April 19Accepted July 19

The Islamic work ethic as amediator of the relationship

between locus of control, roleconflict and role ambiguity

A study in an Islamic country settingDarwish A. Yousef

United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates

Keywords Control, Role conflict, Work ethic, Mediation, Islam, United Arab Emirates

Abstract The article examines the potential mediating role of the Islamic work ethic betweenlocus of control, role conflict and role ambiguity. The study uses a sample of 397 employees in avariety of manufacturing and service organizations in an Islamic country, the United Arab

Emirates. The results of correlational analysis and regression models suggest that the Islamicwork ethic is related to locus of control. Furthermore, the results of a series of regression modelsindicate that the Islamic work ethic mediates the relationship between locus of control and roleambiguity. On the other hand, the results point out that the Islamic work ethic does not mediatethe relationship between locus of control and role conflict. Results further point out that there is a

significant correlation between the Islamic work ethic and role ambiguity. Limitations, lines offuture research, implications and contributions are discussed.

Introduction

Individual control plays a significant role in human behavior. The extent towhich an individual believes he/she can directly affect the environment has asubstantial effect on perceptions of that environment and reactions to it(Spector, 1986). As a result, locus of control as well as its relationship with anumber of variables such as role stress, work ethic, job satisfaction,performance and the like have received considerable attention in the Westernliterature. Nonetheless, this area of research has received very little attention inthe Third World in general and in the Islamic World in particular. Furthermore,the role of work ethic in general and the Islamic work ethic in particular as amediator of the relationships between locus of control, role conflict, and roleambiguity has not received adequate attention in the Western literature nor in

the non-Western literature. Therefore, the present study is designed toinvestigate the role of the Islamic work ethic in particular as a mediator of therelationships between locus of control, role conflict, and role ambiguity in amulticultural and Islamic environment.

Islamic work ethicThe concept of the Islamic work ethic has its origin in the Quran, the sayings ofand practice of Prophet Muhammad, who preached that hard work caused sinsto be absolved and that ``no one eats better than that which he eats out of his

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

http://www.emerald-library.com


2/20

Journal ofManagerialPsychology

15,4

284

work''. For instance, the Quran often speaks about honesty and justice in trade,and it calls for an equitable and fair distribution of wealth in the society. TheQuran encourages humans to acquire skills and technology, and praises highlythose who strive in order to earn a living. The Quran is against laziness andwaste of time by either remaining idle or engaging oneself in an unproductiveactivity. The ethics of Islam counsels against begging and against living as aparasite on the labors of others (Abeng, 1997). The Islamic work ethic viewsdedication to work as a virtue. Sufficient effort should go into one's work,which is seen as obligatory for a capable individual. The Islamic work ethicemphasizes cooperation in work, and consultation is seen as a way ofovercoming obstacles and avoiding mistakes. Social relations at work areencouraged in order to meet one's needs and establish equilibrium in one'sindividual and social life. In addition, work is considered to be a source ofindependence and a means of fostering personal growth, self-respect,satisfaction and self-fulfillment. The Islamic work ethic stresses creative workas a source of happiness and accomplishment. Hard work is seen as a virtue,and those who work hard are more likely to get ahead in life. Conversely, notworking hard is seen to cause failure in life (Ali, 1988). Also, according to Ali(1988) the value of work in the Islamic work ethic is derived from theaccompanying intentions rather than from the results of work. It emphasizesthat justice and generosity in the workplace are necessary conditions forsociety's welfare and that no one should be denied his full wage. Besidesconstant hard work to meet one's responsibilities, competition is encouraged inorder to improve quality. In brief, the Islamic work ethic argues that lifewithout work has no meaning and engagement in economic activities is an

obligation.Nasr (1984) argued that the Islamic work ethic deserves a serious inquirybecause it is the ideal which Muslims seek to realize. Additionally, as Ali (1986)argued, Islam is one of the most influential factors which have shaped currentMuslims' value systems. Ahmad (1976) argued that the Islamic work ethicstands not for life denial but for life fulfillment and holds business motives inthe highest regard.

Protestant work ethic (PWE) vs. Islamic work ethic (IWE)The concept of the PWE was advanced by Weber (1958) who proposed a causalrelationship between the Protestant work ethic and the development of

capitalism in Western society. Weber's theory related success in business toreligious belief. He proposed that the Protestant-Calvinistic faith had a spiritualthrust towards capitalism and was based on the assumption that work andfinancial success were means to achieve not only personal goals but religiousgoals as well (Kidron, 1978). Weber's theory was introduced into psychology byMcClelland (1961), who offered a social-psychological explanation for the linkbetween Protestantism and capitalism. He subsumed the PWE concept into theneed for achievement, a concept which he saw as a basic dimension ofpersonality (Furnham, 1990).


3/20


settin

28

Both the Islamic work ethic (IWE) and the Protestant work ethic (PWE)place considerable emphasis on hard work, commitment and dedication towork, work creativity, avoidance of unethical methods of wealth accumulation,cooperation and competitiveness at the workplace. However, unlike the PWE,

the IWE places more emphasis on intention than on results. For instance,Prophet Muhammad stated ``actions are recorded according to intention, andman will be rewarded or punished accordingly''. It also stresses social aspectsin the workplace and duties toward society. Furthermore, the IWE emphasizes

justice and generosity in the workplace, and it views engagement in economicactivities as an obligation.

