AS Film Studies

FM1: Exploring Film Form

Name: …………………………………………

Class: …………………………………………

Candidate Number: …………………………………………

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Assessment Objectives

AO1 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of film as an audio-visual form of creative expression together with its contexts of production and reception and of the diversity in film making across different historical periods and locations.

AO2 Apply knowledge and understanding, including some of the common critical approaches that characterise the subject, when exploring and analysing films and when evaluating their own creative projects to show how meanings and responses are generated.

AO3 Demonstrate the ability to devise film projects creatively, applying appropriate planning and production skills effectively.

AO4 Demonstrate the ability to undertake, apply and present research into film topics.

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Introduction

This booklet is designed to introduce the main aspects of reading a film from the micro perspective – that is ‘reading’ what we actually

see (Non-Verbal and Technical Codes ) and hear (Verbal Codes) on screen.

As part of your coursework YOU MUST produce a 1,500 word Essay analysing a film extract of approximately 3-5 minutes from one or more of the micro features. When you have chosen the film extract you wish to deconstruct, YOU MUST use the information here to identify features that create meanings and evoke responses from the spectator.

YOU SHOULD complete your analysis based around the dominant micro features represented in the sequence. The knowledge you gain here will also be used later in planning and applying knowledge in your own practical film projects.

Micro reading a film

When we give a detailed reading of a film we break down what we see and hear into five major areas of study;

Editing – how a film is cut together Mise en Scene – what we see in a shot and how it is

positioned and lit Performance – acting styles and techniques Cinematography – camera movement and framing Sound – music, dialogue, effects and their relationship to the

image

When reading a film we may focus on these areas and their relationships with each other.

Editing

Editing is about how the various shots in the film are joined or cut together, ordered and juxtaposed in terms of duration and number of edits in order to deliver the films mood or message through pacing

As the Russian filmmaker Lev Kuleshov discovered, we have a natural tendency to link images together and interpret them, we project our own meanings onto the visual ‘clues’ we see. For instance, if we see a shot of a man's face and then a shot of a woman we assume he is looking at her or is,

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perhaps, in love (this is called the Kuleshov effect). We interpret them according to our mental perceptual set.

This juxtaposition of images is called montage. We can either link shots obviously or more subtly to make the audience think. A shot of a criminal may be juxtaposed with one of a rat for instance.

Editing dictates the pace of the film – action may be speeded up or slowed down for emphasis by the number of edits

Some ways of joining and editing shots;

Cut - to new shot; Cut in – when an object in or part of a previous scene is shown again in close up e.g. a cigarette lighter in a man’s hand. Cut away – when an object visible or potentially visible outside the scene is shown e.g. a man sat at a campfire followed by a shot of the moon (but if he looks as if he is looking at the moon it is an eyeline match!)

Fade out - at the end of the shot to a colour – usually black

Fade in – new shot gradually fades in and is usually used to evoke a similar emotion that is expressed on screen – for example when someone is grieving the loss of someone or a relationship has “faded away”.

Dissolve – the end of Shot A is superimposed over Shot B giving a sense of continuity.

Lap dissolve – the image changes in steps instead of smoothly

Wipe - a line goes across the screen replacing one shot with another quite quickly.

Black and white shots may be used to underline that we are in the past and are flashing back (we dream in black and white apparently). Now watch the example edited from a student film

Classical Hollywood continuity editing

This system was established by practice, trial and error by early Hollywood filmmakers such as D.W. Griffith as a common code for film making that ensured narrative continuity for the audience. Each filmmaker could take it for granted that

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their audience would be familiar with this ‘code’ built on trial and practice

Continuity editing involves cutting shots to tell a story in the smoothest, simplest and least challenging way for the audience - ensuring narrative flow and continuity. For instance keeping figures in continuity so that they match from shot to shot, lighting remains constant and action stays central to the frame (e.g. we do not see half of someone’s face)

Master shot – this is a standard industry process – first a scene is shot in medium or long shot, then shot again in close up and then again as a two shot and then edited and cut together. This gives a lot of easily editable material

Long shots have longer takes than medium shots and medium shots have longer takes than close ups because the spectator needs more time to take in details The longer the shot the longer the take.

The 180 degree rule - everything happens in the half circle in front of the camera, which marks the centre line this stops the actors look as if they are looking in different directions from shot to shot for no apparent reason. This rule is only broken when the progress of action is clear.

This ensures the same space is described in every shot and the characters positions are not reversed

Let us now look at the opening of ‘Pulp Fiction’ (1994 – Dir. Quentin Tarrantino) and try to spot some of these techniques.

