Ethno-botany Behind the Malay Herbal Industry Murray Hunter Associate Professor School of Bioprocess Engineering Northern Malaysian University College of Engineering (KUKUM) Introduction Malaysia is a multi-ethnic country made up of Malays, Chinese, Indians and a number of other ethnic groups scattered around the country. The majority group are the Malays or bumiputras (Sons of the soil), who for more than One Thousand years lived in a rural environment, not interfered with by the outside world, until the Arabs, Indians, Chinese and eventually the Europeans arrived on the Malay Peninsula for trade and later conquest through colonialisation. The Malays until the mid part of the 20

th century lived a simple rural life tendering paddy

fields, growing vegetables and fruits, gathering forest products, and fishing. Today in Malaysia, there are still parts of the country where life, except for electricity, television, telephone and other modern amenities, is still much the same way. Although Malaysia is now a largely urbanised and industrialised country, the Malays’ rural roots aren’t forgotten, shown by the mass exodus of the inhabitants of Kuala Lumpur, the Nation’s capital city to their home towns during holidays and festive seasons. Life in the kampongs (villages) was completely self sufficient, relying on a communal social order which developed the soft and hospitable culture that many visitors to rural Malaysia would experience. Work was undertaken with the principal of gotong royong (mutual assistance) and life had little resemblances to the stress of urban life. The Malay diet was a very healthy one based on rice, ulam (leaf type vegetables), fruits, legumes and fish, in contrast to the heavy meat based diet of today. As there was no access to outside medical assistance, the Malays learnt and built up a knowledge base about the medicinal efficacies of the native flora available in their local areas. Hard work, diet and herbs from the garden and forest were their only method of maintaining good health. Malay Traditional Medicine (MTM) developed from the village on what flora was available, relying on knowledge being passed down from generation to generation for Hundreds of years. This was completely by folklore, as there are no ancient texts of Malay herbal medicine known to be in existence. With the arrival of the Indian traders in the 1500’s, some knowledge based on ayurvedic medicine was passed along. The Indonesians from Aceh brought with them knowledge about urut (traditional massage), which became incorporated in the medicinal regime used by the Malays. The Chinese also passed on knowledge about reflexology and some Traditional Chinese Medicines, further enriching Malay Traditional Medicine. The Malays are a very superstitious people and believed in mystical powers

1. Some elders in

the kampongs took on the role of bomohs (wise man, mystic, medicine man all rolled into one), taking up partly the practice of medicine and mixing it with mysticism. It was believed that bomohs could see into the future and through their intervention could alter outcomes. They were consulted in all matters from love, to sickness. Some bomohs were straight charlatans, while another group of them employed the use of Islam in their healing, where, medicine and massage would be supported with use of verses in the Al Quran (The Islamic Holy Book), to build up faith, hope and confidence. Malay Traditional Medicine is the least well known of all the Eastern disciplines and is in danger of losing much of its acquired up knowledge. This is partly due to urbanisation and industrialisation and loss of contact with the kampong. There is also no central regulatory authority, registering and monitoring practitioners in Malaysia, although plans are under way to regulate this field. Still today, many Malays, particularly in the rural areas, are inclined to

consult Bomohs before trained medical doctors and rely on herbs for cures. This is the basis from which the modern traditional Malay herbal industry has emerged and is rapidly growing. The Current Herbal Industry in Malaysia The herbal medicine industry literally grew out of the kampong, where numerous home remedies were manufactured and sold in crude presentations at pasars (markets) around the country. This was totally unregulated until toxicity scares forced regulation in under the Control of Drugs and Cosmetics Regulations 1984, modelled on the Australian TGA regulations. An Eight year grace period was given, where traditional medicines would have to be registered under the special category of traditional medicines, which allows for easier efficacy claim guidelines based on established and recognised prior use. The regulations also required quality standardisation and GMP standard manufacturing facilities, which cleaned up the industry and eliminated all of the backyard operators, where contract packers with GMP compliance moved in. Although the imposition of regulation eliminated many small one product enterprises, it modernised the presentation of Malay traditional medicines on the market and ensured some standardisation and safety. Malay traditional herbal products compete openly with Chinese medicines, imported nutraceuticals, nutritional Supplements, dietary Supplements, and Western homeopathic medicines.

