SUBJECT: ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

PROJECT: ESP COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

SUBMITTED TO: MAM REHANA GULZAR

SUBMITTED BY

FATIMA GUL ABIDA PARVEEN MARYAM TARIQ SITARA AYAZ

Date: May 17, 2013

Topics Page

No.

1. Abstract …………………………………………………………….

2

2. Introduction ………………………………………………………

3-4

3. AIMS…………………………………………………………………..

4

2

4. Literature

Review………………………………………………… 5-7

5. Need Analysis……………………………………………………..

7-9

6. The Learning

Needs……………………………………………..9-10

7. Principles For Analyzing Learner Needs……………..

10-12

8. The Information Gathering

Process/Methodology……..12

9. Questionnaires……………………………………………………

…..13

10.Analysis Of

Questionnaires………………………………….14-20

11.Authentic Data

Analysis……………………………………….22-27

12.Limitation Of The

Study……………………………………..27-28

3

13.Teaching

Methodology………………………………………….28-29

14.Syllabus……………………………………………………………

……… 29

15. Course

Outline……………………………………………………30-32

16. The Suggested

Organization…………………………………32

17.

Conclusion…………………………………………………………..

32

18. Designed

Course…………………………………………………..32-33

19. Objectives………………………………………………….

………..33

20.

Strategies…………………………………………………………

…..34-35

4

21.

References……………………………………………………………

36

22. Method Of

Instruction………………………………………. 36

23. Teaching

Staff……………………………………………………36

24.

Attendance………………………………………………………

……37

25. Code Of Academic

Conduct……………………………………37

26. Grading

……………………………………………………………………37

27. OVERVIEW OF TIME

TABLE………………………….38-40

28. Lesson Plan ………………………………………………………

40-48

5

29. MATERAILS

…………………………………………………………43-60

30.Appendix……………………………………………………………

61-65

31.

Bibliography………………………………………………………66-

68

THE PROCESS OF DESIGNING AN ESP WRITING COURSE FOR ENGINEERS IN A PAKISTAN

Abstract

The aim of this research is to have an overview of the needs and thereby design English

for Special Purposes (ESP) writing course outline, for a group of engineers working in Pakistan.

The key stages in the research are goal-setting, situation analysis, needs analysis, and course

outlines. Having determined the engineers needs through the two research tools I have used,

namely a questionnaires and authentic data analysis, discussion took place around my second

aim, that of determining the outline for the technical writing course. The questionnaires were

distributed between the targeted group (engineers) and authentic data analysis was taken from

engineers working place. My decision to investigate these particular writing needs is based on

request of my dear brother who is currently serving as an engineer at Makkays Pvt. Ltd and

6

observing their enormous needs to develop written and spoken English, as within technical field

English is used as medium of communication. This does not imply that other language skills are

not important, thus this study could form the basis of future investigations in determining skills

needs.

7

1.1Introduction

The role of engineering in society, our relationship with the environment, and the

potential and importance our work holds for people cannot be neglected As Maurice Strong,

Secretary General of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development,

said, "Sustainable development will be impossible without the full input by the engineering

profession."As we enter the twenty-first century, we must embark on a worldwide transition to a

more holistic approach to engineering. This will require: (1) a major paradigm shift from control

of nature to participation with nature; (2) an awareness of ecosystems, ecosystems services, and

the preservation and restoration of natural capital; and (3) a new mindset of the mutual

enhancement of nature and humans that embraces the principles of sustainable development,

renewable resources management, appropriate technology, natural capitalism (Hawken et al.,

1999), biomimicry (Benyus, 1997), biosoma (Bugliarello, 2000), and systems thinking

(Meadows, 1997).

Engineering students have specific English needs. Engineering students and engineers

have expressed long-term dissatisfaction with their English ability (Wattanasakunpusakon,

1996; Kittidhaworn, 2001).This innovative course is designed to foster excitement for

engineering through projects that combine creativity and logical methodology. Effective use of

written, oral, and graphic professional communication is developed as the term progresses. The

design components are used as a methodology to accomplish several of the learning objectives. It

is a vehicle for understanding and practicing problem solving and for developing effective skills.

In addition, design problems naturally require a holistic approach to problem solving that takes

into account social, environmental, and human factors as design constraints.

In other words, it's just like any other English course. The only difference is that

everything is done in the context of the ESP field. The ESP field exists in the course primarily as

a means of keeping the course interesting and relevant. The paper will then discuss how the

course materials were developed in the form of a class textbook and finally conclude by

contending that the course is effective in developing low-level Science and Engineering

8

Graduate students’ English scientific presentation skills and that the course could easily be

adapted to meet the needs of students from other faculties as well.

“Rhetoric – an art of influencing the soul through words” (Plato)

1.2 AIMS

The course objective is to start encouraging students right away in first year to synthesize

and integrate their knowledge in the broader engineering context. To equip students with a

variety of reading techniques and strategies so that they might achieve a higher level of reading

/i.e. better comprehension and more efficient reading/ for professional purposes. A needs

analysis will be used to determine the key components necessary for designing a writing course.

A course outline will then be designed to accommodate these needs. The design process is

introduced and hands-on projects give students a chance to grapple with the challenges of

engineering design. Writing and reading, as engineering activities, are introduced.

The aim of the course is to bump your students up to a higher level of global language

proficiency hat means teaching all the grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation that all other

language learners have to study. And making sure your students understand the language

structures at that level and can use them as well as others of the same level. It also means

working on the four skills - to improve reading speed and listening comprehension, spoken

confidence and written style.

2.1Literature Review

ESP (English for Specific Purposes) is one important branch of the EFL/ESL (English as

a Foreign/Second Language) system that functions as the main branch of English language

teaching ELT. Therefore, ESP is not a particular kind of language or methodology, but rather an

approach to language learning whereby the content and method are based on the learners

particular needs to learn the language (Hutchinson, and Waters, 1987).To distinguish ESP from

EGP (English for General Purposes) we could say that ESP is more focused . ESP can be divided

into two main areas: (EAP), (EOP), under these two types there are further divisions for

example, (EST) and (EMP).

9

ESP is an “attitude of mind”, with the following absolute Characteristics such as; to

meet specific needs of the learners, makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the

discipline it serves ,centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar,

lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre.

According to (Dudley-Evans, 1997) ESP posses variable characteristics as well .ESP

may be related to or designed for specific disciplines .It may use, in specific teaching situations,

a different methodology from that of General English .ESP is likely to be designed for adult

learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however,

be for learners at secondary school level. It is generally designed for intermediate or advanced

students. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system.