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Technique Example

The camera cannot move to this side of the line

The camera can be anywhere this side of the line

180oShot -reverse shot 30o rule - the camera must move

by more than this angle to prevent a jump cut

180o rule – the camera cannot cross the line or the positions of the actors and objects in the shot will appear to be reversed

Titles - between scenes or overlaid to give information

Opening shot e.g. of a landscape or cityscape without figures, gives a sense of place.

Establishing shot – establishes the space in which action is to happen and shows the physical relationship between characters

The 30 degree rule - that the camera must move by more than this angle to stop subsequent shots looking as if they have been shot from almost the same angle and distance

Shot/reverse shot - one shot looks down one end of the central line between two characters the next shot is from the other end, this is commonly used when characters talk to each other (see Pulp Fiction or Rear Window) Often employed as an ‘over the shoulder’ shot

Editing short shots with each other can create suspense e.g. shots of a murderer juxtaposed with their victim

Eyeline match – when character looks off screen the next shot shows us what they see (see Rear Window)

Match on action – a character begins to move in one shot, we see continuation of this movement in next shot. This can also help to create the illusion of the lapse of time e.g. we see a shot of a car leaving then cut to a shot of it ‘arriving’ at its destination

Cross cutting – when we move via editing from one set of actions happening in one place to events happening elsewhere (see Sabotage)

Flashback or flash-forward – moving backwards and forwards in time (see Memento)

Temporal elliptical editing – missing out events to compress time e.g. we see a car pulling away from a house then cut to it arriving at its destination

Temporal expansion editing/Overlapping editing – where we see the same action repeated from different angles time is expanded so we pay more attention

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Punctuation shot – a blank screen between shots to show a scene has ended

Cutaway – a brief shot away from the action that relates to it e.g. a man climbs some stairs and we see a brief cutaway of a woman waiting in a room or two people argue and we get a cutaway to the outside of the house

Montage shots – dissolves of ‘external information’ (photographs, newspaper clippings, shots from real or fake newsreels etc.) giving information in compressed form that is relevant to the film’s narrative, ensuring orientation.

Cheat cut – cuts that show an impossible temporal order e.g. A trapdoor is obviously going to close in three seconds – cut to a five second shot of Indiana Jones struggling – and he still makes it through the trapdoor!

Montage editing

The Russian film maker Sergei Eisenstein used the ideas of Kuleshov and others to develop the idea of montage editing, juxtaposing two images to create new thoughts and ideas in the mind of the viewer consciously or subconsciously, the impression created by juxtaposing these images was more important than telling the story. Ironically though Eisenstein was interested in juxtaposing images of workers and exploiting business men Montage with its striking use of images has become a staple tool of advertising and MTV style video editing

Non-continuity editing – Anti Hollywood

Often associated with European new wave cinema in the 1950s and 1960s, this is one way in which art house films challenge Hollywood conventions. By breaking down continuity, filmmakers reveal that film is ‘constructed’, not ‘natural’, and also challenges the relationship between cause and effect and the assumed ideologies of Hollywood

Plot, subplot, logical progression is challenged by non sequential editing which plays with time and events

Non continuity editing started in European art house cinema and was enthusiastically embraced by underground film makers and the makers of music videos

Terminology

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Graphic match – the shapes in one-shot are matched with similar shapes in the next e.g. a shot of the moon cots to a close up of a face.

The Jump cut/shot – Breaking the 30 degree rule and shooting a shot from almost the same angle and distance, even though the action has moved on (gives the impression that the camera is not ‘with’ the action – i.e. it is ‘there’ – and makes the film feel jerky and shocks the audience

Shot patterns can be broken - a shot to shot sequence may be repeated to lead the audience’s expectations a certain way and then one shot may be suddenly replaced with a new one to shock the audience

Film speed - slow motion or speeded up – film may be slowed down or speeded up during production to expand or contract time or for comic or other effect

Non-diegetic insert – insertion of something from outside the plot, i.e. A metaphorical image, intertitle, etc. to break up the action, organise it for us or comment on it e.g. a rowing couple intercut with a nuclear explosion

‘Poor editing’ - deliberate amateurishness to avoid slickness and give an honest, amateur feel to a movie

Overlapping dialogue - voices talking over one another, ‘poor’ sound quality to make us listen and to reflect realism

Now watch two contrasted film sequences and identify some editing effects and their purposes

Sequence one film:

Editing technique Effect Purpose1

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Sequence two film:

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Editing technique Effect Purpose1

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Mise en Scene - ‘putting in the scene’

This covers the visual aspects of what we actually see in a single shot; objects, movements, lighting, colour, shadows. We can break it down into a number of areas.

Setting

What is the significance of a particular geographical and temporal location used in a film? Is the setting real or fictional? How ‘realistic’ is it?