Urbanisation and separation from the older generations still living in the kampongs, made it difficult to obtain home remedies in the cities. Growing affluence and awareness about natural products has led to a rediscovery of Malay traditional medicines, which is sustaining rapid growth. More Malaysians are taking supplements to ward off illness and maintain a good state of health, feeling that their daily lives are stressful. Thus today, traditional Malay herbal medicines have grown from a cottage industry to a mass marketed group of products growing to a turnover of more than A$800 Million per annum. This is reported to be growing between 15-20% per annum

2.

This rapid market growth has seen the multinational pharmaceutical companies launch dietary supplements and nutraceuticals to compete. Herbal, health and dietary supplements are regulated as non-poison over the counter (OTC). The United States is the largest supplier of supplements to Malaysia and the majority of these products are marketed through direct selling companies, pharmacies, supermarkets and Chinese Medical Halls. The most popular items are vitamins, minerals and plant extracts. Dietary supplements are some of the fastest growing product ranges for companies like Cosway, Amway, CNI, Sureco and many other local companies.

The largest market channel for Malay traditional medicines is now through local and foreign owned direct marketing companies. There are over 140 companies in Malaysia undertaking direct marketing and selling different branded versions of Malay herbs. Herbs are available as teas, tablets, capsules, balms and lotions, in cosmetics, shampoos and even blended as coffees. Some companies have successfully modified their products by mixing local herbs with long established internationally recognised herbs like ginseng and aloe vera, etc. Direct marketing has allowed individuals become freelance salespeople for the herbal products, who almost without any restraint, tend to make wide claims about product efficacy. Legal action was attempted under the Advertisements & Sales Act 1956 to try and control this. However no charges could be sustained as all claims made by individuals have tended to be of a verbal nature

3.

The local Malay herbal industry is currently heavily supported by the Federal Government. Through the Ministry of Science, Technology and Industry (MOSTI), grants are given out to universities and research organisations to further research this field. The Malaysian Technology Development Corporation (MTDC) provides commercialisation grants for up-scaling technology on a dollar for dollar basis with industry. The development of the industry is co-ordinated by the Malaysian Herbal Corporation (MHC). The Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) is developing new herbs in research programs

and disseminating the technology to farmers and the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM)has just completed building an A$15 Million plant for pilot manufacture of herbal products as a training facility. In addition, FRIM is carrying out a national bio-prospecting program and compiling all national herb data in a bioinformatics program. Raw Material Sourcing Traditionally raw materials were gathered through wild collection from the forests, most of the time illegally. Thus, there were many disadvantages as shown in the table below

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Table 1: Medicinal Plants Collected from the Wild Verses Cultivation

Wild Collection Cultivation

Availability Decreasing Increasing Supply of Material Useable Better Control and Quality Quality of Products Poor High

Botanical Identification Sometimes not reliable Reliable Genetic Improvement No Yes

Agronomic Manipulation No Yes Post Harvest Handling Poor Usually Good

Adulteration Likely Relatively Safe Wild collection has become extremely difficult now due to depletion of natural forest materials and local cultivation programs are developing. However, most raw materials still are imported from India, China and Indonesia, suppling over 90% of the industry’s needs

5.

Herb plantations are being developed all over the country. The first one was established by the Perak State Economic Development Corporation (PKENP) in Sungkai, Perak, which is now owned by Sureco (M) Sdn. Bhd., in the mid 1990’s. This company has grown to a sales turnover of more than A$25 Million per annum in end consumer herb products, from a zero base in 6 years. Pandan Intan Sdn. Bhd., a subsidiary of Nona Roguy Sdn. Bhd. was established in 1994 and now cultivates over 500 Ha. of herbs in Kelantan. Gitex (M) Sdn. Bhd. Has also established a buy-back program with small-holders in Kelantan and is extending this concept to other farming communities throughout the country. Local cultivation only supplies a faction of local raw material requirements, which is inhibiting industry growth. Local companies tend to find it difficult to purchase consistent quality of raw materials, experience wide price fluxuations, have to encounter quarantine procedures each time materials are imported, sometimes are unable to get raw materials and don’t have strategic control over these materials. Some companies have moved their manufacturing operations to Sumatra, Indonesia to be closer to supplies of raw materials and also take advantage of the larger Indonesian domestic market for herbal products. Herbs are used in a number of ways. Traditionally in the village, herbs were either used fresh or dried for later use. Simple processing can convert dried herbs into powders for use in capsules and teas, etc. Herbs can also be fermented for the preparation and manufacture of medicinal beverages. Under more sophisticated processing, extracts are prepared and standardised for use in phytopharmaceuticals or further fractioned and undergone bioactive processes to produce synthetic drugs. The family tree of herb derivatives is shown in Figure 1.