ESP is a course of study that involves teaching students the English and consequent skills

necessary to function within their specific field of study or work. As such, ESP courses are more

narrowly defined than general English courses and focus on more specific and identifiable needs

than general English (Brandt, 2009).

English for Specific Purposes; on the other hand, puts a much greater focus upon the

specific linguistic knowledge and communication skills necessary in order to accomplish specific

purposes (Orr, 1998) within a specific discipline or profession. An ESP course needs to

introduce and/or reinforce specific language or skills needed within a particular discipline

including the grammar, lexis, discourse, pragmatic knowledge and genre in order to

communicate effectively. In other words, ESP focuses on enabling students to function within

their chosen academic community and/or the professional community they will ultimately be

entering. In short, the content should lead language and the language studied must address the

specific learning needs students have for their field of study and work (Lowe, 2009).

Graddol (1996) indicates that a quarter of the world’s population is fluent or competent

in English and no other language in the world today can match the steadily growing spread of the

English language.

What gives the English language this status is not its linguistic system. Rather, Crystal

(2003) argues that the current status of English results from the power of the people speaking it.

10

Therefore, the global power of the English language is related to the historic political, cultural,

socio-economic and technological dominance of England and the United States. Other languages

throughout history such as Greek, Arabic, Spanish and many others had held similar positions as

world languages of commerce and scholarship.

Nationalists in different places of the world often resist the spread of the power code.

This resistance is exemplified in the post colonial era by those who refuse to use the language of

their former colonial power in order to promote the indigenous language to emphasize their

indigenous identity. For example, Ngugi wa Thiong’o (1986), a Kenyan writer who refuses to

use English in his work, argues that colonial languages impose cultural aspects on the indigenous

language leading to a distorting of the local identity.

World English can be argued to be shaped through linguistic imperialism where the

spread of English is viewed as language imposition (Phillipson, 1992). However, learning

English can also be seen as an investment. The technological revolution in today’s digital world

and the way people are using the Internet make English emerge as a global medium of

communication. The revolution in communication extends cultural interaction between people

beyond their local speech communities (Warschauer, 1999). Three quarters of the world’s

emails are currently in English and 90% of the materials on the Internet are in English (Crystal

2003).Resistance to English cannot stop the spread of the English language simply because

alternative solutions such as translation are expensive and impractical. Many countries thus

believe that learning another language is a source of development. Choosing a foreign language

to be taught in schools depends on what people would gain from this investment. For example, in

1996 Algeria, a former French colony, replaced French with English as the chief foreign

language in schools reflecting the demand for English as a key for development. Learning

English is viewed as an investment to enable people to access the resources represented by the

English language.

This concept of language investment views the exposure of learners to a new language as

adding a new discourse to the primary one rather than imposing a superior code. Norton (2000)

indicates that when people speak a language, they are investing in an identity as speakers of that

11

language. Learners invest in a second language in the hopes of gaining access to resources such

as education, friendship, and money. The degree of L2 learning is a reflection of the degree of

investment (Norton, 1995).

In other words, L2 learners need to deal with discourses from different languages in order

to fulfill their communicative needs. This process gives them a choice to expand their previous

discourses to include new ones. This bilingual standpoint enables L2 learners to contribute

different aspects from their L1 to the English language in a process leading to the use of English

as a lingua franca.

Kantonidou (2008) conducted the research on ESP for electrical engineering curricula.

He highlighted that theoretical evidence should be reconciled with hard facts through the

cooperation of all the stakeholders. Furthermore, he recommended that if ESP students will not

be provided the opportunities, it can de-motivate the students.

2.2 A Needs analysis

 In designing an ESP course it is imperative to carry out a needs analysis to determine the

specific reasons for learning the language (Hutchinson, and Waters, 1987,) or to specify

exactly, what students need to achieve through the medium of English(Robinson 1991).

According to Nunan techniques and procedures for collecting information to be used in syllabus

design are referred to as a needs analysis (Nunan, 1988: 13). In more formal terms a needs

analysis is the process of determining the needs for which a learner or group of learners requires

a language and arranging the needs according to priorities (Richards, and Platt, 1992:242).

2.2 (a) Approaches to needs analysis

Influential models of needs analysis include a sociolinguistic model (Munby, 1978), a systemic approach (Richterich & Chancerel, 1977), a learning-centered approach (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), learner-centered approaches (Berwick, 1989; Brindley, 1989) and a task-based approach (Long 2005a, 2005b).

12

2.2(b) A sociolinguistic model

Munby (1978) develops an influential sociolinguistic model for defining the content of

purpose-specific language programs. His model can be used to specify valid ‘target situations’

(Jordan, 1997; West, 1994) that target communicative competence. A profile of communication

needs is presented, comprised of communicative events (e.g. discussing everyday tasks and

duties), purposive domain (e.g. educational), medium (e.g. spoken), mode (e.g. dialogue),

channel of communication (e.g. face-to-face), setting of communication, main communicator/s,

person/s with whom the communicator/s communicate, dialect, attitudinal tone (e.g. informal),

subject content and level of English ability required for the communication

2.2(c) A systemic approach

Richterich & Chancerel (1977) propose a systemic approach for identifying the needs

of adults learning a foreign language. This approach fills the gaps in the sociolinguistic model in

terms of flexibility and shows a distinct concern for learners. They are the centre of attention,

and their ‘present situations’ (Jordan, 1997) are thoroughly investigated. The emergent nature

of learner needs is also taken into account. Context of investigation and multiple perspectives are

given prominence.

2.2 (d) A learning-centered approach

Hutchinson & Waters (1987) offer an often-cited learning-centered approach to ESP.

They argue that other approaches give too much attention to language needs, whereas more

attention should be given to how learners learn. They suggest that a learning needs approach is

the best route to convey learners from the starting point to the target situation. Learner needs are

approached from two directions; target needs and learning needs. Target needs are defined as

“what the learner needs to do in the target situation” (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p. 54).

They are broken down into three categories: necessities, lacks and wants. Necessities are

considered to be “what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target

situation” (p. 55). Lacks are defined as “the gaps between what the learner knows and the

necessities (p. 56).” Wants are described as “what the learners think they need” (Nation,

2000, p. 2).

