Napoleon, Part 2, session iii, Wellington

NapoleonPart Twosession iii

Wellington

Thursday, September 8, 11

NapoleonPart Twosession iii

Wellington

painted by Francisco de Goya,

1812-1814


“If we can maintain ourselves in Portugal, the war will not cease in the Peninsula, and, if the war lasts in the Peninsula, Europe will

be saved.”

--Arthur Wellesley,First Duke of Wellington

Autumn 1809


major topics for this session

I. “The Scum of the Earth”

II. Light Infantry Tactics

III. Wellington’s First Offensive

IV. Lines of Torres Vedras

V. Guerrieros

VI. Badajoz

VII. Salamanca

VIII. Vitoria



Wellington’s “Appreciation of the Situation”--March 1809

Portugal could be defended by quite a small expeditionary force, provided that four requirements were met:

1) The Spanish must continue to resist and must support England2) England must retain command of the seas3) The expeditionary force must not suffer defeat or undue loss4) The French must be prevented from concentration 100,000 men against them

It was on the strength of this far-sighted assessment that England’s main army landed in Portugal in 1809. Wellesley’s strategy throughout was to ensure that it survived, which was why he remained so firmly on the defensive for the first three years and took few risks. He fought when the odds were favorable, and won, and prevented the French from ever concentrating enough men to defeat him. Then in 1812, the tide turned. Napoleon, like Hitler, invaded Russia, and immediately faced the problem of war on two fronts, as well as a vast coastline to defend against Allied sea-power. In 1812, as in 1942, the Allies were at last in a position to take the offensive. Eighteen months later, the war was won.

Julian Paget, Wellington’s Peninsular War, p. 6


I. “The Scum of the Earth”




One of the preferred formations for maneuver, the ‘quarter-distance’ column had the companies arrayed one behind another, in lines (ranks) two deep (2-man files) and a gap of five yards between companies. The frontage was thus about 20 yards and the depth about 50 yards. The grenadier company (G) usually led the battalion, the light company (L) was at the rear, the color-party (CP) was at the center. Officers were mounted “in order the more readily to correct mistakes, to circulate orders...and especially to take care that when a column halts, that they are most speedily adjusted before wheeling up into line. These operations no dismounted officer can effectually perform, nor in that situation can he see the faults, or give the aids which his duty requires.” The commanding officer, the battalion major, (CO) rides at the right front of the column, the second-in- command (2ic) behind him, and the adjutant (A) at the rear. Each company commander, a captain, (CC)--only one is identified here--marched at the center of his company.INSET- at the rear of a marching company, a subaltern officer, a sergeant and a drummer march in the third rank.

Philip Haythornethwaite, British Napoleonic Infantry Tactics, p. 59


8 Company Column into Line

COLUMN TO LINEAmong drill-masters, Guibert was famous for his ‘column of attack’, even though it was doubtful that he ever intended it as an assault formation. Its great virtue was that it allowed a compact column to deploy into line fairly quickly and easily, and for a line to ploy back again into column with equal ease.

Griffith, p. 11



Battalion Formations


Illustrated here are two varieties of hollow square; we have placed them in the usual ‘checker’ relationship, adopted so that each face of any adjacent squares had a clear field of fire.


In the foreground is one with fairly uniform sides, with opposite faces of two and three companies each, about 25 to 30 yards long (depending upon the strength of the battalion). At the right of the front face--conventionally occupied by No. 4 Company--the rear two ranks are firing by platoon.


In the background is an ‘oblong’ about 60 yards by 20 yards, with the end faces of single-company frontage. As formed from column, the front and rear companies--each in two ranks closed up on those immediately behind and in front respectively, forming ‘ends’ of the square four ranks deep, while the other six companies in the column wheeled to the flanks and faced outwards.


In the hollow center of the formation thus created stood the colors, officers and drummers, and casualties might be dragged inside from the ranks. For example, Rees Gronow of the 1st Foot Guards described the center of his square at Waterloo as a ‘perfect hospital’, in which it was impossible to take a stride without encountering dead and wounded.


Inset 1 Beside a mounted field officer, whose high viewpoint allows him to supervise the integrity of the faces of a square under fire, drummers remove a casualty from the ranks. He will get little treatment, if any, until the battle is over; the regimental surgeons normally set up a dressing post well behind the fighting line, with the unit’s baggage and other rear-echelon personnel.


Inset 2 Cross section across the face of a square, with the two front ranks kneeling and the rear standing; note that they are closely packed, each soldier slightly to one side of the man in front of him.







Private, 95th Rifles

The 95th Regiment was the only regiment in the British Army to be equipped entirely with Baker rifles instead of smoothbore muskets…. This elite unit was not only equipped with rifles but also received special training [at Shorncliffe camp under General Sir John Moore] that emphasized small unit tactics and marksmanship. Moreover, the small-unit training of the riflemen created a level of trust between officers, non-commissioned officers and other ranks that was unique in the British Army of that period. The soldier wears the green tunic that was distinctive of rifle-armed units, including the 5th Battalion of the 60th Regiment and the two light battalions of the King’s German Legion (KGL). He also carries the Baker rifle…. Its main disadvantages were that it was slower to load than the normal musket and was not as useful in hand-to-hand fighting, since it was shorter and carried a rather unwieldy sword bayonet.


British Riflemen

✦ 1800-the Baker rifle was developed, a foot shorter than the Brown Bess musket, and rifled rather than smooth bore

✦ rifling is a series of spiral grooves that impart spin to the ball


British Riflemen



✦ both weapon and tactics were derived from the American Revolution

✦ 1804-the 95th was formed and fought with Wellington from 1808-1815

✦ the Plunkett position, was named for Irish soldier Thomas Plunkett, remembered for a feat at Cacabelos during Moore's retreat to Corunna in 1809. Here Plunkett shot the French Général de Brigade Colbert at a range of between 200 and 600 meters using a Baker rifle. Muskets couldn’t hit a man-sized target beyond 50 yards

The 95th Regiment of Footdark green, faced black


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacabelos

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacabelos

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Moore_(British_soldier)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Moore_(British_soldier)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Coru%C3%B1a

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Coru%C3%B1a

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier_General

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier_General

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste-Marie-Fran%C3%A7ois_Colbert

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste-Marie-Fran%C3%A7ois_Colbert

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_rifle

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_rifle

British Riflemen



✦ both weapon and tactics were derived from the American Revolution

✦ 1804-the 95th was formed and fought with Wellington from 1808-1815

✦ the Plunkett position, was named for Irish soldier Thomas Plunkett, remembered for a feat at Cacabelos during Moore's retreat to Corunna in 1809. Here Plunkett shot the French Général de Brigade Colbert at a range of between 200 and 600 meters using a Baker rifle. Muskets couldn’t hit a man-sized target beyond 50 yards

The 95th Regiment of Footdark green, faced black


From 1802 the Rifle Corps, later the 95th , was permitted to recruit in the usual way instead of s e l e c t i n g m e n f r o m o t h e r regiments….recruitment from the civilian population...recruiting parties being sent out to centres of population or country fairs, where civilians might be persuaded in return for a substantial cash bounty….Recruiters would ply likely candidates with alcohol...and it was not uncommon for men to enlist under the influence, and then reconsider when sober. Harris recalled that the first man he enlisted--a chimney-sweep from Rye-- was thought so likely to run off that Harris had to sleep in the same bed with him that night, handcuffed to the recruit. On such occasions gullible civilians would be regaled with stories of army life and the promise of promotion--often exaggerated to the point of absolute deception--….