Is the film shot on location or in a studio on an artificially constructed set?

What social rules manners and mores are being portrayed on screen? What constraints are there on acting space? Is the environment claustrophobic or open?

Is the setting utopian (a wonderful world) or dystopian (a nightmare vision of the future)?

Colour schemes and themes may be significant within the film, particular colours may recur or be repeated and contrasted in the setting – harmony or disharmony

Art direction is the process of setting up the sets and location settings ready for filming placing props and objects and arranging space

Identify examples of films with utopian or dystopian settings

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Props

What are the key props in a film and what is their significance to plot?

Genre - props may provide genre iconography (an image associated with a genre) e.g. gangsters usually have guns and cars, cowboys have saddles and spurs

Props can be used to anchor characters and act as a signature or trademark - such as Indiana Jones’ whip and hat or James Bond’s cars

Hitchcock called key props the ‘McGuffin’ - something that sets the plot in motion. For instance in ‘Reservoir Dogs’ (1992 – Dir. Quentin Tarrantino) a mysterious suitcase is fought over by various characters

Think of some key props that are important in films that you know

Film: Prop123

Performance and Movement

o Acting styles have changed hugely from the old days of silent films when dress, posture, hand gestures and faces had to convey all the information about characters and events to the audience through mime overcoming the barriers of early film technology. Theatrical acting styles also predominated initially as actors were head hunted from the theatre into the movies. To us old acting seems ‘stagey’ but it was based on a range of identifiable stereotypes such as ingénue, villain, village idiot etc. – this division into ‘types’ is the origin of the term ‘typecasting’ – casting departments simply had a pool of ‘types’, ‘give me six

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Mexican villains’ an old director of Westerns might have requested and a random six would have been rounded up from the pool.

o In the late 20th century acting that aimed at realism, method acting (Lee Strasberg), became the norm – actors ‘got into the role’ – in the case of actors such as Robert De Niro this might involve doing their characters job or gaining and losing weight for a part, in the ‘method’ the actor immerses themselves in the role and becomes the character, though despite the aim of realism some of these performances may come to be regarded as stylised by future generations e.g. Marlon Brando in ‘The Godfather’ (1972 – Dir. Francis Ford Coppola).

A performance should be functional and appropriate in terms of style to the film

In analysing acting style we can look at a number of areas here; posture, figure movement, facial expression and body language. How actors position themselves, movement, posture.

Generally acting styles may be divided into;

Performances that attempt to be naturalistic as if they were improvised on the spot. Ask yourself is the acting character driven/method acting? (Has the actor tried to live life like the character and researched their background)

Stylised performances e.g. for grotesque or fantastic characters – The Grinch, The Penguin

Personality driven acting - a ‘star’ who always plays a version of themselves e.g. Arnold Schwarzenegger

Theatrical style e.g. the use of a British stage actor e.g. Patrick Stewart, Anthony Hopkins, Kenneth Branagh

Understated performance – where the actor always under reacts to the situation

Overstated performance – overacting and mannered performances

The film actor’s ‘toolkit’

o Facial expression and eye contact

o The use of eyes and gaze to signal attention is a key feature of acting – eyebrows are also important – actors playing a part tend to maintain eye contact for a longer time than people do in real life, it is like hypnotising the audience

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o The mouth is another important area of focus

Posture

o Actors can convey a huge amount of information through their posture, they can convey triumph or defeat, the change from youth to old age, drunkenness etc.

Gesture

o Hands are another vital aspect of the actor’s toolkit, always look at what they are doing with their hands in medium shot or close up Gesture is another key area which allows an actor to construct a performance, convey anger or draw the audiences attention to events, people or objects within the frame

Paralanguage

o Constructing an accent for a character and their style of delivery may be important in constructing a character. The pace, volume pitch, tone and speed of delivery may convey intelligence, femininity, masculinity or sexuality – compare Forest Gump and any Hugh Grant character

Costume – comes under Mise en Scene as well

o The dress and appearance of characters conveys a great deal of information about them and the film.

o Dress may be related to genre.

o Is it traditional/fantastic/fashion/stereotypical of character or not?

1 2 3

Compare and contrast the above. What can you deduce about each character?

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Image What is the costuming?

What does the costume tell you about the character?

How is the character similar or different to the others?

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Makeup

o Alters the appearance and there influences our perception of character

o Is the makeup used in a film natural/theatrical/special e.g. sci-fi, horror?

o Eye make up may be important for instance in a horror movie

o Pancake makeup alters characters colouring – the pallor of a character may be sinister or indicate illness

o Unusual makeup made be needed for special projects e.g. The Grinch

o How is it appropriate to character? E.g. disfigurement and prosthetics

John Hurt in The Elephant Man

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o Consider our change in perception of Cameron Diaz based on these pictures.