13

2.2 (e) Learner-centered approaches

Berwick (1989) and Brindley (1989) are leaders in contributing learner-centered

approaches to needs analysis. Three ways to look at learner needs are offered: perceived vs. felt

needs; product vs. process oriented interpretations; and objective vs. subjective needs.

‘Perceived needs’ are from the perspective of experts while ‘felt needs’ are from the perspective

of learners (Berwick, 1989). In the product-oriented interpretation, learner needs are viewed as

the language that learners require in target situations. In the process-oriented interpretation, the

focus is on how individuals respond to their learning situation, involving affective and cognitive

variables which affect learning Chamnong Kaewpet (Brindley, 1989)

2.2 (f) A task-based approach

Long (2005a) recommends taking a task-based approach to needs analysis as well as

with teaching and learning based on the argument that “structures or other linguistic elements

(notions, functions, lexical items etc.)” should not be a focal point of teaching and learning.

“Learners are far more active and cognitive-independent participants in the acquisition

process than is assumed by the erroneous belief that what you teach is what they learn, and

when you teach it is when they learn it”.

 2.3 The learning needs

  The learning needs refer to the learner’s language difficulties, their learning objectives,

their styles of learning etc (Jolly and Bolitho.1998). It is the starting point or the route and

answers the question. To understand the learning needs we should find answers for the following

questions.

� why are the learners taking the course?

� how do the learners learn?

� what resources are available?

� who are the learners?

14

� when/Where will the course take place?

The new educational pedagogy emphasizes the importance of the learners and their

attitudes to learning (Hutchinson, and Waters, 1987, pp 59). Satisfying learner’s needs and

interests has an important influence on the learners’ motivation and therefore achievements.

Moreover, this approach gives learners the opportunity to participate in the syllabus design. In a

context where the nature of the work changes and the linguistic needs change too, the importance

of this approach increases. As MacKay and Mountford (1978) stated, adults who need English

for academic or professional purposes are more aware of what they want to use English for.

In fact, the results of a needs analysis are not absolute but relative. There are a number of factors that could affect the outcomes: for instance: who to ask; what the questions are; and how the responses are interpreted (Dudley-Evans and St. John1998).

2.3 (a) Principles for analyzing learner needs

Based on the survey of approaches to needs analysis presented in Section 2 as well as the

author’s personal teaching experience, learner needs should embrace the following principles:

Give first priority to communication needs

Communication needs come to attention when it is believed that what learners are taught should

be specifically what they will really use, and that this should determine the contents of ESP

courses (Munby, 1978; Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998). It is also argued that specific

knowledge concerning English language alone is insufficient. The ability to communicate also

involves understanding the discourse practices where the language is situated and in which

learners must operate (Long, 2005a, 2005b; Orr, 2002)

Give equal importance to learning needs

Cognitive and affective variables as well as learning situations are influential in determining the

manner in which a language is learned or should be learned (Berwick, 1989; Brindley, 1989).

Hutchinson & Waters (1987) argue that the study of language descriptions, namely, the study

of communication needs, does not enable someone to learn a language. Learning situations

15

comprising several learning factors must also be taken into account. In fact, a thorough study of

both descriptions will help elaborate learner needs more thoroughly.

Take ‘context’ into account

Context influences the teaching and learning of ESP (Holliday & Cooke, 1982; Jordan, 1997;

Richterich & Chancerel, 1977). Language teaching and design that do not consider particular

groups of students is likely to be either inefficient or inadequate (Long, 2005b). Finally, teacher

factors influence the way ESP courses are run for engineering students. For example when ESP

course aim at teaching all four skills; a given teacher may believe that reading and writing should

be emphasized more than listening and speaking. Teaching style, conservatism, and personality

are also vital factors that influence every learning situation.

Invite multiple perspectives

Learners’ English needs depend on various expectations, interpretations and individual value

judgments (Berwick, 1989; Brindley, 1989). Vandermeeren (2005) points out that

“researchers, too, have attitudes concerning language needs, which inevitably influence

their choice of research objectives and their interpretation of the findings”

Employ multiple data collection methods

Use of multiple data collection methods is recommended when dealing with complex needs and

for validating data (Gilabert, 2005; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Jasso-Aguilar, 2005;

Richterich & Chancerel, 1977). Jasso-Aguilar’s (2005) study revealed that some of the

language needs of hotel maids could not have been found if participation observation had not

been employed in addition to the study of task force predictions. Long (2005a, 2005b) calls for

more attention to ‘methodological options’ in needs analysis. It is also recommended that

limitations of data collection methods should be dealt with both before and during the research

process.

Treat needs analysis as an ongoing activity

Learner needs should be analyzed on an ongoing basis because they are likely to change over

time, depending on contextual and human affective variables (Brown, 1995; Holliday, 1994;

16

Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Nunan, 1988; Richterich & Chancerel, 1977). This principle

expands the A Framework for Investigating Learner Needs 215 attention of needs analysis to

include both curriculum development and action research.

The purpose of needs analysis is to identify learner needs, taking place at a relatively

theoretical level outside of classes, yielding recommendations on how a course should be

designed. Yet, at a more profound level, needs analysis is actually a process in curriculum

development (Brown, 1995; Richards, 2001); it can and should be extended to curriculum

development because many other important variables are connected with learner needs in

authentic teaching and learning.

2.4 The Information Gathering Process/Methodology

Robinson (1991) lists a number of different methods for conducting needs analysis.

These include questionnaires, interviews, case studies, tests, and authentic data collection (e.g.

analyzing actual manuals and written assignments). Jordan (1997) adds to these methods

advanced documentation (e.g. requesting extra information that includes educational

background, previously attended courses, and other relevant aspects), language tests at home,

self-assessment, class progress tests, direct monitoring, structured interviews, learner diaries,

previous research comparisons, and follow up investigations.

To create a strong overall needs analysis a combination of two information gathering process

procedures had been used in my research which are as follows

� Questionnaires: to determine the learner’s purpose for learning the language (Nunan, D.

1989).

�Authentic data analysis: to determine the features of the genre of the text required for the ESP

context.

17

2.4 (a) Questionnaires

Questionnaires were determined to be the best means of investigation in this study. They

were selected as the source of data collection for the following reasons.

1- The number of participants was expected to be fairly large.

2- They require minimal time from participants and provide a flexible and convenient way to

participate in the study.

3- Participants could be assured of a certain degree of anonymity in their responses and could

respond candidly.

Questionnaires are more efficient for gathering information on a large scale than any other

approach (Brown1995).