Some Ethno-Botany of Popular Malaysian Herbs There are over 15,000 of plants known in Malaysia, of which 1,200 of the higher species have been reported to have medicinal properties

6. Of these, about 150 plants are used in the

production of herbs. The rest of this article will introduce some of the currently popular ones used by manufacturers. Alpinia galanga (L.) Wilid. Local name: Lengkuas Common Name: Greater Galangal Parts Used: Rhizome Description & Origin: Alpinia galangal originated from India. It is widely available throughout South-East Asia, along the tropical belt. Alpinia galanga is a perennial plant and can grow up to three metres in height. The leaves are long, narrow and light green, with pointed tips. Uses: The rhizome is used as a spice in cooking food. In traditional medicine it is used for bringing down fever, bronchitis, rheumatism, skin diseases, respiratory diseases, indigestion, flatulence, purifying blood, diarrhoea, stomach ache, cholera, a laxative and for treatment of diabetes. It is also taken after childbirth for general wellbeing. The leaves can be boiled in water for use as a body lotion. It is also said to be an anti-microbial.

Raw Herbs

Fresh Consumption Dried Fermented

Extracts

Medicinal Powders

Medicinal Beverages

Essential Oils

Flavour & Fragrance

Personal Care & Cosmetics

Standardised Extracts

Phytopharmaceutical Products

Fractions

Bioactive Compounds

Synthetic Drugs

Figure 1: The Family Tree of Herb Derivatives

Chemical Constituents: 1’-acetoxychavicol acetate, cadinene, cineol, eugenol, galangin, 1’-acetoxyeugenol, 1’- acetoxyeugenol acetate, ascorbic acid, bassorin, camphor, β – carotone, caryophyllene oxide, caryophyllenol-1, caryophyllenol -11, (E)-8-β- 17-epoxylabd-12-ene-15,16-dial, galanginmethyl-ether, galangol, isorhamnetin, kaempferide, kaempferol, methylcinnamate, niacin, phlobaphen, D-pinene, quercetin, quercetin-3-methyl ether, riboflavin, terinen-4-ol, thiamin, trans-3,4-dimethyloxycinnamyl alcohol, trans-4-hydroxycinnamaldehyde, trans-4-methoxycinnamyl alcohol

7 8 9 10

. Comments: Legkuas popular as a herbal material in Malaysia. There is some small cultivation in the country. Cymbopogon nardus (L.) rendle Local Name: Serai Wangi Common Name: Citronella Parts Used: Leaves Description and Origin: Citronella is widely distributed throughout South-East Asia. Citronella is a tall clumped grass, which can grow to 1.5 metres in height. The leaves are about 2.5 cm in width. The stem is a rounded, creeping rhizome that produces suckers. Uses: Citronella is widely used for balms, massage oils and insect repellent candles. It is applied to the body through a balm or carrier oil to relieve rheumatism, fever and to assist digestion. Chemical Constituents: Caryophyllene, citronellol, borneol, bournonene, camphene, camphor, 1-carvotanacetone, σ – 3-carene, citronellybutrate, D-citronellal, D-citronellolacetate, D-citronellol-N-butyrate, p-cymene, elemol, farnesol, furfurol, geraniol, geranylacetate, geranylbutyrate, geranylformate, limonene, linalool, linalylacetate, methyleugenol, methylisoeugenol, methylheptenone, menthol, myrcene, nerol, nerolidol, cis-ocimene, perillaldehyde

11.