Osprey, British Rifleman, 1797-1815, PLATE D

COLOUR PLATE COMMENTARY, p. 58


This shows recruits to the 95th receiving instruction in the use of the Baker rifle. As a corporal superintends, one man rams the ball and propellant charge into his rifle (the tight fit required some pressure to ram it down, hence the use of the palm or heel of the hand instead of the fingers), while the other, having primed his rifle, closes the priming pan and pulls the hammer or cock back to ‘full cock’ preparatory to firing…. Elsewhere two riflemen demonstrate preferred positions for shooting--the rifle sling braced around the left elbow when standing, or pulled tight by the left hand when kneeling, with the left elbow resting upon the left knee. Distinctions for marksmanship were introduced from an early period: the lowest standard of marksmen had black cockades on their shakos, the 2nd class white, and the best shots green.

Osprey, British Rifleman, 1797-1815, PLATE E

COLOUR PLATE COMMENTARY, pp. 58-59


Green Jackets of the KGL

Shown here is a member of the 1st Light B a t t a l i o n o f t h e K i n g ’s G e r m a n Legion….As late as 1814 only 60% of the light battalions were armed with rifles; the rest had smoothbore muskets…. Also here is a Baker rifle (2) with the stock cut back to take the awkwardly long sword bayonet (5) and (5a)

Osprey, British Rifleman, 1797-1815, PLATE G



COLOUR PLATE COMMENTARY, p. 46 Osprey, The King’s German Legion (1) 1803-1812, PLATE D

D: Light InfantryA move to ‘Fix one general uniform for Rifle Corps, permitting no other variation than...buttons and facing’ was being discussed before the formation of the King’s German Regiment. The fact that they were clothed in rifle green is a strong indication that the regiment’s intended role was that of a rifle unit….D1 Corporal, KGR, 1803 His shako and breastplate bear the device of the crowned bugle horn, the badge for rifle units….He is armed with an India pattern musket...and carries a 32 round pouch, canvas knapsack, and rolled greatcoat.D2 Private, 2nd Light Battalion, KGL, 1809 ...carries a 60 round pouch, rolled greatcoat and India pattern musket.D3 Officer 1812 Note the continued wearing of the crowned bugle on his shako, the whistle on his belt, and the profusion of silver lace on his pantaloons and Hessian boots



Osprey, The King’s German Legion (1) 1803-1812, PLATE E

E: KGL Light Infantry, Spain 1811E1 Sergeant-bugler, 2nd Light Battalion He wears his uniform jacket with ‘night cap’ and ‘nankeen’ trousers. The red collar and cuffs were the mark of a bugler, as were the padded red-and-green wings.E2 ‘Sharpshooter’, 1st Light Battalion, ...carries a 60 round pouch, powder horn and sword belt. He is armed with a rifle of German manufacture.E3 ‘Sharpshooter’ of a line battalion He too is armed with a German rifle and sword-bayonet.




This scene from the Peninsular War depicts members of the 95th Rifles engaging French light infantry in a skirmish; it is derived in part from a well-known painting by Denis Dighton. The riflemen are following two cardinal rules of effective skirmishing… :taking advantage of natural cover and using aimed fire against selected targets. A feature of Dighton’s painting--and other contemporary pictures--is the fact that several riflemen depicted have removed their head-dress, presumably to minimize the target they presented to the enemy. officers are usually depicted directing the fire of their men, though a few carried rifles themselves.


Osprey, British Rifleman, 1797-1815, PLATE I



Illustrated here is a variation on the ordinary method of skirmishing, known as ‘chain order’. Used to drive away enemy skirmishers, this tactic employed bodies of men somewhat more solid than ordinary skirmish lines, and so it was calculated to require a smaller reserve. To form a chain, three-quarters of the unit were deployed, with the remaining quarter forming the reserve between 50 and 120 paces to the rear…. The chain was formed of men in groups of four… each group separated from the next by ten paces. The whole moved forward (the reserve keeping pace but maintaining its station) until contact was made with the enemy. To engage, the right-hand man of each group then took three paces forward and fired, before returning to the group, whereupon the second man did likewise, followed by the third and fourth, by which time the first man would have reloaded and be ready to begin the process again. Thus a continuous fusillade was maintained by the chain….In this illustration a chain advances over broken terrain, the men are taking advantage of natural cover in the usual way, while the remaining one-quarter of the unit follows in reserve.


Osprey, British Rifleman, 1797-1815, PLATE H


This imaginary scene depicts light infantry, involving five companies advancing upon French light infantry defending a village.


(1) One company is in extended order, in which each pair of skirmishers were supposed to be at least two paces apart. The lead man only fires when his partner is loaded. Then he falls back and loads. Officers stand to the rear.


They are supported by a company (2) waiting in open order, the files are about two feet apart, standing ‘at the trail’ with their officers in front


A third company advances in three bodies; the leading group (3a) advances in open order, a support in close order (3b) about 50 yards to the rear, and a reserve (3c) about 60 yards to the rear


The maintenance of a strong reserve to reinforce the skirmish line or cover its retreat, was paramount; thus the presence of another company at the rear (4) , in close order, with officers at each end of the front rank.


The rifle company (5a) is in ‘chain order,’ with groups of four men 10 paces apart. One man in each group advances to fire while the other three are in various stages of reloading (see INSET). Again, part of the company (5b) is held in reserve.


A Contemporary Re-enactor Group of the 95th





Notice the inaccuracy, anyone?




What’s not to love about re-enacting!




Wellesley is unique among generals in that he managed to select the same sort of ground for most of his major engagements. From [Talavera] down to Waterloo, he habitually posted his troops behind a low ridge which protected them from ricocheting cannon balls while compelling the French columns to advance uphill. A screen of British riflemen was thrown out along the forward slope to meet the enemy skirmishers on their own terms. If possible these light troops lingered to harass advancing columns which were also being subjected to a galling fire of shrapnel shells from the guns at the rear. At the last moment the sharpshooters fell back, and the two ranks of infantry met the main French shock with platoon volleys delivered from 50 to 100 yards. A bayonet counterattack might be ordered if the columns were sufficiently shaken, and the cavalry waited to pursue a broken foe.

Montross, pp. 517-518


Shrapnel

Although he began to campaign for its adoption in 1784, It took until 1803 for the British artillery to adopt the shrapnel shell (as "spherical case"), albeit with great enthusiasm when it did. The Duke of Wellington's armies used it from 1808 in the Peninsular War and at the Battle of Waterloo, and he wrote admiringly of its effectiveness.

Wikipedia


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsular_War


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo

French 6-company battalion advances up the slope, the voltigeur company (V) forward as skirmishers, the 4 line companies (1D & 2D) and grenadiers (G) in reserve.

the massed drums (Dr) pas de chargeBoom-boom, Boom-boom, Boomaboom,Boomaboom, Boom-boomVive l’Empereur!


All that they can see are the British light company skirmishers (L), now dividing and falling back & the field officers (FO) acting as forward observers--the commander orders the British battalion forward--INSERT 2


As the skirmishers fall back to either flank, the line companies , in two ranks, march forward to the crest of the ridge. INSERT 1 shows a company commander, sword, and his sergeant, halberd


The British line advances to the crest & delivers 1 or more volleys. The French only attempt to deploy into line on the appearance of the British, too late to complete the maneuver; they are shot down as they attempt to change formation.


The voltigeurs (V) are driven back into the ruin of the first two companies (1D). The companies on each flank of the British line incline inwards the better to deliver enfilading fire. The British light company (L) has formed into two bodies on each flank, ready to run forward again as required.