Distance

o A good film actor knows how to adjust their expression and figure movement according to their distance from the camera to convey information from a distance but not to overwhelm the screen when shot in close up

… and finally skilful Editing

o Good performances are quite often made on the cutting room floor, bad takes are left out, reaction shots are ordered to their best advantage, close ups and medium shots give greater focus on the actors looks and emotions. Some actors look a lot better on the screen than they ever would in live theatre – the camera loves them

Special effects

o Special effects and CGI may be used within a shot – for instance the crowds in Gladiator or the space ships in a science fiction film

o Stop action/stop motion – using clay or plastic figures which are moved, shot and then moved again a frame at a time

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Cinematography

o This covers the photographic elements of the film camera movement, angles, framing and stock

o The use of colour or black and white footage – films may mix both, black and white is sometimes used for period feel or for flashbacks

o Choosing a multi or monochromatic palette – where a single colour is emphasised only in terms of purity and lightness e.g. shades of grey

o Exposure – over exposed film tends to be harsh and bleached, underexposed film is dark and muddy

o Filters – can be used to change the colour composition of the film by draining colours out or emphasising a particular colour

o Rate of projection - slows down or speeds up the film for effect

o A shot may contain single, multiple, or overlaid images for effect e.g. by juxtaposition – a man thinks of his past love and her face is overlaid on the screen

o Camera position can suggest lots of different things;

o High or low angles can suggest power or inferiority

o Pan – when the camera moves from right to left or left to right on a pivot - a high speed pan is called a whip pan

o Tilt – when the camera moves on a pivot to look up or down an object

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o Zoom – a way of moving in and out on objects without moving the camera – this has an amateurish feel to it as the camera tends to shake or the zoom may be uneven and jerky – often used to suggest the use of binoculars

o Tracking /dolly shot – when the camera moves to follow or track a person or object – often this may involve the camera moving on a trolley or dolly, sometimes on rails in order to minimise camera shake

o Crane shot – used to suggest scale or to track in or out on objects

o Helicopter shot – common in chase sequences or to convey landscape or cityscapes

o Steadi-cam – a portable handheld camera system which minimises camera shake when the camera is moved

o Static camera – the camera is in a fixed position and does not move

o Head on shot – shooting from the front

o Oblique angle – shooting from the side

o Range of shots - Close up/medium/long shot/ECU/ELS/overhead/from below

o Choice of Lens – the standard aspect ratio for most films is 1.33 – 1. A lens may be standard or special/distorting –perhaps to suggest a no human eye or a peephole in a door. Panoramic may be used to suggest space and perspective - widescreen for action epics

Other aspects to consider

o Colour motif/palette – directors may choose to repeat a colour motif or a narrow range of colours in a shot

o Space – screen space is two-dimensional but must usually suggest three dimensions to the viewer – compositional balance of colours and objects is important here. Colour and light shape our understanding of on screen space

o Aerial shots – directors may shoot from a plane, helicopter or gantry to open up the space in a scene and suggest scale

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o Size diminution – aerial shots may make objects appear smaller than they are and seem more vulnerable

o Shallow or deep focus - are all the objects in a shot in focus or just some of them?

o Depth cues – objects which tell us the distances between the front, middle and back of a shot

Standard Lens Types

o Wide angle - 28-35mm provides distortion and depth

o Normal - 35-50mm like the human eye – represents normality

o Telephoto - 70-600mm – give close ups over distance - less depth creates a telescope effect

o Magnification lenses– magnifying lenses for special purposes

A fly’s POV suggested by a lens

Film Formats

o Film stock – the type of film used gives a feel and texture to the film

o Different stocks provide different contrasts between colours and shapes. The grain of a film may be either fine and give sharp detail or coarse and grainy with an amateurish feel

o 35mm is the standard feature film format

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o Other film formats include – 8 or 16mm (amateur)

o 70mm (widescreen)

o 3D – special format for gimmick films

Colour and Black and White

o Film makers may also employ Colour/BW/filters – to give effects of the past or dreams - in Hollywood bars always have a red glow, blue filters are used for night shots

o Technicolor - an old colour process used up until the 1960s producing bright primary colours

o Film may be subjected to washes and effects to mix colours – many old films have been modernised by tinting

o Black and white is used for flashbacks, the past or that touch of ‘class’