Comments: It is still cheaper to import citronella oil than produce it in Malaysia. Eurycoma longifolia Jack. Local Name: Tongkat Ali Common Name: Bitter antidote Parts used: All parts can be used but there is a preference for the bark and roots of the tree. Description & Origin: Tongkat ali is a small tree which grows to a height of 10 metres. The branches grow to a length of one metre and have odd-pinnate compound leaves and form a crown at the top of the tree. The tree is usually found in the lowland jungles around the Malay Peninsula and Borneo, Burma, Indo-China, Thailand, Sumatra and the Philippines. Uses: The plant is boiled in water and used as a general tonic internally after childbirth, antdotal, antihypertensive, antipyretic, antituberculotic, antivenous, vermifuge and febrifuge. Many believe in the plant’s aphrodisiac properties, which may help explain its immense popularity. The herb is also used for washing itches, and applied as a paste to relieve headaches, bone pain and stomach aches. In commercial products the herb is promoted as a stamina booster and anti-oxidant. Chemical Constituents: The important compounds are eurycomanol, eurycomanone and eurycomalactone. Other known compounds include Boujotinolone A., campesterol, 5,6-dehydroeurycomalactone, 11-dehydrdroklaineanone, dihydroeurycomalactone, 13β,18-

dihydroeurycomanol, 13,21-dihydroeurycomanone, dihydroniloticin, 13β,21-dihydroxyeurycomanone, dihydroxyklaineanone, 14,15β-dihydroxyklaineanone, 3-episapelin A, eurycomanol-2-0-β-D-glycopyranoside, eurylactone, eurylene, hispidone, 6-hydroxy-5,6-dehydroeurycomalactone, 9-hydroxycanthin-6-one, 10-hydroxycanthin-6-one, 9-hydroxycanthin-6-one-N-oxide, 6α-hydroxyeurycomalactone, laurycolactone A and B, longilactone, longilene peroxide, melianone, 9-methoxycanthin-6-one, 9-methoxycanthin-6-one-N-oxide, niloticin, pasakbumins A, B, C and D, piscidinol A, scopoletin, sitosterol and stigmasterol

12 13

14

15

16

. Comments: Clinical trials are still very limited. There are now more than 300 products on the market containing tongkat ali. Most jungles have been harvested and raw materials are beginning to come from plantations. This is currently one of the most popular herbs in the market, used in a large number of products including coffee. Labisia pumila Benth. Local Name: Kacip Fatima. Common Name: Fatimah childbirth medicine Description & Origin: Kacip fatimah is found in Indo-China, Malaysia, Borneo, Java and Sumatra. It is a small scrub growing naturally on the forest floor, under shade. Leaves are upright and elliptic-lanceolate in shape, rising from the base. Parts Used: Leaves Uses: Kacip Fatima is one of the most popular herbs used by women, especially at childbirth. It is believed to assist in childbirth. A paste using the leaves in coconut is applied to the babies abdomen to relieve stomach pain. Leaves are drunk in tea for dysentery. The plant is also used to treat rheumatism, gonorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea. Chemical Constituents: No information available. Comments: This plant is very popular as a herbal remedy and was locally named after the Phophet’s only daughter Fatimah. It is used in a number of products and promoted heavily as a women’s tonic. The plant is cultivated in plantations for commercial supply. Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Local Name: Pegaga Common Name: Asian pennywort, Indian pennywort Parts Used: Leaves Description & Origin: This herb is native to India, most probably introduced into Malaysia at some time. It is a small herb, sometimes creeping. The leaves are heart shaped on a long stalk. Flowers are white in small rounded heads. The herb is commonly used in Ayurvedic medicine. Uses: Commonly used as an ulam (vegetable) in the Malay diet as an appetiser and aiding digestion. The herb is recognised as being ‘heaty’ to the body and used after childbirth to warm the mothers body, help contract the uterus, and improve blood circulation. Juice from the leaves is extracted by boiling or pounded into a fine paste to treat skin diseases, such as ulcers, wounds, and assist in healing. The paste is also used to lower fever. It is also used to cure leprosy, keloids, lupus, cellutitis and strengthen nervous functions. It is believed to improve memory and usually made into a tea, or extracts used to make a juice. It is also used in local cosmetics for anti-aging and anti-oxidant.

Chemical Constituents: As an edible herb the nutrient composition is water 87.7%, protein 2%, fat 0.2%, carbohydrate 6.7%, fibre 1.6% and ash 1.8%. Mineral contents are calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, magnesium, copper and zinc. Vitamins: carotenes, retinol equivalents, B1, B2, C and niacin