Background of the work settingThe United Arab Emirates (UAE) depends heavily on multicultural expatriateworkers because of an acute shortage of domestic manpower. According to the1995 census, 75 per cent (1,718,000) of the UAE population are expatriates, ofwhom 61 per cent (1,435,000) are Asian expatriates, 12 per cent (292,000) areArab expatriates and 2 per cent (53,000) are of other nationalities. Of theworking expatriates, 85 per cent are Asians, 13 per cent are Arabs, 1.5 percentare Europeans and 0.5 per cent are of other nationalities (The GCC Economic

Data Book, 1996). Moreover, 96 percent of the UAE population are Muslims(Famighetti, 1997). Multiculturalism is a dominant feature of the workforce inthe UAE. For instance, in the UAE a single organization often comprises manydifferent nationalities, each with his own role perception, attitudes toward othernationalities, cultural orientations, and educational background. Such a diverseworkforce environment results in diverse values, attitudes and behavior. For

example, researchers have observed that individuals from different culturesexhibit fairly dissimilar levels of organizational commitment (e.g. Near, 1989;Al-Meer, 1989, 1995) and job satisfaction (e.g. Jain et al., 1979; Kanungo et al.,1976; Azumi and McMillan, 1979; Lincoln and Kalleberg, 1985; Griffeth andHom, 1987; Yavas et al., 1990). Researchers have also found that expatriateemployees experience a variety of challenges in the host environment and havedifficulties in adjusting to the work environment and new organizationaldemands (Adler, 1986; Black, 1992; Boyacigiller, 1990). Moreover, expatriates'national cultures influence how individuals perceive and react to theirenvironment (e.g. Adler, 1990; Ali, 1989; Lincoln et al., 1981). The UAE settingis characterized as having large power distance, low individualism

(collectivism), strong uncertainty avoidance and average masculine (Hofstede,1984). In conclusion, one would expect that such a work setting might influenceindividuals' perception of role conflict, ambiguity, the Islamic work ethic andlocus of control.

Locusof control, role conflict and role ambiguityThe most popular and most frequently cited definition oflocus of control is thatof Rotter (1966). According to this definition, locus of control reflects anindividual's belief about the relationship between his or her behavior and the


4/20


15,4

286

consequences of that behavior. People who believe that they are in control oftheir own destiny have an internal locus of control, while those who believe thatwhat happens to them is the result of fate or the behavior of other people aresaid to have an external locus of control. On the other hand, role conflict isviewed as incompatibility in communicated expectations that impinge onperceived role performance (Rizzo et al., 1970). Role ambiguity has beendescribed as the situation where an individual does not have clear directionabout the expectations of his/her role in the job or organization (Rizzo et al.,1970).

A number of researchers have investigated the relationships between locusof control, role conflict and role ambiguity. For example, several previousstudies have demonstrated that externality is positively correlated with stress(Evans and Coman, 1991; Jennings, 1990), and that internal locus of control hasbeen shown to be positively related to lower perceived stress (Schafer andMckenna, 1991). Moreover, Bernardi (1997) believes that internal locus ofcontrol individuals should experience less stress than external locus of controlindividuals. Spector (1986) in a meta-analysis study found that perceivedcontrol by employees has a strong relationship with role conflict and roleambiguity. Batlis (1980) found that externality was associated with roleambiguity.

Work ethic, locusof control, role conflict and role ambiguityNumerous Western scholars have examined the relationships between workethic, based on Protestant ideas, locus of control, role conflict and roleambiguity. However, the results were somewhat inconsistent. For instance,

Kleiber and Crandall (1981) reported that locus of control is negatively relatedto work ethic. Dubinsky and Ingram (1984) found no relationship between bothrole conflict and ambiguity, and ethical beliefs. Hegarty and Sims (1978, 1979)concluded that locus of control is related to unethical decision behavior, whileStead et al. (1987) found locus of control to be unrelated to unethical decisionbehavior. Terpstra et al. (1993) found that locus of control has an importantinfluence on individuals' level of ethicality. McCuddy and Peery (1996)proposed that internal locus of control individuals will have higher personalethical standards than external locus of control individuals. Jones (1997)reported that empirical research has found correlations between Protestantethical values and internal locus of control. Similarly, a number of Western

scholars (e.g. Furnham, 1987; Lied and Pritchard, 1976; MacDonald, 1972;Mirels and Garrett, 1971; Waters et al., 1975) found that people who believe inthe PWE tend to have higher locus of control beliefs. Many researchers (e.g.Lefcourt and Wine, 1969; Seeman, 1963) noted that externals are more likely toengage in unethical behavior. Jones and Kavanagh (1996) found thatindividuals with an external locus of control will report higher unethicalbehavior intentions than those with an internal locus of control. Ho et al. (1997)noted that there are statistically significant relationships between cognitivemoral development (CMD), role conflict and ambiguity.


5/20


settin

28

Owing to the fact that the IWE emphasizes hard work, dedication to work,

creative work, cooperation and competitiveness in the workplace, meeting

deadlines at work, and justice and generosity in the workplace, one could argue

that those who strongly support the IWE would perceive less role conflict andambiguity.

Hypotheses

Based on the review of prior research, this study attempts to test the following

hypotheses:

H1: There is a significant correlation between the Islamic work ethic and

both role conflict and role ambiguity.

H2: Employees with internal locus of control will have stronger support for

the Islamic work ethic than employees with external locus of control.

H3a: The Islamic work ethic mediates the relationship between locus ofcontrol and role conflict.

H3b: The Islamic work ethic mediates the relationship between locus of

control and role ambiguity.