Focus

o Directors can use focus effects to draw our attention to a particular thing in a shot or to create a busy screen in which we have to absorb a number of elements on different planes of focus

o Depth of focus – deep or narrow/shallow plane of focus? Are the fore, middle or background of the film in focus – or is everything clear in deep focus? Deep focus photography in films like Citizen Kane has been much admired by film scholars

o Soft or sharp focus? – soft focus is sometimes used to give romantic feel, a smear of Vaseline may be applied to the lens to suggest a misty eyed perspective - ageing actors and actresses used to insist on soft focus to hide their facial lines

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o Racking/pulling focus - planes of focus alter in the shot - an object in the foreground may initially be sharply focussed whilst the background is fuzzy, then the focus is pulled to reverse this and now the foreground is out of focus

o Special effects/Trick photography may be employed within a shot to transcend the limits or reality – scale models may be employed and shot to make them seem full sized

In Titanic a one quarter sized replica was built and shot

o CGI – Computer Generated graphic Imagery as used in Star Wars or LOTR is increasingly popular in fantasy and Sci-fi films to allow imaginary landscapes and characters to be realised – this is replacing matte work (see below)

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o Superimposition – images may be superimposed on each other e.g. Superman imposed on a background of clouds to suggest he is flying

Superimposition in ‘Man With A Movie Camera

Process composite shots

Back/front projection – an image may be projected on a screen in front of or behind the characters to overcome filming difficulties and provide mise en scene – this is not common nowadays. Front projection, invented in the 1960s uses mirrors to make the background more realistic

Spot the back projection!

Matte work – where a part of the screen is left blank and then filled in by artists e.g. Who Framed Roger Rabbit

Characters were matted in next to Bob Hoskins

Special effects – as well as CGI - old style stop motion, stunts, pyrotechnics etc.

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Framing

Again we can consider aspect ratio the shape of the screen which may be;

Standard Academy 1.33-1 this is a standard ‘talking heads’ drama ratio

1.85 – 1 is a common modern ratio

Anamorphic widescreen - a special lens ‘squeezes’ the image into a widescreen shape – widescreen is used for action movies

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Check on your DVD or video boxes for information about this

employing masking – the top and bottom of the film is masked to shape the screen, hence the black lines you get at the top and bottom of some films

Split screen – more than one image may be the screen at once and we must scan and compare them for information – for instance in Sliding Doors

Onscreen and offscreen space - Directors can use evidence on screen to inform an audience about what is (supposedly) going on outside the four edges of the screen or in front of, or behind the camera or the set. A plume of cigarette smoke drifting into a shot can tell us a mysterious character is present off screen

Shot types

Camera angle of framing – straight on, high or low (see above)

Camera level is the camera level or canted (sometimes called a Dutch angle) at an angle e.g. to suggest the rolling of a ship or madness

Camera height - eye level usually but sometimes close to the ground or at stomach height to suggest the perspective of a child or someone sat down

Camera distance from the action – may suggest intimacy or remoteness from events

Terminology

ELS - Extreme Long Shot – bird’s eye view of a landscape

LS - Long Shot – background dominates image

MLS - Medium Long Shot - shots of the human figure from the knees up

MS - Medium Shot –the human figure shot from the waist up

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MCU - Medium Close Up – from the chest up

CU - Close Up – e.g. of head, hands or feet

ECU - Extreme Close Up – of a detail e.g. an eye

OHS – Over Head Shot

Mobile frame – within the image the framing of the object changes - See above – pan, tilt, track, crane shot motion control and hand held camera are all mobile framing methods employed as the camera moves through time and space establishing its own patterns. Shots follow characters reframing them for us as a scene progresses

Long take/plan sequence – a method of film making in which there is little editing, the camera moves around in the scene and there is little cutting within a scene which may last several minutes – a whole film may involve no more than a dozen shots

Lighting – consider quality, direction, source & colour

o Hard or soft lighting – is the image harsh and glaring or soft and romantic?

o High key lighting – bright lighting with little contrast between light and shadow creates a sunny mood e.g. in a musical or a romantic comedy

o Low key lighting – dark shadowy and atmospheric e.g. in a thriller, Action or horror movie

o Side lighting – self explanatory – shapes the characters face and creates shadow

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o Back lighting edge or rim lighting – creates silhouette shapes - suspenseful

o Under lighting – can be quite sinister e.g. under a face

Scary enough?

o Top lighting – casting shadows on the floor quite glamorous

Types of lighting - systems

Key light – main light in the scene primary source of light and shadow

Fill light – softens and fills in shadowy areas

Backlight – obviously from behind

Three point lighting system– where objects are lit using back, key and fill lighting

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Single source lighting e.g. a torch, or spotlight

Natural lighting- sunlight

Artificial lighting– light bulbs, interiors

Shadow – used to suggest mood, character or hide objects

Lighting effects – shadow, movement

Now watch the short sequence from Blade runner and comment on the lighting style you can deduce

Look at your sequence:

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What is the lighting style?