As can be seen in (Appendix 1) the questionnaire is divided into three sections. Each section

will be looked at separately with a brief discussion around the questions within that section.

It is significant to note that the purpose of this questionnaire is not to determine the

importance of any skill in specific. This is a foregone conclusion since all their reports are in

English. The aim is to support my needs analysis findings, and therefore help me to determine

what elements are to be included in the course which I would design later on.

2.4 (b) Participants

 In fact, engineers were the only participant group whose written documents I analyzed,

and then designed a questionnaire for. Twenty engineers were involved in the study, most of who

work in departments of their company.

Different nationalities were involved in this study. In addition to Saudis there were some

Egyptians, Pakistanis, and Indians.

18

2.4 (c) Analysis of questionnaires

Analysis of each statement is as follows;

1. How far English is important in your opinion?a. Very important b. somehow important c. no importance

96%

4%

abc

19

2. To what extent you have to communicate with people in English? a. Frequently b. occasionally c. No communication

74%

24%

2%

abc

3. With whom you have to communicate in English?a. With boss b. with colleagues c. with native customers

d. with foreign customers e. with other departments g. with all

10% 3%1%

80%

6%

abcde

20

4. Do you think that your profession requires the practice of skills, such as reading, writing, listening and speaking?

a. Yes b. no

89%

11%

ab

5. Which type of speaking skill is required in your profession?a. Formal speaking b. presentation skill c. informal

communication d. all of the above

86%

4%3%

7%

abcd

21

6. Which type of writing skill your profession requires?a. Technical writing b. business letter writing c. report writing d. above all

50%

20%

30%

10%

abcd

7. Which type of material you have to read?a. Reports b. advertisements c. manuals d. documents

e. agreement f. bills g. invoice h. delivery notes

53

27

20

7

63 2

abcdefgh

22

8. Is listening problematic for you, at any situation?a. Yes b. no c. don’t know

4%

96%

abc

9. What is the weak area in which you want to be proficient in English? a. technical vocabulary b. grammar c. pronunciation

50%

4%

36%

abc

23

10. Which time of the day is convenient for you, to attend this course?a. From 9 a.m- 11 a.m b. from 3 p.m – 5 p.m c. from 7 p.m- 9 p.m

1%

40%

59%

abc

11. Which day of the week is suitable for you, to attend this course?a. Saturday - Sunday b. Friday- Sunday c. Tuesday- Wednesday

82%

10%

6%

abc

24

12. In which methodology of teaching you will want to learn English?a. Through text books b. through discussion sessionb. through lecture delivery methodology

10%

50%

40%abc

13. In your opinion, which method of evaluation will be useful?a. Daily base assignments b. daily base class test

c. only one test at the end of the course d. only one project

e. no proper evaluation criteria

10%

20%

50%

20%

abcd

25

All the open ended questions were filled by the engineers, specific data cannot be presented but

the fact is they have helped us, to deeply analyze the current situation of our future learners.

2.4 (d) Findings from the questionnaire

The findings and analysis of the questionnaire are interpreted and presented in three main

categories as follows:

the needs, in which I will look at the engineers and their work needs;

the present level and the target level; 

the suggested type of course.

Firstly, the questionnaire established that it is necessary for engineers to write in English and

the majority of engineers considered English to be highly important in carrying out their work

successfully and efficiently. Furthermore, all the reports collected were written in English; I

would therefore like to suggest that the need for designing an ESP course to develop writing

skills for these people is imperative. The questionnaire responses clearly demonstrate that report

writing is the most common activity of engineers in communications. In the open-ended

question, engineers continually emphasized, their need to learn how express themselves in

reports. In addition most engineers stated that it is their managers to whom they write, whilst

62.5%said that this communication was of a more formal nature. This explains the necessity of

having a good level of language accuracy.

  Secondly, the questionnaire, as completed by the engineers, gave an indication of their

level of writing skills. It demonstrated that half were happy, whilst most (80%) saw themselves

as either good or very good at writing. On the other hand, the questionnaire elicited the response

that writing is the second most important skill that engineers are anxious about or need to

improve. In actual fact, if we look at this issue carefully, it could be said that although the

engineers are presently satisfied, they certainly would like the opportunity to improve their level

of accuracy. It shows that most of the engineers want to improve different accuracy skills such as

26

linking ideas, and summarizing ideas. It is important to note that within Pakistani culture it is not

acceptable for highly educated people to admit weaknesses in any skill, even if the skill is

unrelated to their field of study. Furthermore, the entire Makkays Engineers who participated in

this questionnaire said they wished to improve their writing skills. This might explain the

language variation in reports written by these engineers, where some of the reports which were

written by non -Pakistani have very accurate use of language.

Thirdly, analysis of the questionnaire has provided me useful information for designing a

course. According to the questionnaire, the majority of engineers prefer short courses between 2

and 6 weeks. The questionnaire revealed that most of the engineers edit as they write before

producing a fair copy. In other words, engineers usually have time to correct their work and

perhaps invite someone to read and comment. In this respect, I prefer to approaches in teaching

writing which I will discuss in the teaching methodology section. The process-genre approach

gives engineers an opportunity to practice writing in a real social context. It also allows learners

to exchange their written work with colleagues in order to read, improve and learn from each

other.

2.5 Authentic data analysis

To have a comprehensive analysis I intend to apply the three known language analysis

approaches. In the main, I will adopt the framework suggested by Ellis and Johnson 1994 (see

appendix1). In the next section I will demonstrate how this framework was used to analyze

extracts of the engineers work. Interestingly, these extracts highlighted the present level of the

engineers understanding of English and helped in determining their weaknesses or areas for

development. Below is the suggested framework:

27

Table 1: adaptation of framework suggested by Ellis and Johnson

 

28

2.5 (a) Collecting the authentic documents

 In order to obtain these documents, I took help of my brother engineer (Waqar Ahmad)

working for Makkays pvt .ltd. After explaining the aim of the study, he agreed to e-mail me

some extracts of engineers’ authentic written documents.

2.5(b) Report writing

In fact report writing is considered to be one of the most common activities engaged in by

engineers, especially given that there are many different types of reports for instance: inspection

or trip reports, laboratory report, and progress report (Beer,and McMurrey 1997).

  According to Beer, and McMurrey, all reports are similar in that all start with a prologue

and end with a conclusion. In fact, this is not always the case, as the reports in this study will

show. However, Beer, and McMurrey state that the bodies of different reports are likely to vary,

as demonstrated in the table below.