MethodSample and data collection

From a list of organizations compiled by the author and with the assistance of

some experts, five manufacturing and four service organizations were

randomly selected. Then using a list of employees' names in these

organizations, a random sample was drawn. The total sample of this study was700 employees. The author distributed 700 questionnaires over a three-month

period using drop-off and pick-up methods. After three callbacks, 430

questionnaires were retrieved, resulting in a 61 per cent response rate. Of the

retrieved questionnaires, 397 questionnaires were usable. The questionnaire

was administered in both Arabic and English. Since a large number of

respondents in this study speak only Arabic, the questionnaire was translated

from English into Arabic, and was validated by translation-back-translation to

ensure that both versions were equivalent. It should be pointed out that,

because the majority of the UAE population is Muslim, there was no question

in the questionnaire asking participants to indicate their religion.Of the subjects, 74 per cent are aged 45 years or less, and 74 per cent have 20

years' or less experience in the present job. Of the subjects, about 82 per cent

are married, and about 68 per cent hold graduate or postgraduate degrees; 71

per cent have 15 years' or less tenure in the present organization. About 54 per

cent are Arabs and 44 per cent are Asians. About 66 per cent hold positions in

the supervisory management. Table I shows the main characteristics of the

sample.


6/20


15,4

288

MeasuresLocus of control was measured using the Duffy et al. (1977) scale. This scaleconsists of 15 items. Examples of the items included in this scale are: ``Therereally is no such thing as luck'', ``Many unhappy things in people's lives are

partly due to bad luck'', and ` Unfortunately, an individual's worth often passesunrecognized no matter how hard he tries''. A 7-point response scale wasemployed, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Scores onthe 15 items were averaged to yield a summary score reflecting locus ofcontrol. A high score (greater than 4 points) on this scale means internal locusof control and a low score (4 points or less) means external locus of control.The internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) for this scale in this study is 0.75.This scale has been adopted in this study because it has been tested in anIslamic environment in a previous study (Jaballa, 1993).

Role conflict was measured using the Rizzo et al. (1970) scale. This scaleconsists of eight items. Examples of the items included in this scale are: ``I

receive an assignment without the manpower to complete it'', ` I receiveincompatible requests from two or more people'' and ``I work on unnecessary

things''. A 7-point response scale was used, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)

to 7 (strongly agree). The items of this scale were reverse coded, and thenscores on the eight items were averaged to yield a summary score reflecting

role conflict. A high score on this scale (greater than 4 points) represents a lowrole conflict and a low score (4 points or less) represents a high role conflict. The

internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) for this scale in this study is 0.79.

Table I.The maincharacteristics of thesample

Frequency % Frequency %

Age Gender30 years or less 112 28 Male 276 69.3

31-45 years 182 46 Female 121 30.746 years of over 103 26

Experience Occupation level5 years or less 165 42 Top management 13 3.36-15 years 129 32 Middle management 123 3116-20 years 80 20 Supervisory management 261 65.721 years or over 23 6

Marital status Tenure in organizationMarried 328 82.6 5 years or less 149 38Single 69 17.4 6-15 years 131 33

16-20 years 81 2021 years or over 36 9

Education level NationalityLess than university degree 128 32.2 UAE 87 21.9University degree 217 54.5 Arab 129 32.4Postgraduate 52 13.3 Asian 173 43.6

Western 8 2.1

Note: n = 397


7/20


settin

28

Role ambiguity was measured using the Rizzo et al. (1970) scale. This scale

consists of six items. Examples of the items included in this scale are: ``I have

clear, planned goals and objectives for my job'', ` I know what my

responsibilities are'', and ` I feel certain about how much authority I have on the

job''. A 7-point response scale was used, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7

(strongly agree). Scores on the six items were averaged to yield a summary

score reflecting role ambiguity. A high score on this scale (greater than 4

points) means less role ambiguity, whereas a low score (4 points or less) means

more role ambiguity. The internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) for this scale

in this study is 0.80. The Rizzo et al. scales of role conflict and ambiguity wereemployed in this study because these scales have been widely used in the

literature and also they have been tested in an Islamic environment (Al-Meer,

1995).

Islamic work ethic was measured using a short version of Ali's (1988)

instrument. This instrument (short version) consists of 17 items. Examples of

items include: ` Laziness is a vice''; ` Good work benefits both oneself and

others''; and ``One should carry work out to the best of one's ability''. Scores on

the 17 items were averaged to yield a summary score reflecting beliefs in the

Islamic work ethic (IWE). A 7-point response scale was employed, ranging

from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The internal consistency

(Cronbach's alpha) for this scale in this study is 0.71. The validity and

reliability of this scale were tested using 117 managers in Saudi Arabia. Results

indicated that Cronbach's alpha is 0.89 (Ali, 1992). For a full listing of IWE

items, see Appendix.

Analysis

Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as percentages and

frequencies to present the main characteristics of the sample. Additionally,

means, standard deviations and intercorrelations were calculated. A series of

regression models was employed to test the hypotheses of the study. Judd and

Kenny (1981) recommended the use of a series of regression models to evaluate

mediational hypotheses. Testing for mediation requires the estimation of

the three following regression equations: first, regressing the mediator on

the independent variable; second, regressing the dependent variable onthe independent variable; and third, regressing the dependent variable on both

the independent variable and on the mediator (Baron and Kenny, 1986).

The three conditions for establishing mediations are: first, the independent

variable must affect the mediator in the first equation; second, the independent

variable must be shown to affect the dependent variable in the second equation;

and third, the mediator must affect the dependent variable in the third

equation.


8/20


15,4

290

ModelsThe present study is based on the following models:

Model 1

1.1 E = 1LC"

1.2 RC = 1LC"

1.3 RC = 1LC2E"

Model 2

2.1 E = 1LC"

2.2 RA = 1LC"

2.3 RA = 1LC2E"

where:E = Islamic work ethicLC = locus of controlRC = role conflictRA = role ambiguity

Model 1 examines the mediator role of the Islamic work ethic in the relationshipbetween locus of control and role conflict. Model 2 examines the mediator role ofthe Islamic work ethic in the relationship between locus of control and roleambiguity.

ResultsTable II presents means, standard deviations and intercorrelations of the mainvariables of the study.

Table III shows the means and standard deviations for low and high groupsof the main variables of the study.