INSERT 1--Infantrymen delivering fire simultaneously by each rank


INSERT 2-The front rank at “Present!” while the rear rank ‘Make Ready!’


As the French break and the British ‘charge bayonets,’ the French grenadiers never get a chance to go into action.

I N S E R T 2 - - t h e skirmishers, here the 60th, Royal Americans, are advantageously placed to loot the French casualties.


As the French break and the British ‘charge bayonets,’ the French grenadiers never get a chance to go into action.

I N S E R T 2 - - t h e skirmishers, here the 60th, Royal Americans, are advantageously placed to loot the French casualties.

Hence, the origin of the phrase: “The thin red line.”


✦ British soldier and politician, a general in the British army and a marshal in the Portuguese army

✦ at Wellington’s recommendation, he was appointed to command the Portuguese army in the Peninsula

✦ 1811-his most important independent command was the bloody battle of Albuera

✦ 1812-with Wellington he fought at Badajoz and Salamanca

✦ Wellington admired his organizational abilities more than his generalship and recommended that Beresford should succeed to command in the Peninsula should he, himself, be killed

Military Organizer

William Carr Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford, 1st Marquis of Campo Maior, GCB, GCH, GCTE,

PC

1768 – 1856


✦ a Welsh British army officer “who was respected for his courage and feared for his irascible temper”

✦ at Wellington’s request, he was appointed to command the Third Division in the Peninsula

✦ At Badajoz, the successful storming of the fortress was due to his daring self-reliance in converting the secondary attack on the castle, into a real one. He was himself wounded in this terrible engagement, but would not leave the ramparts, and the day after, having recently inherited a fortune, he gave every survivor of his command a guinea

✦ killed in the Battle of Waterloo while commanding the force which stopped a critical attack on the British left-center

“...a rough, foul-mouthed devil as ever lived.”--Wellington

Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Picton GCB

1758 – 18 June 1815


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_General

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_General

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Grand_Cross_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Grand_Cross_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath

✦ a trusted brigade, division and corps commander under Wellington. He became commander in chief of the British army in 1829

✦ 1793-served at the siege of Toulon and in 1801, in Egypt

✦ 1808-commanded a brigade at Rolica and Vimiero

✦ 1809-commanded the 2nd Division at Talavera, one of the few occasions at which he was noticed to swear

✦ his care for his troops’ wellbeing earned him his nickname

✦ 1815-at Waterloo, he commanded II Corps and led the charge against the Imperial Guard near the end of the battle

“Daddy” Hill

General Rowland Hill, 1st Viscount Hill of Almaraz GCB, GCH

1772 – 1842


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General

✦ a Scottish British army officer

✦ 1799-attaché to General Suvorov in Switzerland

✦ 1807-commanded light troops under Sir John Moore

✦ 1809-at Wellington’s request, he was appointed to command the Light Division (43rd, 52nd, and 95th) in the Peninsula

✦ in trying to bring his division to fight at Talavera, he set a military march record, 62 miles in 26 hours

✦ his brigade was raised to division strength by the addition of two picked Portuguese regiments of Caçadores (hunters)

✦ One of the quickest and most brilliant, if not the very first, of Wellington's generals, he had a fiery temper, which rendered him a difficult man to deal with, but to the day of his death he possessed the confidence and affection of his men in an extraordinary degree

“Black Bob”“there was a sullenness which seemed to brood in his innermost soul and generate passions which knew no bounds”- George Napier

Major-General Robert Craufurd

1764 – 23 January 1812


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major-General

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major-General

III.Wellington’s First Offensive


III.Wellington’s First Offensive


The Northamptonshire Regiment (the 48th Regiment of Foot) was raised in 1741. It was part of the Great Siege of Gibraltar from 1779-83 and was awarded the Castle and Key emblem. The most famous Battle Honour TALAVERA was gained in 1809 during the Duke of Wellington’s campaigns against the French in the Peninsula. At the same time they earned the nickname “The Steelbacks” for their ability to show complete contempt when being flogged with the cat-o’-nine tails, then a normal method of administering punishment in the Army even for very minor crimes.

http://www.royalanglianmuseum.org.uk/northants.html




Talavera27-28 July 1809


Wellington’s First Offensive

✦ 27 July-the French attacked in mid-afternoon and initially captured the strategic Medellin Hill, it was taken and lost until, finally, by dark the British held it firmly. There Wellesley’s 29th & 48th would use his reverse slope tactic the next day

✦ 28 July-the next day, heavy cannonading preceded various infantry and cavalry skirmishes until dark

✦ at daylight, the British and Spanish discovered that the bulk of the French force had retired

✦ August-the unreliable behavior of his Spanish ally and the arrival of Marshal Soult led Duke Wellington of Talavera to withdraw to Portugal and the Lines of Torres Vedras

Having driven Marshal Soult's French army f r o m P o r t u g a l , We l l e s l e y ' s 2 0 , 0 0 0 British troops advanced into Spain to join 33,000 Spanish troops under General Cuesta

They marched up the Tagus valley to Talavera de la Reina, c. 120 km southwest of Madrid

There they encountered 46,000 French under Marshal Claude Victor, with the French king of S p a i n , J o s e p h Bonaparte in nominal command

The combined Allied force had a stirling opportunity to defeat the French corps of Victor at Talavera, but Cuesta's insistence that the Spanish wouldn't fi g h t o n a S u n d a y provided the French with their chance to escape


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Jean_de_Dieu_Soult

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Jean_de_Dieu_Soult

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagus

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagus

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talavera_de_la_Reina




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Victor-Perrin,_duc_de_Belluno


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte




Silence fell on the field. The French were done, defeated, and the British had the victory and the field. And with it the dead and wounded. There were more than thirteen thousand casualties, but no-one knew that yet…. The wounded cried for water, for their mothers, for a bullet, for anything other than the pain and helplessness in the heat. And the horror was not done with them. The sun had burned relentlessly for days, the grass on the Medellin and in the valley was tinder dry, and from somewhere a flame began that rippled and spread and flared through the grass and burned wounded and dead alike. The smell of roasting flesh spread and hung like the lingering palls of smoke. The victors tried to move the wounded but it was too much, too soon, and the flames spread and the rescuers cursed and dropped beside the fouled Portina stream and slaked their thirst in its bloodied water.

Bernard Cornwell, Sharpe’s Eagle, p. 250




George Gordon Noel, Lord Byron, Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, Google e-Books






The next few weeks [of September 1809, after Talavera, Wellington] spent in riding all over the ‘Lisbon peninsula’, as the hilly quadrilateral between Lisbon, Torres Vedras, the coast and the Tagus [River] is called. With him rode his chief engineer, Colonel Richard Fletcher, who on 20 October received a twenty-one point memorandum full of references to ‘damming’, ‘redoubts’, ‘barriers’ and ‘signal posts’, and introduced by a thousand-word essay on how these mysteries would enable the position they had surveyed to be held against any sweep by Napoleon’s eagles, winter or summer. It was a classic case of Wellington seeing for himself; what one of his officers, Sir Harry Smith, was to call his ‘old practice with the army’. When any problem was reported or question put to him he would always reply: ‘I will get upon my Horse and take a look; and then tell you!’ The result of these particular rural rides would be seen in due course, when thirteen months of closely guarded secrets came to an end and Wellington was ready to astonish the world with his Lines of Torres Vedras.