17 18

19

20

. Comments: This herb can usually be purchased fresh at the markets, cultivated by small-holders. Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) wall.ex Nees Local Name: Pokok Cerita, Hempedu bumi Common Name: Creat, Green chireta Description and Origin: Most likely a native plant of India. Has been introduced across Asia as far as China and Australia. Andrographis paniculate is an annual herb, growing to around 80 cm in height. Stems are squarish, with green glossy oblong, but pointed leaves. Uses: Traditionally used in both China and India to treat gastro-intestinal tract and upper respiratory infections. Research has revealed that there is potential to treat cancer and human immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). It is also used to treat diabetes, high blood pressure, Stomach-ache, asthma, malaria, fever, flu, chest pains, coughs and sore throats. It is also used to treat insect bites. Chemical Constituents: Important chemical are andrographiside, andrgraholide, neoandrographolide, 6’-acetylneoandrographolide, 2,3-aminomutase, andrograpanin, andrographine, andrographolide sodium bisulfate, andropanoside, bis-andrograpolides A, B, C, and D, γ-bisabolene, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, deoxyandrographolide, 14-deoxyandrographolide, 14-deoxy-11-dehydroandrogapholide, 14-deoxy-11,12-didehydroandrogrphiside, 14-deoxy-11-hydroxyandrogrpholide, 14-deoxy-12-hydroxyandrogrpholide, 14-deoxy-11-methoxyandrogrpholide, 14-deoxy-11-oxoandrogrpholide, 3,4-dideoxyandrographolide-deooxyandrographoliside, 11,12-dihydro-14-deoxyandrographolide, diterpene glycoside, 14-epi-andrographolide, 12-epi-14-deoxy-12-epi-andrographolide, 12-epi-14-deoxy-12-methoxyandrographolide, eugenol, 19-0-β-D-glucopyranosyl deoxyandrographolide, 9-0-β-D-glucopyranosyl hentriacontane, 5-hydroxy-7,8-dimethoxyflavanone, 5-hydroxy-7,8,2’,3’-tetramethoxyflavone, 5-hydroxy-7,8,2’-trimethoxyflavone, isoandrographolide, 7-0-methylwogonin, myristic acid, ninandrographolide, panicoline, panicuide A, B, and C, polyphenol, β-sitosterol glucoside, tritriacontane, dicaffeoylquinic acids, diterpenoids, polyphenols

21.

Comments: This crop is considered an important herb crop and a number of small-holders are cultivating the plant in buy-back programs in Kelantan. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Local Name: Bunga raya Common Name: Chinese hibiscus Parts Used: Leaves, roots, flowers Description and Origin: Unknown origin. It is the national flower of Malaysia. A woody branched shrub growing to a height of around 3 metres. The leaves are ovate and bright green, with a glossy upper surface. The common cultivar has a bright red campanulate flower with black lining on the inside base of the tube yellow pistils at the end. Uses: Used in ayurvedic medicine as a heart tonic and blood purifier. The flowers are used to regulate menstruation. The flowers and leaves are used in a poultice to treat bronchitis,

reduce fever and treat skin diseases. A poultice of leaves is used to treat coughs, sore eyes and venereal diseases. The leaves and flowers can also ripen boils and ulcers. Hibiscus products on the market include teas, body slimming lotions, and herbal extracts for kidney, intestine and blood treatments. Chemical Constituents: ascorbic acid, β – carotene, cyaniding-3,5-diglucoside, cyaniding-3-sophoroside, cyaniding-3-sophoroside-5-glucoside, hentriacontane, hibiscetin, methyl-10-oxo-11-octadecynoate, methyl-8-oxo-9-octadecynoate, mucilage, niacin, quercetin-3-diglucoside, quercetin, quercetin-3,7-diglucoside, riboflavin, thiamin, D-galacturonic acid, D-glucuronic acid, D-galacturonic, L-rhamnose

22 23

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. Comments: Number of slimming products on the market. Other herbal products include the extract. Hibiscus sabdariffa Local Name: Asam Susur Common Name: Roselle Parts Used: Leaves, stems and fruits Description & Origin: Hibiscus sabdariffa is commonly available throughout Malaysia and thought to have originated in India. The plant is now grown widely around the world. It is an erect bushy shrub growing to around 2.5 metres in height. Its stems are reddish and leaves alternative shades of green, about 6 cm long. The flowers are also a reddish colour with deep purple centres. Uses: Young shoots are eaten raw as an ulam (vegetable). The flower is also eaten, which has a distinct sour taste. It is usually used as an acidic tea. Claims are made about its medicinal properties in being able to lower blood pressure and decrease cholesterol and there are a number of products on the market, espousing this. The leaves are also used as a poultice on abscesses and ulcers, as it is claimed to have antibacterial and anti fungal properties. The seeds are said to have a diuretic effect and act as a laxative. It is also claimed to be cytotoxic and choleretic. Hibiscus sabdariffa is manufactured as a syrup and also as a fermented tonic drink as a general tonic. Chemical Constituents: Hibiscus sabdariffa is an edible herb and the shoots contain 180 kJ of energy. It contains 85% water, 3.3% protein, 0.3% fat, 9% carbohydrates and 1.6% fibre. It also contains the minerals calcium, phosphorous and iron. It is rich in vitamin C and also contains B1, B2, niacin and b-carotene. The fruits are similar in composition with the additional constituents of citric and malic acid, which is responsible for the sour taste. Several flavonoids exist, including gossypectin, hibiscetion, sabdaretin, gossytrin, hibiscin and hibicitrin. Anthocyanins also exist as cyaniding-diglucoside and cyaniding-glucosyl-rutinoside