Results indicate (see Table II) that individuals in the organizationsinvestigated are highly committed to the Islamic work ethic, and also theoverall mean of role ambiguity is high. However, it was found (see Table III)that about 99 per cent of the individuals in the sample have very strong supportof the Islamic work ethic (x = 6.115, SD = 0.589), and that 97 per cent of theindividuals have high mean of role ambiguity (x = 6.149, SD = 0.626). It should

Table II.Means, standarddeviations andintercorrelations of thevariables of interest

No. Variables 2 3 4 M SD

1 Islamic work ethic 0.07 0.59* 0.54* 6.10 0.6292 Role conflict 0.39* 0.48* 4.93 1.1733 Role ambiguity 0.43* 6.07 0.7844 Locus of control 4.28 0.606

Note: * p < 0.01


9/20


settin

29

be pointed out that the Duncan test revealed that there are significant

differences between UAE nationals (x = 6.07) and Arabs (x = 6.33) and betweenAsians (x = 5.95) and Arabs (x = 6.33) in terms of commitment to the Islamicwork ethic. On the other hand, although the overall mean of role conflict is low

as is that of locus of control, indicating that individuals in the organizationsinvestigated are with external locus of control, it was found that (see Table III)78 per cent of the individuals in the sample have a mean for role conflict above

scale mid-point (x = 5.421, SD = 0.716), while only 22 per cent have a meanwhich is below scale mid-point (x = 3.164, SD = 0.706). It was also found that 72per cent of the individuals are with internal locus (x = 4.571, SD = 0.386), while28 per cent of the individuals are with external locus of control (x = 3.565,SD = 0.438). It should be noted that the Duncan test revealed that there are

significant differences between UAE nationals (x = 4.46) and Arabs (x = 4.96)and Asians (x = 5.14) in terms of role conflict. There are also significant

differences between UAE nationals (x = 5.65) and Arabs (x = 6.13) and Asians(x = 6.23) in terms of role ambiguity. However, there are no significantdifferences between the three national cultural groups in terms of locus ofcontrol. The results of one-way Anova test showed that there is a significant

difference between males and females in terms of role conflict, but no

significant differences between the two groups in terms of role ambiguity,commitment to the Islamic work ethic and locus of control. Correlationalanalyses suggest that there is a strong correlation between the Islamic work

ethic and role ambiguity (0.59), and locus of control (0.54). However, thecorrelation between the Islamic work ethic and role conflict is insignificant. The

result that the Islamic work ethic has a strong correlation with role ambiguitybut not with role conflict partially supports H1, which stated that there is asignificant correlation between the Islamic work ethic and both role conflictand role ambiguity. The strong correlation between the Islamic work ethic and

locus of control, which was also confirmed by equation 1 of model 1 (seeTable IV), supports H2, which proposed that employees with internal locus ofcontrol have stronger support of the Islamic work ethic than those withexternal locus of control.

Table IMeans and standa

deviations of differegroups of the ma

variables of the stu

Variable Group n % M SD

Islamic work ethic 4 4 1 3.059 1.248> 4 393 99 6.115 0.589

Role conflict 4 86 22 3.164 0.706> 4 311 78 5.421 0.716

Role ambiguity 4 11 3 3.318 0.851> 4 386 97 6.149 0.626

Locus of control 4 113 28 3.565 0.438> 4 284 72 4.571 0.386


10/20


15,4

292

A series of regression models was used to test the role of the Islamic work ethicas a mediator of the relationship between locus of control and both role conflictand ambiguity. The results of these models are reported in Table IV.

Applying the three conditions for establishing mediation, mentioned earlier,on the three equations of model 1, it was found that, although the first two

conditions hold, the third condition does not hold, indicating that the Islamicwork ethic does not mediate the relationship between locus of control and roleconflict, thus not supporting H3a, which stated that the Islamic work ethicmediates the relationship between locus of control and role conflict. On theother hand, applying these conditions on the three equations of model 2, it wasnoticed that these conditions hold, indicating that the Islamic work ethic

mediates the relationship between locus of control and role ambiguity, thussupporting H3b, which stated that the Islamic work ethic mediates therelationship between locus of control and role ambiguity.

DiscussionThe results that employees in the organizations investigated scored high on theIslamic work ethic scale, as indicated by the mean, might show that they arehighly supportive of the Islamic work ethic. Although the participants belongto different nationalities, the population of the UAE is 96 per cent Muslim, andpresumably the majority of the sample would also be Muslim. Therefore, they

would probably share the same Islamic values and demonstrate an adherenceto the Islamic work ethic. However, despite the fact that the overall mean of theIslamic work ethic was high, Arab expatriates and UAE nationals scored

Table IV.Results of regressionanalysis

Dependent Independent variables R2 B

Model 11.1E Constant 0.29 5.309*

LC 0.184*

1.2E Constant 0.23 6.014*LC 0.252*

1.3RC Constant 0.24 6.528*LC 0.234*E 0.098

Model 22.1E Constant 0.29 5.309*

LC 0.184*

2.2RA Constant 0.18 5.307*LC 0.178*

2.3RA Constant 0.21 3.938*LC 0.099E 0.441*

Note: * p < 0.01


11/20


settin

29

higher on the Islamic work ethic scale than Asian expatriates. This result isconsistent with the findings of other researchers (e.g. Ali, 1992; Ali and Azim,1994) who found that Arab managers scored high on the Islamic work ethic.