Elizabeth Longford, Wellington; The Years of the Sword, pp. 208-209


The Battle of BussacoPrint after Major Thomas S. St. Clair, engraved by C. Turner, 1898

“...one of the finest defensive positions in Europe.”--Julian Paget


! 1810- the Emperor ordered marshal Massena to drive the British “Leopard” from Portugal

! he first had to capture the fortress cities which controlled the only road which an army could use to enter central Portugal

! the Spanish garrison of Ciudad Rodrigo held out until 9 July

! the siege of Almeida ended with the fall of the Portuguese fortress in August

! Massena’s army of 65,000 found their way to Lisbon blocked by the 10-mile- long ridge at Bussaco which was occupied by 25,000 British and 25,000 Portuguese under the command of the marquis of Wellington


(1) Renier sent Merle up the steep slope to be hurled back by the 88th, the Connaught Rangers

(2) a similar fate was experienced by Heudlet

(3) when Foy followed him he hit the least prepared unit in the Allied army--a Portuguese militia unit--and routed it, thus gaining the ridge top. Wellington brought men from his unengaged right flank to dislodge them

(4) Ney then put forward his two brigades which were devastated by Crawfurd’s light division

(5) after this failed assault, Massena settled for heavy skirmishing

(6) The French suffered 522 dead, 3,612 wounded, and 364 captured, including over 300 officers ( 1 general killed, 4 wounded)--a higher ratio of officers to men than any other Peninsular battle.


The Allied losses numbered 200 dead, 1,001 wounded, and 51 missing. The British and Portuguese each lost exactly 626 men.

Although he still had 20,000 fresh infantry with him, Masséna had had enough. It was not yet midday, but the battle was virtually over, even if some minor skirmishing took place during the afternoon…. The French spent the remaining hours of daylight in collecting their dead and wounded and entrenching their bivouac, as Wellington was to notice with some satisfaction as he stood surveying the battlefield from his unassailable crest.

Eventually, on the 29th and 30th, Masséna’s cavalry found a way round to the north of the ridge. He then moved off to the right to flank the position, but Wellington, after spending the night in the convent, had already begun the planned retreat of his army into the previously fortified Lines of Torres Vedras.

Robertson, Wellington at War, pp. 135-36


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lines_of_Torres_Vedras

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lines_of_Torres_Vedras

The Lines of Torres Vedras

In many ways the Peninsular War has often been seen as a backwater to the major campaigns and battles of the Napoleonic Wars, but in actual fact it was the deciding factor in the defeat of Napoleon's army in 1813, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Paris. Indeed, had Massena's advance and retreat from the Lines of Torres Vedras been seen as a battle, it would have been one of the greatest victories of all time. With the recent dramatization of the 'Sharpe' stories into television dramas, many of the more famous battles of the Peninsular War have come to the public's attention. The glamour attached to the famous battles of Corunna, Talavera, Ciudad Rodrigo, Almeida, Busaco, Badajoz have all somewhat over-shadowed the importance of the defence works of the Lines of Torres Vedras.


The Lines of Torres Vedras

In many ways the Peninsular War has often been seen as a backwater to the major campaigns and battles of the Napoleonic Wars, but in actual fact it was the deciding factor in the defeat of Napoleon's army in 1813, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Paris. Indeed, had Massena's advance and retreat from the Lines of Torres Vedras been seen as a battle, it would have been one of the greatest victories of all time. With the recent dramatization of the 'Sharpe' stories into television dramas, many of the more famous battles of the Peninsular War have come to the public's attention. The glamour attached to the famous battles of Corunna, Talavera, Ciudad Rodrigo, Almeida, Busaco, Badajoz have all somewhat over-shadowed the importance of the defence works of the Lines of Torres Vedras.


The Lines of Torres VedrasThe origins of the Lines date back to a survey and proposals made by a Portuguese army engineer, Major Jose Maria das Neves Costa towards the end of 1808, but it was the strategy adopted by Wellington in 1809 that resulted in their construction. Knowing that his army could be supplied by sea and if necessary, evacuated by the Royal Navy, We l l i n g t o n c h o s e t o a v o i d m a j o r engagements with the French army and decided to make a gradual withdrawal towards Lisbon, using a scorched earth policy as he retreated. He was well aware of the formidable natural obstacles offered by the range of hills that ran across the peninsula north of Lisbon and on the 20 October 1809 he issued a memorandum to commence the construction of four lines of defence works to supplement the local terrain - the Lines of Torres Vedras, thus choosing and preparing in advance the battlefield upon which he wished to fight.

brown areas indicate high ground





...when the French turned back from [Sobral] on 14 October 1810 the tide of French conquest in Europe turned also. The skirmish at the foot of the mountain had caused only sixty-seven Allied and 120 French casualties. Such a limited action; such prodigious results.

Longford, Wellington, p. 240

The Monument at Alhandra to Colonel Fletcher, Wellington’s Chief Engineer, who constructed the Lines, is inscribed ‘Non Ultra’, or ‘No Further.’

Paget, Wellington’s Peninsular War, p. 35


The French invasion of Portugal in the late summer of 1810 was defeated by hunger, and it marked the last time that the French tried to capture the country. Wellington, by now commander of both the Portuguese and the British armies, adopted a scorched earth policy that brought huge hardship to the Portuguese people. Attempts were made to deny the invaders every scrap of food, while the inhabitants of central Portugal were required to leave their homes, either to take to the hills, go north to Oporto or south to Lisbon…. The strategy worked, but at a very high price. One estimate reckons that forty to fifty thousand Portuguese lost their lives in the winter…, most from hunger, some from the French…. It was, by any reckoning, a hard-hearted strategy, throwing the burden of the war onto the civilian population. Was it necessary? Wellington conclusively defeated Masséna on the heights of Bussaco, and had he guarded the road around the north of the great ridge, he could probably have repulsed the French there and then, forcing them back to Ciudad Rodrigo across the Spanish border, but that, of course, would have left Masséna’s army relatively undamaged. Hunger and disease were much greater enemies than redcoats and riflemen, and by forcing Masséna to spend the winter


in the wasteland north of the lines, Wellington destroyed his enemy’s army. At the beginning of the campaign, in September 1810, Masséna commanded 65,000 men. When he got back to Spain he had fewer than 40,000, and had lost half his horses and virtually all of his wheeled transport. Of the 25,000 men he lost, only about 4,000 were killed, wounded, or taken prisoner at Bussaco (British losses were about 1,000); the rest were lost because the Lines of Torres Vedras condemned Masséna to a winter of hunger, disease and desertion. So why fight at Bussaco if the Lines of Torres Vedras could do the job better? Wellington fought there for the sake of morale. The Portuguese army did not have a sterling record against the French, but it was now reorganized under Wellington’s command and by giving it a victory on the ridge, he gave that army a confidence it never lost. Bussaco was the place where the Portuguese learned they could beat the French and, rightly, it holds a celebrated place in Portuguese history.

Bernard Cornwell,”Historical Note,” in Sharpe’s Escape, pp. 353-354


an excellent websiteMasséna had no chance of breaking through with the forces at his disposal, and a stand-off ensued until a lack of supplies and the imminent arrival of British reinforcements in the spring of 1811 led Masséna to fall back.