What does it tell the spectator about the mood/character or other themes represented?

Framing

Consider screen shape and framing devices within a shot how are the characters or objects in the shot are framed

Composition

o Patterning and positioning of people and objects within the scene/frame/artistic style or reference/juxtaposition e.g. man and pig

o Balance - are the dominant objects in the scene central, balanced against each other or off centre? Who or what is fore grounded or back grounded?

Off Screen Space

o Imaginary space surrounding the action/or space looked at by the characters off screen may be suggested by sound

Sound

Sound is an extremely important aspect of the film – music can convey emotion and enhance action, consider ‘Star Wars’ or ‘Indiana Jones’ without their music. Dialogue anchors the meaning of the image

Areas of focus MUST include:

Music

Dialogue

Sound effects

We can consider

Loudness – volume of music, dialogue and effects

Pitch – high or low

Timbre – bass or depth, the tone or musicality of the sound e.g. of a voice

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Fidelity - how accurate is the sound and how directly does it relate to the image

Sound perspective – how does sound suggest the space on the screen – e.g. sound can convey the sheer scale of a spaceship

Synchronous sound/asynchronous – how far is sound synchronised with the image is the sound simultaneous with, before or after the image?

Diegetic sound - Sound may be contained within the text of the film itself for instance sound effects, dialogue or one of the characters playing music.

Non-Diegetic Sound – Sound may then be dubbed onto a film in post production e.g. a soundtrack this is called non diegetic sound as it is not a part of the action.

Ambient sound – the general background sound that goes on in a scene is described as ambient sound

Music can convey a number of things, especially the non-diegetic lyrics as they will often anchor the meanings represented through the other micro features within the scene itself.

To mirror, comment directly upon and relate to action

To punctuate and signpost action and to dictate pace of film and mood

To counterpoint and contrast with action and be used ironically – jolly music contrasting with a tragic scene

To provide direct mise en scene e.g. in a nightclub

Suggest the mood of a film tragic, optimistic etc

Symbolic use e.g. military style music, national anthems or songs with particular associations

Themes and motifs related to characters – for example a themetune that immediately recognisable by the audience as being being associated to a character – for example a ‘Prince’ (Propp) or hero like Indiana Jones

Convey Genre e.g. stereotypical horror music, romantic music

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Suggest a particular historical time period or convey a culture or to suggest ethnicity and social class

“Mickey Mousing” – when characters move in time to the music (cartoon rather than dance style)

Sound Effects- are very important in creating suspense, suggesting action or conveying off screen space

Other Terms

Diegetic Dialogue – two or more people speaking and sound that belongs in the narrative.

Monologue – one person speaking – this can be to themselves OR directed at the camera. For example:

Inner Monologue – “Inner Voice” - Where a character is directly talking to themselves, expressing their thoughts OR narrating something for the benefit of the audience – Only they and the spectator can hear this.

Multilogue – a group of characters speaking over each other – this could be to convey antagonism or is often used in a heated conversation/debate.

Direct address to camera – breaks realism and is a deliberate ploy to engage the spectator

Paralanguage and style of delivery – tone of voice, pitch, speed, hesitation phenomena, volume

Sound Bridge – when the sound carries over from one scene or shot to another to provide continuity

Non-Diegetic Voice-over – a common device to fill in details of the plot and introduce characters thoughts and feelings for the benefit of the spectator.

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Overlapping dialogue – a realistic effect - people talk over each other in real life, dialogue may also, less realistically, overlap from scene to scene

Improvised dialogue (improv) – made up on the film set to suggest realism and interplay of character

Silence – to create tension or draw attention to the visual image

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AS Film Studies: Planning a Reading FM1: Exploring Film Form

Student: ________________________ Group: ____________

My chosen Film is:

My two micro features:

Micro reading notes (one or more areas)

Mise-en-scene (Setting, props, costumes, human figure)

Editing (Continuity; Cutting; Montage – Condensing of Narrative)

Sound (Diegetic; Non-Diegetic; Ambient)

Cinematography and Lighting (High Key; High Contrast/Low Contrast – impact this has on the ‘mood’ of the text)

Performance

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My reading title is (See Exemplar for Guidance):

My chosen sequence is:Scene:_____________________________________

Notes: - Scene 1)

Mise-en-scene Editing Sound Cinematography Performance

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Notes: - Scene 2)

Mise-en-scene Editing Sound Cinematography Performance

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Film: genre and narrative; macro features; the basics

Obviously in the course of making meanings through their manipulation of filmic codes, films have bigger and broader intentions: largely to entertain us, to sell us their various ‘wares’. They do this through expensive marketing and merchandising through contracting A-list stars and big name directors. However they still perhaps most significantly do this by offering us experiences we can depend on and by telling us ‘interesting’ stories.