The high score on role ambiguity indicates that employees in theorganizations investigated have less role ambiguity (more role clarity). This, ofcourse, would reduce job stress and in turn would benefit both the individualsand the organizations. Although the overall mean of role conflict is slightlyabove scale mid-point, indicating a high perception of role conflict, a highpercentage (78 per cent) of the employees perceive less role conflict (high meanof role conflict). Once again, this might be of benefit for both the employees andtheir organizations. For example, literature has found that role conflict and roleambiguity exert a direct influence on job satisfaction and physical symptoms,which in turn influence turnover intentions (Kemery et al., 1985). Additionally,past research has found that role ambiguity is negatively related to

commitment, involvement, satisfaction with co-workers and promotion, andthat role conflict is also negatively related to commitment, involvement,satisfaction with pay, co-workers and supervision (Fisher and Gitelson, 1983).Similarly, Oliver and Brief (1977) found negative correlations between both roleconflict and ambiguity, and organizational commitment, job satisfaction andperformance. Past research (e.g. Hartenian et al., 1994) also noted that increasedrole clarity (less role ambiguity) resulted in better job performance and less roleconflict. On the other hand, the majority of the employees (72 per cent) areinternals, indicating that they perceive less role conflict and ambiguity. Forinstance, previous studies have pointed out that internal locus of control hasbeen shown to be positively associated with lower perceived stress and

correspondingly higher job satisfaction (e.g. Schafer and McKenna, 1991).Moreover, internals may be more satisfied and perceive less emotionalexhaustion because they believe they have some control over their environment(Whitebook et al., 1982). The results that the IWE is positively and significantlycorrelated with role ambiguity indicate that those who strongly support theIWE would perceive less role ambiguity, as they believe in hard work,dedication to work, cooperation and competitiveness in the workplace, meetingdeadlines at work, and justice and generosity in the workplace, and thereforemight not worry about role ambiguity. The result that the Islamic work ethic isrelated to locus of control is consistent with the findings of previous studies (e.g.

Jones, 1997; McCuddy and Peery, 1996; Furnham, 1987; Lied and Pritchard,1976; Waters et al., 1975; MacDonald, 1972; Mirels and Garrett, 1971) whichwere carried out in Western contexts.

ConclusionThis study has examined the mediating role of the Islamic work ethic in therelationship between locus of control, role conflict and role ambiguity in anIslamic and multicultural environment. The present study concluded that theIslamic work ethic mediates the relationship between locus of control and role


12/20


15,4

294

ambiguity, and that those individuals with internal locus of control (internals)have stronger support of the Islamic work ethic. Also, the Islamic work ethic iscorrelated with role ambiguity.

Several limitations of this study should be noted. First, there might be non-response bias; those individuals not responding may differ systematically fromthe study's respondents. This might in turn affect the result and conclusions ofthe study. Second, the present study is of snapshot type which might not fully

capture the dynamic nature of the relationships under investigation. Third, aswith all survey research of this type, the inferences drawn from this study mustbe limited by self-reported and cross-sectional characteristics of the data.

Numerous important avenues of research exist to better understand andutilize the information gained in this area of research. First, a longitudinal

study is needed because of the dynamic nature of the relationshipsinvestigated. Second, a comparison between the IWE and the PWE as

mediators of the relationship between locus of control, role conflict, and roleambiguity is also of interest. Third, it is crucial that future research efforts

focus on other mediators of the relationship between locus of control, roleconflict and role ambiguity.

The present study has several implications. First, management could benefitfrom the results that employees who have internal locus of control (internals)strongly support the Islamic work ethic. Hiring employees who stronglysupport the IWE means hiring employees who believe in hard work, dedicationto work, cooperation and competitiveness in the workplace, meeting deadlinesat work, and justice and generosity in the workplace. It also means having

employees who perceive less role ambiguity. This of course would benefit theorganization as well as the employees. Therefore, locus of control may be animportant factor in evaluating individuals during recruitment and selection for

organizations willing to hire employees who strongly support work ethic(Islamic work ethic in particular). Second, management could also benefit fromthe results that the Islamic work ethic mediates the relationship between locusof control and role ambiguity in the sense that they should understand that

retaining employees who strongly support the Islamic work ethic and at thesame time perceive less role ambiguity would require recruiting and selectingthose who have internal locus of control (internals).

The contribution of this study is threefold: first, it explores the role of theIslamic work ethic, which is specific to the Islamic culture, as a mediator of the

relationship between locus of control, role conflict and role ambiguity in amulticultural and Islamic environment. This has not been examined inprevious studies. Second, this study provides insight into the nature and thedirection of the relationships between the Islamic work ethic and role conflict,

and ambiguity in an environment, which is totally different from those ofWestern studies. Finally, the results of most of the Western studies, which arebased on the Protestant work ethic concept, are consistent with the results of


13/20


settin

29

the present study, which is based on the Islamic work ethic concept. Thisindicates that Western findings in this area of research might be valid in a non-Western environment.

References

Abeng, T. (1997), ``Business ethics in Islamic context: perspectives of a Muslim business leader'',Business Ethics Quarterly, Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 47-54.

Adler, N. (1986), `Èxpecting international success: female managers overseas'', Columbia Journalof World Business, Vol. 19, pp. 79-85.

Adler, N. (1990),International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior, PWS Kent, Boston, MA.

Ahmad, K. (1976),Islam: Its Meaning and Message, Islamic Council of Europe, London.

Ali, A. (1986), ``The Arab executive: a study in values and work orientation'', American-ArabAffairs, Vol. 19, pp. 94-100.

Ali, A. (1988), ``Scaling an Islamic work ethic'', The Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 128 No. 5,pp. 575-83.

Ali, A. (1989), `À comparative study of managerial beliefs about work in the Arab states'', inPrased, B. (Ed.), Advances in International Comparative Management, JAI Press, Vol. 4,pp. 95-112.

Ali, A. and Azim, A. (1994), ` Islamic work ethic and organization in development'', paperpresented at 23rd International Congress of Applied Psychology, Madrid, Spain, July, 17-22.

Ali, A.J. (1992), ``The Islamic work ethic in Arabia'', The Journal of Psychology, Vol. 126 No. 5,pp. 507-19.