With one French army under Soult checked by Graham's victory at Barrosa on 5th March 1811, Wellington was able to push Masséna out of Portugal. Counter-attacks at Fuentes de Oñoro on 3rd and 5th May 1811 were repulsed after desperate struggles in the streets of the village. Masséna, having failed to re-take Portugal, was replaced by Marmont. A further bloody battle took place at Albuera on 16th May as Soult's move north was intercepted by a combined British-Portuguese-Spanish force under Beresford. Although Beresford's handling of the battle - in which the French made the largest single infantry attack of the War - attracted much criticism, Soult was finally forced to retreat. French armies continued to threaten Wellington throughout the latter months of 1811, but at no time were able to catch him at a disadvantage. The turning point of the war had been reached.

http://www.peninsularwar.org/penwar_e.htm


http://www.peninsularwar.org/barrosa.htm

http://www.peninsularwar.org/barrosa.htm

http://www.peninsularwar.org/fuentes.htm

http://www.peninsularwar.org/fuentes.htm

http://www.peninsularwar.org/albuera.htm

http://www.peninsularwar.org/albuera.htm



V.Guerrieros


V.Guerrieros


This was where the paradox of Peninsular warfare came in. Wellington himself was the first to appreciate it. From his new headquarters...he wrote to [War Minister] Lord Liverpool on the last day of January 1810 about Spain’s last hope. It is probable that, although the armies may be lost and the principal Juntas [governing committees] and authorities of the provinces may be dispersed, the war of the partizans may continue. Spain was to be saved, in fact, not by grape-shot, graybeards and grandees, but by hardy guerrillas and the sudden flash of the knife.

Longford, p. 211


Guerrilla (little war)Warfare

✦ whenever smuggling was shut down, the smugglers joined the guerrieros, as did many of the monks from the monasteries Napoleon closed

✦ when a village was burned or hostages shot in reprisal for the gruesome murders of captured French soldiers, there were more resistance fighters, young and old, men and women

✦ “If the French sent out a battalion from one of their fortified bases, it never came back; if they sent out a division, it saw nothing.”

✦ convoys of supplies which once required a company escort, now required a battalion, or a regiment

✦ a rider carrying dispatches suffered the same escalating requirement for protection. All too often his letters wound up on Wellington’s desk

✦ the French soldiers came to hate Spain and all Spaniards. The sentiment was reciprocated even more intensely


Uncoordinated and sometimes feckless though their operations were, the guerillas were Wellington’s main source of military intelligence; without them he would have moved blind in the presence of superior French forces. Also, their constant gnawing at the French communications tied down troops that otherwise might have concentrated to overwhelm him. But without Wellington’s dangerous little army, the guerillas would have been eliminated by the same methods the French found successful in the Vendée, Egypt, Piedmont, Naples and the Tyrol.

Elting, Swords, p. 514


French Counterguerilla Strategy & Tactics

✦ after defeating the enemy’s armies, you occupied the major communication centers and established control of the main roads

✦ if the population was restless you established fortified campsites a day’s march along those highways so that your troops and convoys could find shelter for the night

✦ at critical points where there was danger of ambuscades, you built fortifications in commanding positions

✦ a system of patrols kept the territory along the roads under constant surveillance

✦ as your occupation became better established, you extended your control to the secondary roads

followed the general rules employed at least since the days of Alexander the Great

Elting, p. 548





Los Desastres de la Guerra (The Disasters of War) are a series of 82 prints created between 1810 and 1820 by the Spanish painter and printmaker Francisco Goya













Although deeply affected by the war, he kept private his thoughts on the art he produced in response to the conflict and its aftermath. He was in poor health and almost deaf when, at 62, he began work on the prints. They were not published until 1863, 35 years after his death. It is likely that only then was it considered politically safe to distribute a sequence of artworks criticizing both the French and restored Bourbons


Osprey, French Napoleonic Infantryman 1803-15, PLATE F

ReprisalsThe guerrilla war in Spain was notorious for its brutality, with both sides committing terrible acts of savagery. Girod was clearly shocked by the first atrocities he witnessed: ‘Our advanced guard had found the hanging bodies of some unfortunate Chasseurs à Cheval, who had been made prisoner several days before and had been terribly mutilated….The enemy had let it be known that it was a fight to the death between them and us and that we could expect no quarter.’ Girod adds that in retaliation for this atrocity, Marshal Victor ordered 300 Spanish prisoners to be executed.



The myth of French invincibility in battle was soon exposed by the defeats of Dupont and Junot at Bailén and Vimiero in 1808. Despite the withdrawal from La Coruña, Britain - through her navy's domination of the seas - was able to take advantage of an alliance with Portugal and Spain to gain a foothold on Continental Europe. By 1810-1811, 300,000 French troops had been sucked into the Peninsula, and yet only 70,000 could be spared to confront Wellington; the remainder were pinned down elsewhere by the threat of local insurrections and the actions of guerrillas. With the French unable to concentrate their forces against the British-Portuguese army, Wellington was able to move on to the offensive.





The guerrillas were not an unmixed blessing

✦ they were independent, irregular and insubordinate

✦ their goals sometimes ran contrary to Wellington’s

✦ some bands were more like criminals than patriots

✦ some played a double game, seeking their own advantage

✦ still, the net effect of the Guerrilla worked importantly to weaken the French effort to win “hearts and minds;” to pacify the Spanish countryside


...all who have served in the Peninsula can attest that a less efficient and more mischievous body od marauders never infested any country. It is not denied that they cut off, from time to time, a small convoy, or an isolated detachment; but unfortunately they did not confine their operations to attacks upon the enemy. Whoever fell in their way, be he friend or foe, rarely escaped unplundered; and the inhabitants of the smaller villages everywhere dreaded their appearance as much as that of the French.

Londonderry’s Narrative, quoted in Ian Robertson, Wellington at War in the Peninsula, p. 19


VI. Badajoz


VI. Badajoz

Badajoz


January 1812

July 1812


The infantry hated sieges. Weeks were spent digging the trenches known as parallels to enable the guns to be brought close enough to bring the walls down. This was done in all weathers and under the constant bombardment from the defenders. The actual assault was viewed with some relief and there was never any shortage of volunteers for the ‘Forlorn Hope’, the small group that lead the main attack. If the commander survived he was assured of promotion. If the men survived, they would be the first at the shops, the wine cellars and the women.

The sequel to the third British siege of Badajoz was one of the blackest episodes in the history of the British Army. All control was lost for a period and the men indulged in an orgy of drunken rape and plunder. The awful aspect of it was that the inhabitants were our allies.

http://british-cemetery-elvas.org/badajoz.html


The infantry hated sieges. Weeks were spent digging the trenches known as parallels to enable the guns to be brought close enough to bring the walls down. This was done in all weathers and under the constant bombardment from the defenders. The actual assault was viewed with some relief and there was never any shortage of volunteers for the ‘Forlorn Hope’, the small group that lead the main attack. If the commander survived he was assured of promotion. If the men survived, they would be the first at the shops, the wine cellars and the women.

The sequel to the third British siege of Badajoz was one of the blackest episodes in the history of the British Army. All control was lost for a period and the men indulged in an orgy of drunken rape and plunder. The awful aspect of it was that the inhabitants were our allies.





NOTE the orientation of this map. It has been rotated 90º clockwise. North is where east usually is.







