German Philosopher in 18 th century (Enlightenment)
Central figure in philosophy
Synthesized modern rationalism and empiricism
Significant influence today in metaphysics, epistemology,
ethics, political philosophy, aesthetics, and other fields
Critique of Pure Reason (1781, 1787), the Critique of Practical
Reason (1788), and the Critique of the Power of Judgment
(1790)
3. Philosophy Overview
Human understanding is the source of the general laws of nature
that structure all our experience;
And that human reason gives itself the moral law, which is our
basis for belief in God, freedom, and immortality.
Therefore, scientific knowledge, morality, and religious belief
are mutually consistent and secure because they all rest on the
same foundation of human autonomy, which is also the final end of
nature according to the teleological worldview of reflecting
judgment that Kant introduces to unify the theoretical and
practical parts of his philosophical system.
4. Critique of Pure Reason (1781, 1787)
Possibility of metaphysics, understood in a specific way.
Kant defines metaphysics in terms of the cognitions after which
reason might strive independently of all experience,
His goal in the book is to reach a decision about the
possibility or impossibility of a metaphysics in general, and the
determination of its sources, as well as its extent and boundaries,
all, however, from principles
Thus metaphysics for Kant concerns a priori knowledge, or
knowledge whose justification does not depend on experience; and he
associates a priori knowledge with reason.
The project of the Critique is to examine whether, how, and to
what extent human reason is capable of a priori knowledge.
5. Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
First Critique suggested that God, freedom, and immortality are
unknowable, the second Critique will mitigate this claim.
Freedom is indeed knowable because it is revealed by God. God
and immortality are also knowable, but practical reason now
requires belief in these postulates of reason .
Kant once again invites his dissatisfied critics to actually
provide a proof of God's existence and shows that this is
impossible because the various arguments (ontological, cosmological
and teleological) for God's existence all depend essentially on the
idea that existence is a predicate inherent to the concepts to
which it is applied.
6. Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
Morality applies to all rational beings, and a moral action is
defined as one that is determined by reason, not by our sensual
impulses.
Because an action is moral on account of its being reasoned,
the moral worth of an action is determined by its motive, or the
reason behind the action, not by its consequences.
7. Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
We can determine the worth of the motive behind any given moral
action by asking whether we could turn that motive into a
universally applicable maxim.
Reason is the same at all times and for all people, so morality
too should be universal.
Therefore, an action is moral only if it embodies a maxim that
we could will to be a universal law.
8. Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
Kant calls it a categorical imperative that we must act in such
a way that we could will the maxim according to which we act to be
a universal law.
He contrasts this with the hypothetical imperative, which would
demand that we act to achieve certain ends. The maxim of a
hypothetical imperative would assert, do such-and-such if you want
to achieve such-and-such result.
There are no ifs in moral action
Morality works according to a categorical imperative because we
must act in a given way simply because the motive is admirable, not
because we have calculated that we can achieve certain ends as a
result.
9. Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
Once we recognize the universality of moral law, we must also
recognize that it applies equally to all people.
Acting morally, then, requires that we recognize other people
as moral agents and always treat them as ends in themselves, not as
means by which we can achieve our own ends.
We must also ensure that our actions do not prevent other
people from acting in accordance with moral law. Kant envisions an
ideal society as a kingdom of ends, in which people are at once
both the authors and the subjects of the laws they obey.
10. Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
Morality is based in the concept of freedom, or autonomy.
Someone with a free, or autonomous, will does not simply act but is
able to reflect and decide whether to act in a given way. This act
of deliberation distinguishes an autonomous will from a
heteronomous will.
In deliberating, we act according to a law we ourselves
dictate, not according to the dictates of passion or impulse.
We can claim to have an autonomous will even if we act always
according to universal moral laws or maxims because we submit to
these laws upon rational reflection.
11. Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790)
Kant sets about examining our faculty of judgment, which leads
him down a number of divergent paths.
While the Critique of Judgment deals with matters related to
science and teleology, it is most remembered for what Kant has to
say about aesthetics.
Kant calls aesthetic judgments judgments of taste and remarks
that, though they are based in an individuals subjective feelings,
they also claim universal validity.
Our feelings about beauty differ from our feelings about
pleasure and moral goodness in that they are disinterested.
12. Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790)
We seek to possess pleasurable objects, and we seek to promote
moral goodness, but we simply appreciate beauty without feeling
driven to find some use for it.
Judgments of taste are universal because they are
disinterested: our individual wants and needs do not come into play
when appreciating beauty, so our aesthetic response applies
universally.
Aesthetic pleasure comes from the free play between the
imagination and understanding when perceiving an object.
13. (JULY 31, 1912 NOVEMBER 16, 2006) Milton Friedman
14. History
American economist, statistician, professor and author
Recipient of Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
Price theory, monetarism, floating exchange rates, volunteer
military, permanent income hypothesis, Friedman test
15. Overview
Central banks are responsible for inflation and deflation.
Markets work efficiently to allocate resources and to maintain
macroeconomic equilibrium.
16. floating exchange rate
A floating exchange rate or fluctuating exchange rate is a type
of exchange rate regime wherein a currency's value is allowed to
fluctuate according to the foreign exchange market. A currency that
uses a floating exchange rate is known as a floating currency.
17. Monetarism
Monetarism is a tendency in economic thought that emphasizes
the role of governments in controlling the amount of money in
circulation. It is the view within monetary economics that
variation in the money supply has major influences on national
output in the short run and the price level over longer periods and
that objectives of monetary policy are best met by targeting the
growth rate of the money supply.
18. permanent income hypothesis
The permanent income hypothesis (PIH) is a In its simplest
form, the hypothesis states that the choices made by consumers
regarding their consumption patterns are determined not by current
income but by their longer-term income expectations.
The key conclusion of this theory is that transitory,
short-term changes in income have little effect on consumer
spending behavior.
19.
The Friedman test is a non-parametric statistical test
it is used to detect differences in treatments across multiple
test attempts. The procedure involves ranking each row (or block )
together, then considering the values of ranks by columns.