Al-Meer, A.A. (1989), `Òrganizational commitment: a comparison of Westerners, Asians andSaudis'',International Studies of Management and Organization, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 74-84.

Al-Meer, A.A. (1995), ` The relationships of work stress to organizational commitment, job

performance, job satisfaction and individual differences: a comparative study'', PublicAdministration, in Arabic, Vol. 35 No. 2, pp. 207-52.

Azumi, K. and Macmillan, C.J. (1976), ` Worker sentiment in the Japanese factory: itsorganizational determinants'', in Austin, L. (Ed.), Japan: The Paradox of Progress, YaleUniversity Press, New Haven, CT, pp. 215-29.

Baron, R.M. and Kenny, D.A. (1986), ``The moderator-mediator variable distinction in socialpsychology research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations'', Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 51 No. 6, pp. 1173-82.

Batlis, N.C. (1980), ` Job involvement and locus of control as moderators of role-perception/individual outcome relationships'',Psychological Reports, Vol. 46 No. 1, pp. 111-19.

Bernardi, R.A. (1997), ``The relationships among locus of control, perceptions of stress, andperformance'',Journal of Applied Business Research, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 1-8.

Black, J. (1992), ``Coming home: the relationship of expatriate expectations with repatriationadjustment and job performance'',Human Relations, Vol. 45, pp. 77-92.

Boyacigiller, N. (1990), ` The role of expatriates in the management of interdependence,complexity and risk in multinational corporations'', Journal of International BusinessStudies, Vol. 21 No. 3, pp. 357-82.

Dubinsky, A.J. and Ingram, T.N. (1984), ` Correlates of salespeople's ethical conflict: anexploratory investigation'',Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 3, pp. 343-53.

Duffy, P.J., Shiflett, S. and Downey, R.G. (1977), `Locus of control: dimensionality andpredictability using Likert scales'',Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 62 No. 2, pp. 214-19.


14/20


15,4

296

Evans, B.J. and Coman, G.J. (1995), ``General versus specific measures of occupational stress: anAustralian police survey'', Stress Medicine, pp. 11-20.

Famighetti, R. (1997), The World Almanac and Book of Facts, K-III Reference Corporation, NewJersey.

Fisher, C.D. and Gitelson, R. (1983), `À meta-analysis of the correlates of role conflict andambiguity'',Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 68 No. 2, pp. 320-33.

Furnham, A. (1987), ` Work related beliefs and human values'', Personality and IndividualDifferences, Vol. 8, pp. 627-37.

Furnham, A. (1990), `À content, correlational, and factor analytic study of seven questionnairemeasures of the Protestant work ethic'',Human Relations, Vol. 43 No. 4, pp. 383-99.

Griffeth, R.W. and Hom, P.W. (1987), ` Some multivariate comparisons of multinationalmanagers'',Multivariate Behavioral Research, Vol. 22, pp. 173-91.

Hartenian, L.S., Hadaway, F.J. and Badovick, G.J. (1994), `Àntecedents and consequences of roleperceptions: a path analytic approach'', Journal of Applied Business Research, Vol. 10 No. 2,pp. 40-50.

Hegarty, W.H. and Sims, H.P. Jr (1978), ``Some determinants of unethical decision behavior: anexperiment'', Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.63 No. 4, pp.451-7.

Hegarty, W.H. and Sims, H.P. Jr (1979), `Òrganizational philosophy policies, and objectivesrelated to unethical decision behavior: a laboratory experiment'', Journal of Applied

Psychology, Vol. 64 No. 4,pp. 331-8.

Ho, F.N., Vitell, S.J. and Desborde, R. (1997), `Èthical correlates of role conflict and ambiguity inmarketing: the mediating role of cognitive moral development'', Journal of Academy of

Marketing Science, Vol. 25 No. 2, pp. 117-26.

Hofstede, G. (1984), ``Culture dimensions in management and planning'', Asia Pacific Journal ofManagement, Vol. 1, pp. 81-99.

Jaballa, R.M. (1993), ``The effects of Islamic work ethic, locus of control, growth need strength andperformance-based rewards'', Journal of Administrative Sciences and Economics (in

Arabic), Vol. 4, pp. 146-93.Jain, H.C., Normand, J. and Kanungo, R.N. (1979), ``Job motivation of Canadian anglophone and

francophone hospital employees'', Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 11 No. 2,pp. 160-63.

Jennings, B.M. (1990), ``Stress, locus of control, social support, and psychological symptomsamong head nurses'',Research in Nursing and Health, pp. 393-401.

Jones, G.E. and Kavanagh, M.J. (1996), ` An experimental examination of the effects of individualand situational factors of unethical behavioral intentions in the workplace'', Journal of

Business Ethics, Vol. 15, pp. 511-23.

Jones, H.B. Jr (1997), ``The Protestant ethic: Weber's model and the empirical literature'', HumanRelation, Vol. 50 No. 7, pp. 757-78.

Judd, C.M. and Kenny, D.A. (1981), ` Process analysis: estimating mediation in evaluationresearch'',Evaluation Research, Vol. 5, pp. 602-19.

Kanungo, R.N., Gron, G.J. and Dunderis, H.J. (1976), ` Motivational orientation of Canadiananglophone and francophone managers'', Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, Vol. 8No. 2, pp. 107-21.

Kemery, E.R., Mossholder, K.W. and Bedeian, A. (1985), ``Role stress, physical symptomatology,and turnover intentions: a causal analysis of three alternative specifications'', Journal ofOccupational Behavior, Vol. 8, pp. 11-23.

Kidron, A. (1978), ``Work values and organizational commitment'', Academy of ManagementJournal, Vol. 21 No. 2, pp. 239-47.


15/20


settin

29

Kleiber, D.A. and Crandall, R. (1981), ``Leisure and work ethics and locus of control'', LeisureSciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, pp. 477-85.