VII. Salamanca


VII. Salamanca



Early on July 22, Marmont's army was moving south, with its leading elements southeast of Salamanca. To the west, the Marshal could see Wellington's 7th Division deployed on a ridge. Spotting a dust cloud in the distance, Marmont surmised that most of the British army was in retreat and that he faced only a rearguard. He planned to move his French army south, then west to turn the British right flank. Marmont was mistaken. Wellington actually had most of his divisions hidden behind the ridge. His 3rd and 5th Divisions would soon arrive from Salamanca. Wellington had planned to retreat if outflanked, but he was watching warily to see if Marmont made a blunder. Marmont planned to move along an L-shaped ridge, with its angle near a steep height known as the Greater Arapile. That morning, the French occupied only the short, north-pointing part of the L. For his flanking move, Marmont sent his divisions marching west along the long side of the L. The Anglo-Allied army lay behind another L-shaped ridge, inside and parallel to the French L, and separated from it by a valley. Unseen by the French, Wellington assembled a powerful striking force along the long side of the British L.As Marmont reached to the west, the French became strung out along the long side of the L. Thomières's division led the way, supported by Curto's cavalry. After that came Maucune, Brenier, and Clausel. Bonet, Sarrut, and Boyer were near the Greater Arapile. Foy and Ferey still held the short side of the L




! Le Marchant hurriedly reformed his troopers and sent them at the next French division, which was winded from a rapid march. The heavy dragoons mauled Brenier's hastily formed first line, but Le Marchant pressed his luck too far. He was killed trying to break a French square in Brenier's second line. William Ponsonby succeeded to command of the brigade

! During this crisis, the French army lost its commander. As Pakenham's 3rd Division prepared to attack Thomières, Marmont finally woke up to his army's peril. He dashed for his horse, but was caught in a British shellburst which broke his arm and two ribs. His second-in-command, Bonet was wounded very soon after. Records conflict, Marmont claiming that he was wounded as his wing became overextended, and his incapacitation led to the error not being corrected before Wellington attacked. His enemies place his wounding during Wellington's attack. For somewhere between 20 minutes and over an hour, the Army of Portugal remained leaderless

1-When the 3rd Division and D'Urban's brigade reached the top of the French L, they attacked Thomières. At the same time, Wellington launched the 5th and 4th Divisions, backed by the 7th and 6th Divisions, at the long side of the French L.

The 3rd Division came at the head of Thomières's division in two-deep line. Despite column formation, the French division initially repulsed its attackers, but was then charged and routed by a bayonet charge. Thomières was killed.

2-Seeing British cavalry in the area, Maucune formed his division into squares. This was the standard formation to receive a mounted attack, but a poor one to defend against infantry. Deployed in two-deep line, Leith's 5th Division easily defeated Maucune in a musketry duel. As the French foot soldiers began falling back, Cotton hurled Le Marchant's brigade (5th Dragoon Guards, 3rd and 4th Dragoons) at them. Maucune's men were cut to pieces by the heavy cavalrymen's sabres. Many of the survivors surrendered.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ponsonby_(general)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ponsonby_(general)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Le_Marchant_(British_Army_cavalry_officer)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Le_Marchant_(British_Army_cavalry_officer)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1796_Heavy_Cavalry_Sword

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1796_Heavy_Cavalry_Sword

! Le Marchant hurriedly reformed his troopers and sent them at the next French division, which was winded from a rapid march. The heavy dragoons mauled Brenier's hastily formed first line, but Le Marchant pressed his luck too far. He was killed trying to break a French square in Brenier's second line. William Ponsonby succeeded to command of the brigade

! During this crisis, the French army lost its commander. As Pakenham's 3rd Division prepared to attack Thomières, Marmont finally woke up to his army's peril. He dashed for his horse, but was caught in a British shellburst which broke his arm and two ribs. His second-in-command, Bonet was wounded very soon after. Records conflict, Marmont claiming that he was wounded as his wing became overextended, and his incapacitation led to the error not being corrected before Wellington attacked. His enemies place his wounding during Wellington's attack. For somewhere between 20 minutes and over an hour, the Army of Portugal remained leaderless

1-When the 3rd Division and D'Urban's brigade reached the top of the French L, they attacked Thomières. At the same time, Wellington launched the 5th and 4th Divisions, backed by the 7th and 6th Divisions, at the long side of the French L.

The 3rd Division came at the head of Thomières's division in two-deep line. Despite column formation, the French division initially repulsed its attackers, but was then charged and routed by a bayonet charge. Thomières was killed.

2-Seeing British cavalry in the area, Maucune formed his division into squares. This was the standard formation to receive a mounted attack, but a poor one to defend against infantry. Deployed in two-deep line, Leith's 5th Division easily defeated Maucune in a musketry duel. As the French foot soldiers began falling back, Cotton hurled Le Marchant's brigade (5th Dragoon Guards, 3rd and 4th Dragoons) at them. Maucune's men were cut to pieces by the heavy cavalrymen's sabres. Many of the survivors surrendered.


! As the rest of the French army streamed away, Ferey formed his division in a single three-deep line, with each flank covered by a battalion in square. Led by Clinton's victorious 6th Division, the British came up to this formation and were initially repulsed

3-Cole's 4th Division attacked Bonet's division and

4-Pack's Portuguese assaulted the Greater Arapile. With the help of a 40-gun battery firing from the Greater Arapile, both attacks were repulsed by the French.

5-Assuming command, general Bertrand Clausel did his best to salvage a bad situation. He committed Sarrut's division to shore up the wrecked left flank, and then launched a dangerous counterattack at Cole's 4th Division using his own and Bonet's divisions, supported by Boyer's dragoons. This attack brushed aside Cole's survivors and struck the 6th Division in Wellington's second line.

6-Marshal William Beresford reacted promptly to this developing threat and immediately sent William Spry's Portuguese brigade of the 5th Division to engage the French infantry, while Wellington moved the 1st and 7th Divisions to assist. After bitter resistance, the divisions of Clausel and Bonet were defeated and the French army began to retreat.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Clausel


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Carr_Beresford


! As the rest of the French army streamed away, Ferey formed his division in a single three-deep line, with each flank covered by a battalion in square. Led by Clinton's victorious 6th Division, the British came up to this formation and were initially repulsed

! After ordering his artillery to crossfire through the centre of the French line, Wellington ordered a second assault. This attack broke Ferey's division, killing its commander

! Foy's division covered the French retreat toward Alba de Tormes where there was a bridge they could use to escape. Wellington, believing that the Alba de Tormes crossing was blocked by a Spanish battalion in a fortified castle, directed his pursuit along a different road. However, Maj-Gen D'Espana had withdrawn the unit without informing Wellington, so the French got away

3-Cole's 4th Division attacked Bonet's division and

4-Pack's Portuguese assaulted the Greater Arapile. With the help of a 40-gun battery firing from the Greater Arapile, both attacks were repulsed by the French.

5-Assuming command, general Bertrand Clausel did his best to salvage a bad situation. He committed Sarrut's division to shore up the wrecked left flank, and then launched a dangerous counterattack at Cole's 4th Division using his own and Bonet's divisions, supported by Boyer's dragoons. This attack brushed aside Cole's survivors and struck the 6th Division in Wellington's second line.

6-Marshal William Beresford reacted promptly to this developing threat and immediately sent William Spry's Portuguese brigade of the 5th Division to engage the French infantry, while Wellington moved the 1st and 7th Divisions to assist. After bitter resistance, the divisions of Clausel and Bonet were defeated and the French army began to retreat.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alba_de_Tormes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alba_de_Tormes





The Army of Portugal suffered 7,000 killed and wounded and 7,000 captured. Besides Marmont's severe wounding, two divisional commanders were killed and another wounded. Half of the 5,214 Anglo-Allied losses came from the 4th and 6th Divisions. Cotton, Cole, and Leith were wounded.The battle established Wellington as an offensive general. It was said that Wellington "defeated an army of 40,000 men in 40 minutes." Six days after the battle, Foy wrote in his diary,

This battle is the most cleverly fought, the largest in scale, the most important in results, of any that the English have won in recent times. It brings up Lord Wellington's reputation almost to the level of that of Marlborough. Up to this day we knew his prudence, his eye for choosing good positions, and the skill with which he used them. But at Salamanca he has shown himself a great and able master of manoeuvring. He kept his dispositions hidden nearly the whole day: he allowed us to develop our movement before he pronounced his own: he played a close game; he utilised the oblique order in the style of Frederick the Great.