29

Table 2: different types of reports functions

(Beer, and McMurrey 1997).

30

2.5(c) Summary of findings from the authentic data documents

Analyzing samples of the engineer’s written work revealed that all documents collected

were written only in English, and that all these documents were reports.

The documents appeared to suffer from language problems, specifically with

organization, sentence structure, and grammar. However, these problems seem not to be so

fundamental that a short course could not help rectify them. The table on next page summaries

the most important features of these documents and will indicate the framework required for a

course of study in writing.

          For most of my investigation the collected data was complementary: some of the

information in the questionnaire supported the information emerging from the language analysis.

However, at the same time there was some contradiction between the resultant data.

31

Table 3: shows the implantation of the suggested framework by Ellis and Johnson

2.6 Limitation of the Study

Despite some of the limitations this project has, I believe the results of the study will help

in establishing the key components necessary for designing a writing course outline.

Firstly, this study looked only at the engineers needs, whilst there were other people who

should have been involved in the needs analysis. According to Brown, administrators and

teachers are two important sources for information, in addition to the target group (Brown,

1995). Unfortunately, due to word limitation in this project, other groups were not addressed.

32

Secondly, questionnaire and document analysis alone were not enough to carry out a

credible needs analysis (McDonough and McDonough, 1997). Interviews and observations

offer direct interaction with the participants, where questionnaire and language analysis do not.

Also, an analyst can clarify some detailed points through chatting with participants or observing

them (McDonough and McDonough, 1997). Geographical distance precluded me from

interviewing or observing participants in this study.

2.7 Teaching Methodology

There are three main approaches relative to the teaching of writing: the product

approach, the process approach, and the genre approach (Badger, R. and White G 2000).

2.7(a) Process Genre Approach

Since each of these approaches have their strengths and weaknesses this has led to the

development of an effective method, which engages both process and genre. This approach aims

to look at each approach and tries to adapt it for a particular situation (Key, and Dudley-Evans,

1997).

2.7(b) Principles for teaching writing

To sum up it is important to emphasize the main principles to be taken into consideration

when designing an ESP writing course:

1. Conduct a needs analysis to determine the learner’s purpose for learning the language (Nunan,

D. 1989).

2. Conduct a language analysis of authentic data e.g. reports, to determine the features of the

genre of the text required for the ESP context.

3. Decide on an approach to the teaching of writing which will suit the learners writing purpose

and text type.

33

4. Ensure that the overall activities focus on promoting the type of writing outlined in the

information gathering process.

Having finish with the first three steps towards course design I will use the outcome data to

summarize the propose course outline.

2.8 Syllabus

Hutchinson and Waters give us a list of different syllabus types. This list includes the

following syllabus types: topic syllabus, structural/situational syllabus, functional/notional

syllabus, skills syllabus, situational syllabus, functional/task-based syllabus, discourse/skills

syllabus, and skills and strategies. What these different types really are a different

organizational means for designing syllabus. So for example a topic syllabus is obviously a

syllabus that is based, or is organized along the concept of different topics. Rare, particularly the

area of general English, are the discourse/skills syllabus and the skills syllabus. This brings to the

idea that a syllabus for ESP class is necessarily going to have to have a different focus or

different organizational design than a syllabus for a general English course. In particular, since

skills are so highly stressed in ESP, one will often find a lot more skills based syllabus than one

would find in a general English course. This is important to note both for practical reasons and

also because it tells us a little bit more about the very nature of ESP as a particular type of

language learning and language teaching experience. People need everywhere need because the

vast majority of textbooks are written in English. Even if the learners study in their home

country, they still need to be able to deal with English in the form of reading. If they want to go

to an English-speaking university program, and increasingly more non-English-speaking

countries are offering courses in English only, anywhere in the world, they will have to have

academic skills geared toward English. Also, since most publications are carried out in English,

people need to be able to write textbooks, articles, and do presentations for their respective fields

in English.

34

2.9Course outline

 Having determined the engineers needs through the two research tools I have used,

namely a questionnaire and authentic data analysis, the discussion will take place around,

determining the outline for the technical writing course.

2.9(a) Aims and objectives

 As a result of the needs analysis as a whole and by combining the findings of the

documents and questionnaires, I have drawn up the following points:

The Aims of the course will be

To promote engineers ability to write different types of reports

1. Inspection reports

2. Specification reports

3. Instruction reports

The objectives of the course will be as follows:

� Recognize the organization of different report genre.

� Use appropriate grammatical structures, and functions.

� Write a full report with 80% accuracy.

� Assess each other’s writing.

� Use the appropriate technical and semi-technical vocabulary.

� Use appropriate layout and punctuation.

� Employ the process of editing and drafting.

35

� Using linking devices, where appropriate, to produce cohesive text.

� Express a variety of functions in writing.

� Promoting writing fluency

 By looking at the findings of the authentic documents analysis, it is possible to decide the

content of the course. Hence, the course content should include the most frequent functions,

structures, and lexis, and it should also specify the type of genre,

2.9(b) Content

Functions

By the end of the course the engineers should be able to:

Describe the condition of something, e.g. piece of equipment.

Give instructions or orders

Suggest actions to be taken.

Clarify actions that have been taken.

These functions, as mentioned earlier, are in themselves course objectives.

The structure

Engineers should be able to use the following structures with a fair degree of accuracy:

Present continuous

Present simple

Modals (shall, should)

Modals + passive infinitive

Simple present passive

Past simple

Simple past passive

36

The vocabulary

The course will cover technical and semi-technical vocabulary. There will be specific

vocabulary input such as areas that may be problematic or unknown to the engineers e.g.

spelling, multi-word verbs, and compound nouns.

2.10The suggested organization

          The suggested course will be a four week program running from Friday to Sunday, from

11 am to 1 pm. The course consists of 80 hours (across that period), divided into 20 hours a

week. Each day has three sections and a break. The first class will be from 10 am to 11 am, the

second class will be from 11: 00am to 12:00 pm, and the last class will be from 12:30 to 1pm.

The group number should not be more than 5 participants with at least one trainers working in

the group.