Lefcourt, H.M. and Wine, J. (1969), `Ìnternal versus external control of reinforcement and thedeployment of attention in experimental situations'', Canadian Journal of Behavioral

Science, Vol. 1, pp. 167-81.Lied, T. and Pritchard, R. (1976), ``Relationships between personality variables and components

of the expectancy-valence model'',Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 61, pp. 463-7.

Lincoln, J.R. and Kalleberg, A.L. (1985), ``Work organization and workforce commitment: a study

of plant and employees in the USA and Japan'', American Sociological Review, Vol. 50,pp. 738-60.

Lincoln, J., Hanada, M. and Olson, J. (1981), ``Cultural orientations and individual reactions toorganizations: a study of employees'',Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 26, pp. 93-115.

McClelland, D. (1961), The Achieving Society, Free Press, New York, NY.

McCuddy, M.K. and Peery, B.L. (1996), ``Selected individual differences and collegians' ethical

beliefs'', Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 15, pp. 261-72.

MacDonald, A. (1972), ` More on the Protestant ethic'', Journal of Consulting and ClinicalPsychology, Vol. 39, pp. 116-22.

Mirels, H. and Garrett, J. (1971), ``Protestant ethic as a personality variable'',Journal of Consultingand Clinical Psychology, Vol. 36, pp. 40-44.

Nasr, S.H. (1984), ` Islamic work ethics'',Hamdard Islamicus, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 25-35.

Near, J.P. (1989), `Òrganizational commitment among Japanese and US workers'', OrganizationStudies, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 281-300.

Oliver, R.L. and Brief, A.P. (1977), ` Determinants and consequences of role conflict andambiguity among retail sales managers'',Journal of Retailing, Vol. 53 No. A, pp. 47-58.

Rizzo, J., House, R.J. and Lirtzman, S.J. (1970), ``Role conflict and role ambiguity in complex

organizations'',Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 15, pp. 150-63.

Rotter, J.B. (1966), ` Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control ofreinforcement'',Psychological Monographs, Vol. 80, p. 60.

Schafer, W.E. and McKenna, J.F. (1991), ``Perceived energy and stress resistance: a study of city

managers'', Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, June, pp. 271-82.

Seeman, M. (1963), `Àlienation and social learning in a reformatory'', American Journal ofSociology, Vol. 69, pp. 270-84.

Spector, P.E. (1986), ``Perceived control by employees: a meta-analysis of studies concerning

autonomy and participation at work'',Human Relations, Vol. 39 No. 11, pp. 1005-16.

Stead, W.E., Worrell, D.L., Spalding, J.B. and Stead, J.G. (1987), `Ùnethical decisions: sociallylearned behaviors'',Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 105-15.

Terpstra, D.E., Rozell, E.J. and Robinson, R.K. (1993), ` The influence of personality and

demographic variables on ethical decisions related to insider trading'', Journal ofPsychology, Vol. 127 No. 4, pp. 375-89.

The GCC Economic Data Book (1996), Motivate Publishing, UAE.

Trevino, L.K. and Youngblood, S.A. (1990), ``Bad apples in bad barrels: a causal analysis of

ethical decision-making behavior'',Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 75, pp. 378-85.

Waters, L., Bathis, N. and Waters, C. (1975), ` Protestant ethic among college students'',Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. 35, pp. 447-50.

Weber, M. (1958), The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Charles Scribner's Sons, NewYork, NY.


16/20


15,4

298

Whitebook, M., Howes, C., Darrah, R. and Friedman, J. (1982), ``Caring for the caregivers: staffburnout in child care'', in Katz, L. (Ed.), Current Topics in Early Childhood Education,Ablex Publishing, Norwood, NJ.

Yavas, U., Luqmani, M. and Quraeshi, Z. (1990), ``Organizational commitment, job satisfaction,

work values: Saudi and expatriate managers'', Leadership & Organization DevelopmentJournal, Vol. 11 No. 7,pp. 2-10.

Appendix. Islamic work ethic scale

(1) Laziness is a vice.

(2) Dedication to work is a virtue.

(3) Good work benefits both oneself and others.

(4) Justice and generosity in the workplace are necessary conditions for society's welfare.

(5) Producing more than enough to meet one's personal needs contributes to the prosperityof society as a whole.

(6) One should carry work out to best of one's ability.

(7) Work is not an end in itself but a means to foster personal growth and social relations.

(8) Life has no meaning without work.

(9) More leisure is not good for society.

(10) Human relations in organisations should be emphasised and encouraged.

(11) Work enables man to control nature.

(12) Creative work is a source of happiness and accomplishment.

(13) Any man who works is more likely to get ahead in life.

(14) Work gives one the chance to be independent.

(15) A successful man is the one who meets deadlines at work.

(16) One should constantly work hard to meet responsibilities.

(17) The value of work is derived from the accompanying intention rather than its results.


17/20


settin

29

Abstracts from the widerliterature

``The application of a diagnostic modeland surveys in organizational

development''

The following abstracts from the wider literature have been selected for their special relevance tothe preceding article. The abstracts extend the themes and discussions of the main article and actas a guide to further reading.

Each abstract is awarded 0-3 stars for each of four features:

(1) Depth of research(2) Value in practice

(3) Originality of thinking

(4) Readability for non-specialists.

The full text of any article may be ordered from the Anbar Library. Contact Debbie Brannan,Anbar Library, 60/62 Toller Lane, Bradford, UK BD8 9BY. Telephone: (44) 1274 785277; Fax:(44) 1274 785204; E-mail: [email protected] quoting the reference number shown at the endof the abstract.