The Battle of Salamanca was a damaging defeat to the French. As the French regrouped, the Anglo-Portuguese entered Madrid on August 6 and began the Siege of Burgos, before retreating all the way back to Portugal in the autumn when renewed French concentrations threatened to trap them.

Wikipedia


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Marlborough

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Marlborough

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_the_Great

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_the_Great



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Burgos

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Burgos

! During the siege, which lasted two and a half years, the Cortes Generales government in Cadiz (the Cádiz Cortes) drew up a new constitution to reduce the strength of the monarchy (a constitution eventually revoked by Fernando VII

! In October 1810, a mixed Anglo-Spanish relief force embarked on a disastrous landing at Fuengirola. A second relief attempt was made at Tarifa in 1811. However, despite defeating a detached French force of 15,000-20,000 under Marshal Victor at the Battle of Barrosa, the siege was not lifted

! In 1812, the Battle of Salamanca eventually forced the French troops to retreat from Andalusia, for fear of being cut off by the allied armies.[8] Defeat at Cádiz contributed to the liberation of Spain from French occupation, due to the survival of the Spanish government and the use of Cádiz as a jump off point for the Allied forces

The Siege of Cádiz was a siege of the large Spanish naval base of Cádiz by a French army from February 5, 1810 to August 24, 1812 during the Peninsular War. Following the occupation of Madrid on March 23, 1808, Cádiz became the Spanish seat of power, and was targeted by 60,000 French troops under the command of Marshal Claude Victor for one of the most important sieges of the war. Defending the city were 2,000 Spanish troops who, as the siege progressed, received aid from 10,000 Spanish reinforcements as well as British and Portuguese troops.

VIEW OF CADIZ AND ITS ENVIRONS


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortes_Generales

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortes_Generales

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1diz_Cortes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1diz_Cortes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_VII




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fuengirola




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarifa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarifa



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Barrosa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Barrosa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Salamanca

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Salamanca

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsular_War#Allied_victory_.281813.E2.80.931814.29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsular_War#Allied_victory_.281813.E2.80.931814.29



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1diz


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_Empire

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_Empire







http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Victor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Victor





French hopes of recovery were stricken by Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. He had taken 30,000 soldiers from the hard-pressed Armée de l'Espagne, and, starved of reinforcements and replacements, the French position became increasingly unsustainable as the allies renewed the offensive in May 1813.

Wikipedia


Lisbon

Lisbon

LOC

LOC

LOC

LOC

LOC

In a strategic move, Wellington planned to move his supply base from Lisbon to Santander


Santander

Lisbon

Lisbon

LOC

LOC

In a strategic move, Wellington planned to move his supply base from Lisbon to Santander

The Anglo-Portuguese forces swept northwards in late May 1813 and seized Burgos; they then outflanked the French army, forcing Joseph Bonapar te in to the valley of the River Zadorra.

Burgos


VIII.Vitoria


VIII.Vitoria






3

1 - W e l l i n g t o n ' s c o -ord inated a t tack was opened by Hi l l ' s 2 nd Division, and Cadogan's Br igade c ros s ing the Zadorra at Puebla to attack the heights overlooking the French position


3


2-Graham's force comprising the 1st and 5th Divisions, P a c k ' s a n d B r a d f o r d ' s Portuguese Brigades and Longa's Spanish Brigade began to press from the north against the road from Vitoria to Bayonne. By noon the road had been cut.


3



3-Crucially, Wellington learned late in the morning that the French had left the bridge across the Zadorra at Trespuentes unguarded. Kempt ' s Br igade was immediately despatched from the Light Division to seize the bridge. Concealed by high ground on the h a i r p i n b e n d o f t h e Zadorra, the light infantry were able to take the b r i d g e v i r t u a l l y unopposed.


3





3





The British 59th Regiment at Vitoria


3

3-Crucially, Wellington learned late in the morning that the French had left the bridge across the Zadorra at Trespuentes unguarded. Kempt ' s Br igade was immediately despatched from the Light Division to seize the bridge. Concealed by high ground on the h a i r p i n b e n d o f t h e Zadorra, the light infantry were able to take the bridge virtually unopposed.


3


4-The pressure on the F r e n c h p o s i t i o n n o w rapidly became unbearable as allied attacks were pressed home from several directions. Picton's 3rd Division - supported by a flanking attack by Kempt's Brigade - stormed over the Zadorra to the east of Trespuentes


✦ From the west, Cole's 4th Division and the rest of Alten's Light Division crossed the Zadorra. Meanwhile, Hill continued to press from the south

✦ Throughout the afternoon, the French were gradually rolled-up from the west before being finally sent into headlong retreat.

✦ Wellington's casualties from the battle amounted to 5,100. Joseph suffered not only 8,000 casualties but also the loss of virtually all his artillery and transport. Joseph's army was spent as a fighting force

3




✦ From the west, Cole's 4th Division and the rest of Alten's Light Division crossed the Zadorra. Meanwhile, Hill continued to press from the south

✦ Throughout the afternoon, the French were gradually rolled-up from the west before being finally sent into headlong retreat.

✦ Wellington's casualties from the battle amounted to 5,100. Joseph suffered not only 8,000 casualties but also the loss of virtually all his artillery and transport. Joseph's army was spent as a fighting force

3



Equally important to the manpower losses were the material losses which the French suffered. 152 guns, 2 eagles and the French plunder of Spanish wealth; t h e c r o w n o f S p a i n , Rubens paintings, jewels and precious metals worth at least $ 234 million in today’s money. The French occupation of Spain was effectively finished.




An extremely unhappy Field Marshal [Wellington] after the victory. He was furious with the men for plundering the [French] baggage, describing them in a phrase for which he has been attacked ever since; “the scum of the earth.” Many of his soldiers doubtless were (but by no means all) and those people who cite the phrase as evidence that Wellington despised the men who fought for him usually forget that he was fond of adding, “but it is wonderful what fine fellows we have made of them.” Wellington had cause to be angry (he was hoping to use the French treasure to pay for the campaign), but in defense of the “scum” it is very hard to see how any soldier, paid a shilling a day, could resist the field of gold that awaited them east of Vitoria. Yet many did; some regiments kept their order and marched straight through it…

Bernard Cornwell, Sharpe’s Honour, “Historical Note,” pp. 318-319


Napoleon reacted to the catastrophic news by attempting to keep it a secret from the allies, and sending Marshal Soult to take command of the remaining French forces “in lieu of the king,” he informed Marie Louise, “who is no soldier and knows nothing about anything.” A few days later he instructed his regent wife: “If [Joseph] comes to [his estate], Mortefontaine, it must be incognito and you must ignore him; I will not have him interfere with the government or intrigues set up in Paris...

Asprey, Reign, p. 315


The battle of Vitoria was not the largest battle fought in the Peninsula, but it had the most far-reaching consequences. At a time when the fortunes of Napoleon seemed to be rising after his huge defeat in Russia, the battle encouraged the northern allies to continue the fight, leading to the great northern victory at Leipzig...

Bernard Cornwell, Sharpe’s Honour, “Historical Note,” p. 319

It also caused King Joseph and his French armies to abandon Spain forever!


The battle of Vitoria was not the largest battle fought in the Peninsula, but it had the most far-reaching consequences. At a time when the fortunes of Napoleon seemed to be rising after his huge defeat in Russia, the battle encouraged the northern allies to continue the fight, leading to the great northern victory at Leipzig...