25.

Comments: The development of roselle is a national priority and there are plantations in Sarawak, Terengganu, Kelantan and Perak. Morinda citrifolia Linn. Local Name: Mengkudu Common Name: Noni Parts Used: Fruits, leaves, roots. Description & Origin: It is uncertain where the tree originated with some literature claiming Ambon in Indonesia and others in Australia, but it is wide spread over the Indo-Pacific region.

It has been used in Hawaiian traditional medicine for more than 200 years, where it is well known as a herbal product. Morinda citrifolia is an evergreen tree, which grows up to a height of 7-8 metres. It is widespread in villages all over Malaysia and grows well in coastal areas. The leaves are shiny dark green in a long elliptic shape. Fruits are fused together and plentiful on the tree, appearing waxy and light green in colour. Uses: The young shoots and ripe fruits are eaten raw as ulam (vegetables). Infusions of noni are taken to improve menstrual flow and to treat female infertility, while the ripe fruit is taken to cleanse the blood, especially after childbirth. Dried leaves are made into hot compresses to place on the chest to relieve coughs and fevers and to the abdomen for colic, spleen and nausea. The ripe fruits are eaten for aid to diabetes. Leaves are also taken for diarrhoea and with sugar added as a laxative. Noni can also be applied to the skin to treat wounds and as relief for gout and rheumatism. Noni is usually sold on the market as a tonic preparation and in ointments for skin related problems. Other uses include using the fruit pulp as a hair shampoo and the roots as a dye for batik. Chemical Constituents: alizarin, asperuloside, xeronine, acetin-7-0-β-D(+)-glycopyranoside, 5,7-acacetin-7-0-β-D(+)-glycopyranoside, alizarin-α-methylether, anthragallol-2-3-dimethylether, ascorbic acid, asperulosidic acid, caproic acid, caprylic acid, β-carotene, chrysophanol, damnacanthal, damnacanthol, digosin, 5,6-dihydroxylucidin, 5,6-dihydroxylucidin-3-β-primeveroside, 6,8-dimethoxy-3-methylanthraquinone-1-0-β-rhamnosyl(4-1)glucopyranoside, 5,7-di-methylapigenin-4’-)-β-D(+)-galactopyranoside, hexoic acid, 5,6-3-hydroxymorindone, indole, lucidin, lucidin-3-β-primeroside, 3-hydroxymorindone, 3-hydroxymorinedone-6-β-primereroside, 2-methyl-3,5,6-trihydroxyanthraquinone, 2-methyl-3,5,6- trihydroxyanthraquinone-6-β-primereroside, α-methoxyalizarin, monoethoxyrubiadin, morindadiol, morindin, morindone, morindone-6-β-primeveroside, niacin, nordamnacanthal, octoic acid, purine, quinoline, riboflavin, rubiadin, rubiadin-1-methyl ether, rubichloric acid, β-sitosterol, soranjidiol, thiamin, trihydroxy-methyllanthraquinone-monomethylether, ursolic acid

26.