 Conclusion

This project has been concerned with ESP and the importance of a needs analysis at an

early stage of designing a course. We also looked at the different methods for gathering

information. In addition, attention focused on the teaching of writing in an ESP context, paying

special attention to the importance of teaching report writing skills. In the last section I tried to

put together all the results and findings to come up with a reliable writing course. According to a

theory developed by Lave and Wenger (1991), learning is social and involves participation in a

community of practice. According to this theory when people first join a community they are on

the outer borders of it and learn from the periphery. As they become increasingly competent they

can move towards the centre of the community. A community of practice can be described as a

group of people sharing common concerns, problems and interests and who increase their

knowledge and expertise in the area by interacting with each other (Wenger, McDermot and

Snyder, 2002). Wenger et al. give examples of such communities of practice – engineers who

design with a particular type of electronic circuit and who find it important to get together to

compare designs and soccer mums and dads who use game times to share advice about

parenting. The groups may not necessarily work together or meet on a daily basis but they do

interact because they find it useful to do so: As they (members of the group) spend time together,

37

they typically share information, insight and advice. … They may create tools, standards, generic

designs, manuals, and other documentation – or they may simply develop a tacit understanding

that they share. … Over time, they develop a unique perspective on their topic as well as a body

of common knowledge, practices and approaches. They also develop personal relationships and

established ways of interacting. (Wenger et al., 2002, p. 5)

Designed course

Course Code/Name: Eng 401 ESP for Engineers

Level: Graduate

Type of the Course: Compulsory

Objectives:

Upon successful completion of the course, the students should be able to

become familiar with the basic principles of “Paragraph Writing”

learn and practice the key concepts of paragraph writing such as Topic Sentence,  

Supporting Sentences, Concluding Sentence, Unity and Coherence

gain insight into the essential principles of “Essay Writing”

learn the key concepts of essay writing such as Subject, Purpose, Audience, Thesis

Statement, Introduction, Body, and Conclusion

gain an understanding of the Process of Writing an Essay and learn the stages of

Essay Writing

have a clear idea about technical writing including the definition, purpose and

distinctive features of Technical Writing

gain insight into  the Process of Writing a Technical Report

learn the outline of Technical Report Format

gain an understanding of presentation techniques

give a fifteen-minute presentation about a technical subject

write a report on a technical subject in compliance with format requirements

38

Components:

Strategies:

As advocated by many authors (Wenden and Rubin, 1987, Oxford, 1990, O’Malley and

Chamot, 1990, Wenden, 1998), language learning strategies of different types (cognitive,

metacognitive, social, communication, socioaffective, depending on the classification), by

raising learners’ awareness, promoting self-directed learning and exploiting both implicit and

explicit aspects of the learning process, can lead to making students better learners, have a

compensating effect for less able or less effective learners, and create necessary conditions for

learner autonomy. Resourcing, or finding, evaluating and using different lexical tools available

online, is one of the cognitive learning strategies, namely steps or operations used in learning or

problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation or synthesis of learning materials. Its

implementation in the foreign language classroom effectively changes the language testing

situation into the language teaching one, with the important role of teacher-directed strategy

training as an indispensable step towards building up a successful learner. 

Strategy training is the activity that should find its place in the foreign language classroom.

39

Demonstrating new strategies, evaluating the outcome of the activity with and without strategy

use, the observation of the activity process are all operations that add to learner awareness. Here

two approaches for strategy training can be outlined: 

1. Oxford (1990):

ask learners to do a language activity without any strategy training;

have them discuss how they did it and ask them to reflect on how the strategies they

selected may have facilitated the learning process;

suggest and demonstrate other helpful strategies and consider ways that they could

include new strategies in their learning repertoires;

allow learners ample time to practice the new strategies with language tasks;

show how the strategies can be transformed to other tasks;

provide practice using the techniques with new tasks and allow learners to make choices

about the strategies they will use to complete the task;

Help students understand how to evaluate the success of their strategy use and to gauge

their progress as more responsible and self-directed learners.

2. O’Malley and Chamot (1990):

Planning: The instructor presents students with a language task and explains the

rationale behind it. Students are then asked to plan their own approaches to the task;

choosing strategies that they think will facilitate its completion.

Monitoring: During the task, students are asked to ‘self-monitor’ their performance by

paying attention to their strategy use and checking comprehension.

Problem-solving: As they encounter difficulties, learners are expected to find their own

solutions.

Evaluation: After the task has been completed, students are then given time to ‘debrief’

the activity, e.g. evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies they used during the task.

40

To these models, Dickinson (1987) adds two main areas of preparation for strategy training,

which are to lead to self-directed learning: psychological preparation (i.e. building confidence

to work independently of the teacher) and methodological preparation (i.e. acquiring the

necessary abilities and techniques for such activities as self-evaluation). All of these need to be

addressed in teacher-directed instruction, skillfully interwoven with regular subject matter

teaching.

The awareness of the need for the implementation of strategy training along the lines outlined

above is becoming an inherent feature of English language teaching, as represented in the

attempts to include strategy training elements in ESP course books (see, for instance, New

Opportunities series by Pearson Education). Even though language learning strategies are

becoming a much better researched area, there is a particularly urgent need to formulate practical

realizations of the theoretical assumptions. Thus, specific learner training proposals, especially

ESP-related, will need to be put forward, for instant implementation in the classroom. 

References

No specific course book will be followed. Course materials are to be provided by the course

group instructor(s).

Method of Instruction

Lecture; team/class discussions; communicative/meaningful language exercises;  in- and out-

of-class reading/writing tasks; presentations; library research; online research; workshops.

Length and period: 3 hrs a day, 6 weeks in total

Teaching Staff

Fatima Gul (junior faculty members )

Sitara Ayaz (junior faculty members )

Maryam Tariq (junior faculty members )

41

Abida Parveen (junior faculty members )

Rashid Sheikh (senior faculty member)

Muhammad Tariq (senior faculty member)

Ayaz Khan (senior faculty member)

Attendance

Students are required to attend classes, practice sessions, and examinations. Minimum

required attendance is 70% for all class sessions per semester, which makes up 17 hours of

absence at most. A student who does not fulfill the requirement for attendance is not allowed

to take the final exam for the semester concerned and is to repeat the course. Students who

miss an exam will not be given a make-up exam unless they submit an approved medical

report or any other official document proving their excuse.

Code of Academic Conduct

 Cheating during the exams or presenting someone else's work as yours (plagiarism)

will not be tolerated under any circumstances. Disciplinary action will be taken against any

student who violates the code of academic conduct.

Grading

midterm exam: 25%

active participation during the classes,  attitude  toward the course, preparation for the

pre-  assigned   chapters, assignments handed in due time : 10% 

                - Delivery of presentation: 20 %           

                - Technical report writing: 20 %

                - Final exam: 25%

* Students are required to submit assignments in due time. Late submissions without a valid

excuse will be penalized.