Bernard Cornwell, Sharpe’s Honour, “Historical Note,” p. 319

It also caused King Joseph and his French armies to abandon Spain forever!


SORAUREN(28 July 1813)


The Battle of Sorauren, 28 July 1813A Concrete Example of Wellington’s ‘Reverse Slope’ Tactic

By early June 1813 most of the French forces had been chased out of north-western Spain; but within a month Marshal Nicholas Soult had reorganized the survivors and led them back into the Pyrenees, to reestablish contact with the garrison still holding out in Pamplona. The high water mark of this offensive came at Sorauren-- only some 6 miles short of the fortress, but in an area of steep, rugged, scrub-covered terrain that made tactical movements very difficult. photo


The Battle of Sorauren, 28 July 1813A Concrete Example of Wellington’s ‘Reverse Slope’ Tactic

By early June 1813 most of the French forces had been chased out of north-western Spain; but within a month Marshal Nicholas Soult had reorganized the survivors and led them back into the Pyrenees, to reestablish contact with the garrison still holding out in Pamplona. The high water mark of this offensive came at Sorauren-- only some 6 miles short of the fortress, but in an area of steep, rugged, scrub-covered terrain that made tactical movements very difficult. photo





The illustration shows the first French attack, which was launched down a long ridge, across a deep valley, then up against a British force that was lining the next crest along the side of Oricain hill. The village of Sorauren is off the bottom left of the plate, behind the French left flank.The brigade of Gen Jean Lecamus is shown, climbing uphill in an echelon of battalion columns of divisions at half distance…. A strong skirmish line precedes them, totaling perhaps 800 men…. The attack is supported from a ridge to its rear (not illustrated) by the fire of four mule-packed light guns--the only type that can be moved through the mountains.

Griffith, French Napoleonic Infantry Tactics; 1792-1815, p. 61


1. the center and left of the French line press their attacks

2. the ruined chapel of San Salvador, anchor for

3. the right half of the 23rd Foot

4. a battalion of the 88e de Ligne advance against them, as do

5. one from the 70e de Ligne against the left half of the 23rd; but the Brit battalion is concealed behind the crest, and because of the echeloning of the French the only contact so far is between the skirmishers

6. another battalion of the 70e, further forward, has almost reached the crest when

7. the right half-battalion of the 20th Foot suddenly steps forward and gives a volley; now they give their triumphant cheer, and are on the point of starting their counter charge. The French skirmishers are shot down or driven back into their front rand which has taken considerable casualties from the first volley. They haven’t been able to deploy column into line, but they haven’t yet broken to the rear


8. The left half-battalion of the 20th Foot has just broken

9. the column of the 31e Lègere which leads the echelon attack. As the redcoats charge downhill with the bayonet, very few Frenchmen--mostly officers and NCOs--stand their ground to try an unequal contest with cold steel. Actual casualties to British bayonets are few, but the French defeat is total. The British will also be disorganized by their charge, however. Some men will break off to loot the dead and wounded, while others reload to fire into the backs of the retreating French. Their officers will have to exert all their authority to halt this freelance activity, recall their men, and re-form the line back behind the top of the slope.

INSET 1 British witnesses at Sorauen were surprised that some of the French skirmishers were wearing bearskins. This shows that some of the grenadier platoons were thrown forward. This was unusual, but in steep mountain terrain in the Peninsula it made perfect sense: if not, they would have been ‘left out of battle.’

INSET 2 According to the manual there were supposed to be 2 to 3 drummers per platoon to relay simple instructions. However they would be concentrated into a single group of 18 or 27 drums posted 15 paces behind a battalion color party. If a platoon were detached as skirmishers, they would take their drums with them


SAN SEBASTIAN

PAMPLONA

BAYONNETOULOUSE

After Wellington’s victory at Sorauren ended Soult ’s counteroffensive, the French occupation of Spain was doomed. San Sebastian fell on 31 August. Pamplona on 31 October. Bayonne was captured the next year. And Wellington won the hard-fought battle for Toulouse 2 days after Napoleon’s abdication in April 1814. But that’s another story...


What lay at the root of Napoleon’s failure in Spain? Besides his overweening and relentless ambition to see the Continental System embrace the entire continent of Europe, the Emperor stands accused of rushing his fences. Had he taken the Spanish affair more steadily, made greater efforts to win popular support, ruled through a Bourbon puppet rather than one of the Bonaparte clan, then his achievement might have been more permanent. Instead, he took the bull by the horns at the first opportunity and rushed the invasion, hoping to gain everything with a very modest outlay of effort. In fact, by so doing, Napoleon the statesman had set Napoleon the soldier an impossible task. Consequently, although the immediate military aims were more or less achieved [in December 1808!], the long-term requirement of winning popular support for the new regime was hopelessly compromised. The lesson was there for the world to read: military conquest in itself cannot bring about a political victory. This was by no means a new lesson, but seldom in history has it been so amply demonstrated.

Chandler, Campaigns p. 660



...Wellington’s consistent victories owed much to his careful planning, his personal supervision of the fighting, and his ability to react appropriately as circumstances changed. He anticipated the actions of his adversaries, who were often experienced generals, and so could plan accordingly. Finally, he commanded an army composed, in the main, of competent general officers and well-trained men, the best Britain has ever produced…. His successes were not entirely unbroken: the siege of Burgos in 1812 stands out as the exception, while Badajoz, though successfully taken, proved an extremely costly affair, but few commanders of any age enjoyed the succession of victories for which Wellington may rightfully claim credit, and in this respect he stands close in estimation to the great Napoleon himself.

Fremont-Barnes, Napoleon p. 53



There exists no more pathetic description of the treatment meted out by England to her soldiers, who had, by their gallantry and devotion, rescued Europe from the tyranny of Napoleon, than the words by which Napier brings to a close his stirring account of the long and bloody struggle in the Peninsula. “The British infantry embarked at Bordeaux, some for America, some for England; the cavalry, marching through France, took shipping at Boulogne. “Thus the war terminated, and with it, all remembrance of the veterans’ services. “Yet those veterans had won nineteen pitched battles and innumerable combats; had made or sustained ten sieges and had taken four great fortresses; had twice expelled the French from Portugal, once from Spain; had penetrated France, and killed, wounded, or captured 200,000 enemies, leaving of their own number 40,000 dead, whose bones whiten the plains and mountains of the Peninsula.” It was not till 1848, thirty-four years after the termination of the war, that the services of the few veterans who then survived was acknowledged by the issue of a medal!

Simmons, A British Rifle Man, pp.331-332


There exists no more pathetic description of the treatment meted out by England to her soldiers, who had, by their gallantry and devotion, rescued Europe from the tyranny of Napoleon, than the words by which Napier brings to a close his stirring account of the long and bloody struggle in the Peninsula. “The British infantry embarked at Bordeaux, some for America, some for England; the cavalry, marching through France, took shipping at Boulogne. “Thus the war terminated, and with it, all remembrance of the veterans’ services. “Yet those veterans had won nineteen pitched battles and innumerable combats; had made or sustained ten sieges and had taken four great fortresses; had twice expelled the French from Portugal, once from Spain; had penetrated France, and killed, wounded, or captured 200,000 enemies, leaving of their own number 40,000 dead, whose bones whiten the plains and mountains of the Peninsula.” It was not till 1848, thirty-four years after the termination of the war, that the services of the few veterans who then survived was acknowledged by the issue of a medal!

Simmons, A British Rifle Man, pp.331-332


Education

Napoleon, Part 2, session iii, Wellington