Construct and concurrent validity of three Protestant work ethic

measures in an Arabian Gulf societyAbdalla, I.A.H.Journal of Managerial Psychology (UK), 1997 Vol 12 No 4: p.251 (10 pages)

Investigates work-related beliefs, and uses a sample of 284 students from theUniversity of Qatar in the Arabian Gulf to examine the reliability, constructand concurrent validities of three measures of work ethic attitudes employed inearlier Western research: the Protestant ethic scale, the work ethic and the pro-Protestant ethic attitude. Analyses the factor structure of the items comprisingeach measure, revealing five common factors across all measures leisure,hard work, asceticism, independence and internal motivation and compares

the findings with those of Western research, revealing many similaritiesalthough noting prominent anti-leisure attitudes among Arabs and generallyhigher mean scores for all factors. Concludes that the reliability, construct andconcurrent validities of the three Protestant work ethic scales are moderatelysupported by the results and represent a useful tool for cross-cultural study.

Case studyResearch implications:** Practice implications:*Originality:** Readability:** Total number:*******


18/20


15,4

300

Reference: 26AZ232

Cost 24 (plus VAT)

Productivity and work ethicsHamilton-Attwell, A.Work Study (UK), 1998 Vol 47 No 3: p.79 (8 pages)

Addresses the question as to whether there is a such a thing as a work ethic

that can impact on a nation's productivity, and starts by determining what

constitutes a work ethic; discusses the various current views of the work ethic,

and relates these to the historical perspective. Acknowledges the differences

between the Protestant work ethic and the Japanese view of work, and reviews

other value systems that affect attitudes to work. Concludes that cultural

values affect the work ethic and resulting productivity, and suggestsapproaches to assist these work ethics being adhered to.

Theoretical with application in practice

Research implications:* Practice implications:**

Originality:*** Readability:** Total number:********

Reference: 27AK411

Cost: 12 (plus VAT)

An examination of the relationship between work commitment andwork outcomes among hospital nursesCohen, A.Scandinavian Journal of Management (UK), Mar/Jun 1998 (14/1-2): p.1 (17pages)

Considers the link between work commitment and positive work outcomes,

focusing on the nursing profession; seeks to advance the understanding of

work commitment by examining the relationship between multiple

commitments and several outcomes (something that has not previously been

undertaken). Reviews the literature, and develops hypotheses related to staffturnover, to the protestant work ethic and work involvement and to

occupational commitment; tests these via a regression analysis of a

questionnaire survey of nurses at two hospitals in Canada. Discovers, inter alia,

that several forms of work commitment are associated strongly with outcome

variables rather than with one form of commitment and that occupational

commitment is an important form of work commitment which should be

included in future research.


19/20


settin

30

SurveyResearch implications:*** Practice implications:*Originality:*** Readability:** Total number:*********Reference: 27AD209Cost: 36 (plus VAT)

Towards a cross-cultural understanding of work-related beliefsNiles, F.S.Human Relations (USA), Jul 1999 Vol 52 No 7: p.855 (13 pages)

Looks at the Protestant Work Ethic, as set down by Weber and elucidated byother researchers, and suggests that many of the beliefs (e.g. asceticism, hardwork, thrift, frugality, postponement of gratification) are present in other worldreligions. As such, points out that the link between the Protestant Work Ethic

and economic development may not be valid. Explores this by studying thework-related beliefs in Australia (a ``Western'', largely Christian society) and inSri Lanka (a non-Western, predominantly Buddhist country), comparing howthese are affected by religion and culture. Uses a stratified sample of residentsin Darwin, Australia, and Colombo, Sri Lanka. Finds that the work ethic isequally strong among the Sri Lankans as among the Australians, with bothnationalities accepting a work ethic based on hard work and excellence.Concludes that it is no longer valid to define and measure work ethic by scalesderived to measure the Protestant Work Ethic.

Survey

Research implications:*** Practice implications:**Originality:** Readability:*** Total number:**********Reference: 28AZ001Cost: 30 (plus VAT)Credits = 5

Individualism and collectivism in Israeli society: comparingreligious and secular high-school students

Sagy, S., Orr, E. and Barr-On, D.Human Relations (USA), Mar 1999 Vol 52 No 3: p.327 (22 pages)

Summarizes the theories on the impact that collectivism/individualism have ongroup decision making. Uses the collectivism-individualism construct toanalyse if religious and secular groups in Israel attach different values to itemssuch as families, friends, hobbies, their country, ethnic group, democracy andenvironmental protection. Also analyses their interest in geography andhistory and their attitudes towards various political issues. Tests thehypothesis that religious groups will be more collectivist and secular groupswill be more individualist. Concludes that the analysis confirms the hypothesis,


20/20


15,4

302

but also finds indications of a secondary distinction within the collectivismbetween those whose collectivism relates to their own social group and thosewhose collectivism is universalist.

Comparative/evaluation / Literature reviewResearch implications:** Practice implications:*Originality:** Readability:** Total number:*******Reference: 28AR880Cost: 30 (plus VAT)

Work, identity and self: how we are formed by the work we doGini, A.

Journal of Business Ethics (Netherlands), May 1998 Vol 17 No 7: p.707 (8pages)

Examines the concept of work and its importance to society and individuals.Looks at various definitions, from a means of obtaining the basic requirementswe need to survive to an extremely fulfilling way of spending time andachieving a great deal; draws on many historical and literary sources to do so.States that whatever an individual's work situation there are four criticalproblems at the core of the contemporary work experience: a lack of vision ofwhat we do and why we do it; the rise of ` workaholism'' in all classes of worker;the ``work, spend, debt'' syndrome; and the work ethos and its influence on theethical values of the worker. Examines each of these in detail; aims toencourage readers to think about their own work situation and how they mayinfluence that of others.

Survey / Comparative/evaluationResearch implications:* Practice implications:***Originality:** Readability:*** Total number:*********Reference: 27AW147Cost: 18 (plus VAT)