* Each student is required to be present on the assigned day of his/her presentation. If any

absenteeism occurs, his/her presentation can only be delayed for one week, resulting in 5

point loss off the total grade allocated for the presentation.

42

OVERVIEW OF TIME TABLE

Week 1

TEACHERS

MS FATIMA MS MARYAM MS SITARA

DATE TIME10am-11am 11am-12pm 12-

12.30

12.30pm-1 pm

5 July.2013 Basic tenses Presentation skill

BREAK

Reading skills

6 July.2013 Paragraph writing

Making of slides

Reading report

7 July.2013 Report writing

Specific terms of the job

Oral fluency

WEEK 2

TEACHERS

MR. RASHID

M. AYAZ B

R

E

A

K

M. TARIQ

12 July.2013 Assessment Assessment Assessment

13 July.2013 Formal speech

Business data Technical communication

14 July.2013 Leadership training

Editorial Engineering: Tips to Take the Pain out of Writing

Creating Effective Technical Documents

WEEK 3TEACHERS

MS. ABIDA

MR. RASHID

B

R

E

A

K

MS MARYAM

19 July.2013 Assessment Assessment Assessment

20 July.2013 Mastering the Art of

Types of User Documentatio

Building the Argument of the

43

Technical n Document

21 July.2013 Critical thinking

Organizational strategies

Editing and Proofreading Strategies

WEEK4

TEACHERS

MS FATIMA MS SITARA

B

R

E

A

K

M. TARIQ

26 July.2013 Assessment Assessment Assessment

27 July.2013 The Mechanics of WritingWorking with words

Technical Writers' Workshop

Technical Writers' Workshop

28 July.2013 Methods of developmentProblems-methods-resultsEffect and causeOrder of importance

Designing Your Document

Prototyping the documentTesting for successLevels of prototypes

WEEK5

TEACHERS

MS.ABDA MS FATIMA B

R

E

A

K

M. AYAZ

2August.2013 Assessment Assessment Assessment

3 August.2013

Differentiating between “need to know” and “nice to know” information

Organizing the writing task

Writing longer reports and proposals

4 August.2013

Researching Information

Structuring Information

Grammar and Style for Technical

44

Communicators

Week 6

TEACHERS

MS SITARA

MS MARYAM

B

R

E

A

K

MS ABDA

9 August.2013

Assessment Assessment Assessment

10 August.2013

Report submission

presentation Oral communication test

11 August.2013

Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation

LESSON PLAN

Objectives

Writing Objectives for Lesson Plans Using Bloom’s Taxonomy and Associated Action or Performance Verbs

Learning level Associated action verbs

Knowledge define, describe, state, list, name, write, recall, recognize, label, underline, select, reproduce, outline, match

Comprehension identify, justify, select, indicate, illustrate, represent, name, formulate, explain, judge, contrast, classify

Application predict, select, assess, explain, choose, find, show, demonstrate, construct, compute, use, perform

Analysis analyze, identify, conclude, differentiate, select, separate, compare, contrast, justify, resolve, break down, criticize

Synthesis combine, restate, summarize, precise, argue, discuss, organize, derive, select, relate, generalize, conclude

45

Evaluation judge, evaluate, determine, recognize, support, defend, attack, criticize, identify, avoid, select, choose

Parts of a performance objective: (*This is what I expect for your objectives!*)

Objective: The students will be able to tell and record time on a digital clock and analog clock to the hour and half hour by writing the times in a story.

The students will be able to tell and record time on a digital clock and analog clock to the hour and half hour

by writing the times correctly in a story.

Audience: Standard introduction for an objective.

Hint: Focus on what the students must do not the teacher.

Hint: Must specify observable and measurable behaviors.

Condition to be met by the students in order to demonstrate that the objective has been achieved.

Hint: Describes the circumstances, situation or setting.

Objectives could include more criteria or parts

ABCDs of Writing Objectives

A-Audience: The who. "The student will be able to…" B-Behavior: What a learner is expected to be able to do or the product or result

of the doing. The behavior or product should be observable. C-Condition: The important conditions under which the performance is to occur. D-Degree: The criterion of acceptable performance. How well the learner must

46

Content- description of the subject matter to be learned.

perform in order for the performance to be considered acceptable.

Don't make writing objectives tedious, trivial, time-consuming, or mechanical. Keep them simple, unambiguous, and clearly focused as a guide to learning. The purpose of objectives is not to restrict spontaneity or constrain the vision of education in the discipline; but to ensure that learning is focused clearly enough that both students and teacher know what is going on.

MATERAILS

1.HOW DO YOU LEARN BEST

47

2.THE SECRET OF SUCCESS

48

49

3.READING IN ENGLISH IS A WASTE OF TIME !

50

51

4.SAFETY IN NUMBERS

52

53

Chart no.1

54

Chart no. 2. Tenses in the active voice

SIMPLE PRESENTPRESENT CONTINUOUS

PRESENT PERFECT

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Meaning 1: Habitual, regular action in the present.Time expressions:usually; every day; often; sometimes; rarely; never.Examples: I usually work till seven o'clock. I often talk to him on the phone. He visits them sometimes.Meaning 2: Stating a fact, general truth, state or condition.Examples: He lives in Moscow and works at a bank. He plays the piano quite well. Her house is very small. The sun rises in the east.

Meaning 1: The action is going on right now.Time expressions: now; right now; at the moment.Examples: You are reading this material now. I'm writing a letter at the moment. Look! Anton is playing the piano.Meaning 2: The action is going on at the present period of time (but not at the moment of speaking).Time expressions: now; at present; today; this year.Examples: She is writing a new novel now. He is studying German this year.

Meaning 1: The action has just ended.Time expressions:already; just; yet.Examples: He has already done it. I have just seen him.Meaning 2: Reporting how things have developed by now.Time expressions: by now; so far; never; ever; several times.Examples: So far, he has read five books. He has never been there.Meaning 3: The action has lasted for some time by now.Time expressions: for a year; since; lately.Example: He has lived here since 1995.

Meaning 1: The action has lasted for some time by now and is still going on.Time expressions: for an hour; for a week; for five years; all day; since.Examples: He has been sleeping for two hours already. She has been working as a teacher since she graduated from college. How long have you been waiting here?Meaning 2: The action has been going on lately.Examples: All of them have been working very hard lately. I have been thinking about starting my own business.