This section focuses on the ways films might work through their codes (camera, lighting, costume etc) to:

a) establish a genre identity (eg Horror/ Slasher/Gangster/Romantic Comedy)

b) construct and develop narratives (stories)

Where is genre?

A Genre is a variety of film, a set defined by content, style and point-of-view.Genre is to be found within each code in terms of a set series of components: certain costume, certain props, certain attitudes.Genre generates expectation in the audience: what comes next, how to react, what meanings are possible and likely.Genre may be linked to certain kinds of narrative, certain directors and certain stars.e.g. Gangster = stories of family dynasties/ revenge narratives and De Niro and Scorcese

What is narrative?

Narrative is story-telling: a narrative is a story.A story is a sequence, a ‘list’ of things arranged in an order.A story is an interaction (or a series of interactions) between people, places and things.All theories of narrative assume that all stories share certain similarities.

Narrative Theories: where is narrative ?

1. Narrative is in the structure of a film (in the ‘skeleton’ or frame)

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The Russian theorist Todorov claimed that most stories followed the following structure:

Equlibrium Disruption of equilibrium - Disequilibrium Recognition of this disruption Attempts to repair this disruption New equilibrium – Closure in the narrative and the problem

is solved.

e.g. : Star Wars Luke Skywalker is living calmly with his relatives Their dwelling is destroyed He pledges himself to the Force He joins the Rebel Alliance and attacks the Death Star The Death star is disabled and an uneasy peace ensues

2. Narrative is played out in interactions between stock characters (archetypes) and stock actions

The Russian critic Vladimir Propp (1969) identified 8 character ‘roles’ and 31 narrative function.

Character roles:The hero - PrinceThe villainThe DonorThe dispatcherThe false hero – fake princeThe helperThe princessHer father(clearly these are based on fairy tales)

3. Narrative is to be found in every frame of every film: it dictates how and why the film is as it is.

The French critic Roland Barthes suggests that narrative works through a series of codes:Two codes that move the film forward;

a. The Action code (proiaretic)b. The Suspense code (hermeneutic)

Three codes that ‘fatten’ it as it goes:c. The Descriptive code (semiotic)

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d. The referential code, which relates what we see to realitye. The Symbolic code, which assigns meanings and interprets

e.g. in the opening sequence of Gladiator We are waiting for an attack to happen (suspense) The Romans attack (action) We see the soldiers prepare (descriptive) War is dirty and violent (referential) The Russell Crowe character almost kills his lieutenant

(symbolic)

How to read a Film: Macro featuresFilm: (Title, Date and Director)

Sequence: What the scene is? (From a Mise-en-scene perspective)

Mode of address: How this sequence or the text addresses the audience?How significant a role the texts/sequence ‘Protagonist’ plays in what is being re-presented.

Discourse of Realism: The texts relationship with the audience – Is there a sense of reality in what you are seeing?

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Narrative: Narrative structure – Equilibrium; Dis-equilibrium – Compare this to your own basic expectations (fibula)

Genre: What Genre is the text? Give examples of evidence (Repertoire of Elements) Does this genre conform or go against your expectations?

Star/Auteur:

Issues of Representation: Does this text address ‘real’ issues and/or reflect social values?

Narrative Devices

Films use narrative devices, strategies and conventions to tell the story for instance

Predictability

In narrative predictability and unpredictability must be balanced; if we look at the sequence A, B, _? What is the next element in the sequence? It could be C or A or even jump to D? A film needs to be predictable but not too predictable in order to create suspense. Think of films that balance or fail to

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balance these two elements, we can watch sequences and make predictions based on evidence and our experiences as film viewers. If a film is too predictable we get bored, extreme unpredictability though can become silly and irritating (Jeepers Creepers)

Can you find any examples of particularly predictable or unpredictable films?

Structuring

‘Screenplays are structure’ (screenwriter William Goldman). Is having a definite beginning, middle and end (Linear) important to a film or any kind of story? Why? What is the purpose of each section?

Films often commence with an establishing sequence. What should a good opening or establishing sequence contain? What should its function be?

In Medias Res – do you open with action in the thick of things or with some kind of explanation of coming events?

Who are the significant characters etc. at the start of the film?

Foregrounding and back grounding - particular events, people, objects or places may be fore grounded in the narrative as significant

A Dramatic Structuring Model

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In theatre plays can be broken down into a number of narrative stages;

Plot and Structure

An effective plot should;

Maintain audience interest Move the action on Arouse interest in the characters and situations Should contain high points and critical moments Create expectation and surprise

Can you think of an example of a film that exemplifiers this?