Comments: Noni first made its appearance in the Malaysian market as a herbal beverage supplement from the Hawaii in the late 1980’s. This aroused local interest with its market success and spurred the development of a local industry, however it is reported that the fruit was used as a batik dye and as a medicinal medicine in the 18th century

27. Mengkudu or noni

has been one of the most popular commercially sold herbal preparations in Malaysia. Products manufactured in Malaysia include noni fruit tonics, noni pulp for skin and noni leaf extract for cuts and bruises. Noni is also sold in capsules and mixed with oil for massages. Cultivation is usually undertaken by small-holders in Kelantan and there is a plantation in Perak, operated by Sureco (M) Sdn. Bhd. Neptunia prostata Baill Local Name: Kankung puteri Common Name: Unknown Parts Used: Leaves and stems Description and Origin: Neptunia prostata is a small creeping herb native to the Caribbean Islands. It is now found widespread throughout the tropics, growing along ditches and drains. Neptunia prostata is a small plant with bipinnate leaves, approximately 6 cm long, with a 4 to 5 cm spaced pane, with numerous pairs of leaves. The leaflets are very small and oblong and close up when disturbed by something. Chemical Constituents: Unknown Uses: The shoots and young leaves are eaten raw. In Malaysian Traditional medicine, the roots are infused with rice flour and rubbed over the body to treat fever. The juice of the roots is used to fight ear infections and also in the late stages of syphilis. The leaves are used as a tea for a laxative.

Comments: This herb is more widely used in Thailand, than Malaysia. Ocimum sanctum Linn Local name: Kemangi Common Name: Holy Basil Parts Used: Leaves, seeds and roots. Description and Origin: Ocimum sanctum was most probably introduced into Malaysia from India. Ocimum sanctum is an aromatic herbaceous shrub with heavily woody stems. The leaves are ovate. Uses: Ocimum sanctum is believed to be very effective for boosting the immune system. It exhibits antibacterial and antifungal properties. It is a remedy for gonorrhoea and acts as a diaphoretic for malaria. It is also used for coughs, anorexia, chronic dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, bronchitis and as a cardiac stimulant. An infusion of the leaves is used for digestive disorders and treat gangrene of the lungs and phthisis. The juice of the leaves is given as a laxative. It is used externally for rheumatism. Seeds are used to treat urino-genital disorders. Fresh leaves and roots are used to treat bee, wasp and scorpion stings and mosquito bites. Chemical Constituents: carvacrol, ursolic acid, cineol, eugenol, linalool, nerol, thymol, antistaphylocoagulase, ascorbic acid, camphene, β –carotene, caryophyllene, eugenol-methylether, hexouronic acid, methyl-chavicol, methyl homoanisic acid, mucilage, β – pinene, β – sitosterol, tannin, terpineol

28 29

. Comments: Small production taking place among small-holders in Malaysia. Used in a number of products, using imported extracts. Orthosiphon aristatus Blume. Local Name: Misai kucing Common Name: Java tea, Cats Wiskers Parts Used: Leaves, flowers and stems Description & Origin: Orthosiphon aristatus is widely found throughout South-East Asia and India, as well in Northern Australia. Orthosiphon aristatus grows in the wild along roadsides and ridges of paddy fields and is usually cultivated around kampong houses in rural areas. It is a perennial herb that grows to just under a metre in height. The leaves are glabrous and arranged in pairs opposite each other. The stems are squarish. The flowers are white with light purple buds. Uses: Orthosiphon aristatus is used to control blood pressure, treat bladder, kidney and aid blood circulation. It is also used to treat diabetes, gout and rheumatism. It is claimed that the herb can dissolve kidney stones. The herb is prepared for ingestion through boiling the stems and leaves, sometimes with other herbs, as a tea. Other reports claim efficacy in treating jaundice and arterosclerosis. Chemical Constituents: High in potassium. α – and β – carotone, cirisimaritin, cryptoxanthin, 5-hydroxy-6,7,3,4-tetramethoxyflavone, insositol, myo-inositol, orthosiphon, pillion, rhamnasin, salvigenin, 4,5,6,7-tetramethoxyflavone, isosinensetin, β – zeacarotene, carotenoids, flavonoids, glucosides, glycoproteins, phenylpropanoids, saponins, terpenoids

30.

Comments: Java tea is a popular herb for use in teas in Europe. It is being cultivated in many parts of Malaysia for use in the local market.

1 Asrul, Z., 2002, The Malay Ideals, Kuala Lumpur, Golden Books Centre Sdn. Bhd., P. 167.

2 International Market Research, Nutritional Supplements, Nutraceutical, Herbal Medicines, Industry

Canada, http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inimr-ir.nsf/en/gr111702e.html (accessed December

2005). 3 Ho, N., Developing the Pharmaceutical Industry in Sabah: Potential and Prospect, in Mohd.,

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