Note: Simple present

Note: Present continuous can replace the simple

Note: Present perfect may replace the present perfect

Note: Present perfect continuous in

55

Appendix 1

This survey demeanor by students of International Islamic University Islamabad, Faculty of English Language and Literature, to scrutinize English Language in pragmatic fields. A project of English for Specific Purpose (ESP), to seek that how far English Language is imperative in the professional life of Engineers.

56

Name: ______________________

Age: ___________ Gender: __________

Education: ___________________________ Profession: ________________________

Working Experience: _____________________ Contact No_______________________

Working Institution: _______________________________________

14. How far English is important in your opinion?b. Very important b. somehow important c. no importance

15. To what extent you have to communicate with people in English? b. Frequently b. occasionally c. No communication

16. With whom you have to communicate in English?b. With boss b. with colleagues c. with native customers

d. with foreign customers e. with other departments g. with all

17. Do you think that your profession requires the practice of skills, such as reading, writing, listening and speaking?

b. Yes b. no

18. Which type of speaking skill is required in your profession?b. Formalspeaking b. presentation skill c. informal communication

d. all of the above

19. Which type of writing skill your profession requires?

57

b. Technical writing b. business letter writing c. report writing d. above all

20. Which type of material you have to read?b. Reports b. advertisements c. manuals d. documents

e. agreement f. bills g. invoice h. delivery notes

21. Is listening problematic for you, at any situation?b. Yes b. no don’t know

22. What is the weak area in which you want to be proficient in English? b. technical vocabulary b. grammar c. pronunciation

23. Which time of the day is convenient for you, to attend this course?b. From 9 a.m- 11 a.m b. from 3 p.m – 5 p.m c. from 7 p.m- 9 p.m

24. Which day of the week is suitable for you, to attend this course?b. Saturday - Sunday b. Friday- Sunday c. Tuesday- Wednesday

25. In which methodology of teaching you will want to learn English?c. Through text books b. through discussion session

c. through lecture delivery methodology

26. In your opinion, which method of evaluation will be useful?b. Daily base assignments b. daily base class test

c. only one test at the end of the course d. only one project

e. no proper evaluation criteria

27. Why are you attending this course?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

58

28. What are your future expectations, after attending this course?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

29. Do you think fluency in English language can improve your status, at current job?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

30. Any suggestion you think that could be beneficial to improve our designed course?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Date:

59

Appendix 2

60

Bibliography

http://www.esp.engineering.utoronto.ca/about.htm

http://www.crdhe.saga-u.ac.jp/SJHE_No.07_Fellner.pdf

http://research.ncl.ac.uk/ARECLS/vol2_documents/Saeed/saeed.htm

http://www.crdhe.saga-u.ac.jp/SJHE_No.07_Fellner.pdf

http://www.engineeringchallenges.org/cms/7126/7356.aspx

http://www.ineer.org/events/icee2003/proceedings/pdf/4068.pdf

http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/research/20071005_06_fooyin_keynote/

20071005_06_fooyin_keynote_slides_fin.pdf

http://e-flt.nus.edu.sg/v6n22009/kaewpet.pdf

http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/research/20071005_06_fooyin_keynote/

20071005_06_fooyin_keynote_slides_fin.pdf

http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/majed/Documents/alharby_majid_200505_phd.pdf

http://www.udveksling.com/ESP2006/ESP2006Week5

http://www.academia.edu/556034/

NEEDS_ANALYSIS_AS_A_STARTING_POINT_FOR_DESIGNING_A_SYLLABUS_FOR_

ENGLISH_FOR_SPECIFIC_PURPOSES_COURSES

http://www.languageinindia.com/aug2010/nawazespcourse.pdf

61

http://www.etlc.ntust.edu.tw/data/110625/100.03.17_%E5%B0%88%E6%A5%AD%E8%8B

%B1%E8%AA%9E%E6%96%87%E5%B8%AB%E8%B3%87%E5%9F

%B9%E8%A8%93(02).pdf

http://www.palgrave.com/PDFs/9780230227989.pdf

http://web-app.usc.edu/soc/syllabus/20102/27208.pdf

http://www.asian-esp-journal.com/August-2011-ck.php

http://eng401.cankaya.edu.tr/course.php?page=Term%20Project

http://eng401.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/PARAGRAPH%20AND%20ESSAY

%20WRITING.pdf

http://www.google.com.pk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=esp%20course%20design%20for

%20engineers&source=web&cd=8&cad=rja&ved=0CGYQFjAH&url=http%3A%2F

%2Fetlc.wtuc.edu.tw%2Fnews_download

%2F20110321_01.ppt&ei=D3GMUb_lFMnotQaL8ICADQ&usg=AFQjCNHB6mQMUhv01Lm

95BDfzU9pm9YCww&bvm=bv.46340616,d.bGE

http://www.asme.org/kb/topics/writing

http://www.asme.org/kb/news---articles/articles/business-writing/mastering-the-art-of-technical-

communication-(1)

http://www.hurleywrite.com/onsite_technical.html

http://extension.berkeley.edu/catalog/course327.html

http://www.eeaust.com.au/Writing-Winning-Technical-Documents.html

http://www.rgilearning.com/

http://www.learningtree.com/courses/319/technical-writing-comprehensive-introduction/

http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Technical_writing

http://www.cs.tufts.edu/~nr/tw/

62

http://www.esp-world.info/Articles_23/manuscript.%20ESP%20World.pdf

http://acceda.ulpgc.es/bitstream/10553/7067/1/0233536_00015_0003.pdf

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ856605&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ856605

http://www.asian-esp-journal.com/Volume-8-2.pdf

http://www.sdutsj.edus.si/ScriptaManent/2007_1/Krajka.html

http://www.esp-world.info/Articles_37/hussain_liton_ESP_Teachers'_training.pdf

http://www.uwinnipeg.ca/index/elp-esp

http://usefulenglish.ru/grammar/tenses-summary-charts

http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verb-tenses_sys-tenses-be.html

http://www.skillsyouneed.com/presentation-skills.html#ixzz2T4E6hMwq

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.29.6458&rep=rep1&type=pdf

http://quizlet.com/8775815/software-engineering-vocabulary-flash-cards/

http://quizlet.com/8775815/software-engineering-vocabulary-flash-cards/

http://www.tefl.net/esl-lesson-plans/esl-worksheets-tp.htm

http://www.uams.edu/oed/teaching/objectives.htm

63