Example of a film:

How does it exemplify the above narrative structure?

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Key Elements of a Film (and Film Sequence) Structure

1. Exposition – introduces the characters and situation2. Dramatic incitement – an incident that provides the play’s

starting point3. Complication – the main action of the play in which the

characters respond to the situation4. Crisis – the climax of the play5. Resolution – the final working out of events and conclusion of

the play

Can you apply this structure to a particular film?

Film:

Applying the above theory:

A Film Theory – Sid Field’s (a script writer) three act structure

Great scripts (which hopefully become great films) have distinct beginnings, middles and ends. Act One, Act Two and Act Three - a three act structure. In fact these acts are so distinct that you can spot where each of these acts start and finish.

 

Choose a film and break it down using this structure

Set up - Who? What? When? Where? Why?

Confrontation and complication

Resolution and conclusion

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Closure

Closure and aperture – does a film’s resolution offer a closed narrative where all the loose ends are tied up or is the ending left open for the audience to interpret, or for a sequel? Think of an example of each

Character functions – The hero’s journey (Joseph Campbell)

Film’s may be driven by characters (character driven) or plot driven

How do the films characters fit into the narrative? – What do they represent in terms of their function in the film and the values they symbolise and represent? Research suggests that characters may have similar roles in very different films – the hero with a thousand faces as one analyst described it. They can be divided into protagonists (heroic figures) and antagonists (villains), heroines – (‘the princess’) and her father, there may also be helpers and individuals/donors with special or magical powers who dispatch the hero on his journey (Gandalf or Trinity figures), false heroes etc. George Lucas used these ideas to structure Star Wars

Choose a film and identify the roles of the main characters

Role Film:Characters in this film and how they fulfil the role

Hero/Protagonist

False hero

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Closure

Aperture

Set Up:

Confrontation:

Resolution:

Villain/Antagonist

Princess

Father/Dispatcher

Donor

The hero’s journey undergoes several stages: A Case Study: Shrek/Lord of the Rings

Stages of the hero’s journey Stage of the film uncoveredPreparation – the initial events

Complication – the action begins

Transference – hero is tested

Struggle – final combat is joined with the villain

Return – the hero returns

Recognition – the hero is recognised, the villain is exposed

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Contemporary theories

Contemporary films employ a wider range of devices than classical narrative theories imply

Transitive (Single Stranded) and intransitive (Multi-stranded) narrative

Transitive narratives have one unified point of view, intransitive narratives may tell the story using different ways, viewpoints and styles. Can you think of a film of each type?

Transitive

Intransitive

Open ended narratives

Are we offered traditional closure at the end of the film or is the ending open and ambiguous?

Can you think of any films that fit these modern narrative criteria?

Barthes’ Narrative Codes

This is a system for analysing film narrative by breaking it down into five codes

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Hermeneutic or Enigma codes (Roland Barthes) – a variation on the above is the theory that films are based around the solution of mysteries or ‘enigmas’ for the audience which are set up early on in the film such as ‘Who is the killer’?, ‘How is Indy going to escape from this?’ or ‘Will Austin get his Mojo back?’. We gain satisfaction from the solution of the enigma

Choose a film and identify its main enigma codes

Semic Codes – Codes of character construction and iconography used to suggest individuality e.g. gangster or cowboy dress

Proairetic Codes – analysing patterns of behaviour within a film for predictable and unpredictable elements e.g. stereotypical character or genre behaviour

Cultural Codes – Reference to the cultural world outside the film text and what we know about the world e.g. The Japanese or American way of life or historical periods

Symbolic codes – meanings created by binary opposition or other symbolic elements within the text e.g. religious references or symbols

Semiotics – ‘Signs act as signifiers’ (Ferdinand De Saussure)

Semiotic theories (signs and symbols) – people and objects will have particular symbolism, connotations, myths and values within the narrative, for instance in Terminator 2; leather jackets, guns motorbikes symbolising rebellion, aggression and violence. Objects are chosen and combined from a paradigm or list of related items e.g. clothes.

Semiotically analyse two of the images above

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1.

2.

What myths and expectations about society are contained in the film, for instance about gender – are marriage and career major values for the heroine, are men meant to be ‘heroic’ and honourable - does the film celebrate or attack socially accepted values or behaviour?

Structuralism

Films and storytelling rely on systems of binary opposition (Levi Strauss) – opposites that make sense and meaning when placed next to each other for instance male/female, good/evil, dark/light

Think of a film where opposites are important. What kinds of opposites are there? Can you think of any other binary oppositions

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