O sulaiman 1f

INTRODUCTION

Green house gas (GHG) pollution is linkedto energy source. Large amount of pollutionaffecting air quality is prone by reckless industrialdevelopment. For years, many think that everythingthat run into the trio of nature, the atmosphere, oceanand soil is infinite. The atmosphere and the oceanthat is providing source of freshening, winds andcurrent are far more vulnerable to polluting activitiesfrom manmade energy sources that have run offinto them too many poisons that the air, the oceanand land may cease to serve more purpose if careis not taking to prevent pollution affluence. Humanactivities are altering the atmosphere, and theplanet is warming. It is now clear that the costs ofinaction are far greater than the costs of action.Aversion of catastrophic impacts can be achievedby moving rapidly to transform the global energysystem.

Biosciences, Biotechnology Research Asia Vol. 7(2), 559-578 (2010)

Potential of biomass cogeneration marine system powering

O.O. SULAIMAN¹, A.H. SAHARUDDIN¹, A.S.A. KADER¹ and K.B. SAMO²

¹Department of Maritime Technology, University Malaysia Terengganu, (Malaysia).²Department of Marine Technology, University Teknologi Malaysia (Malaysia).

(Received: September 10, 2010; Accepted: October 22, 2010)

ABSTRACT

Waste disposal from ships is becoming an increasing problem in today’s society. Thusvarious ways are being promoted to minimize, re-use and recycle waste streams there will alwaysbe residual wastes in a safe and beneficial way. The classification of fuels derived from wastesources as sustainable is controversial especially when it is linked to carbon cycle and food. Theprocessing of these waste types, by various means, to provide fuels for electricity and heatgeneration, and transportation fuels, can provide many environmental advantages in term ofenergy production that lead to vast reduction in the waste stream, production of valuable byproducts,waste land reduction and the killing of the pathogens and bacteria that cause disease. Theprocess can be more sustainable by using hybrid cogeneration biomass system for marinesystem. This paper will consider how enormous waste from ship and port and discuss potential ofhybrid biomass cogeneration for marine system for port powering.

Keywords: Alternative energy, sustainability, hybrid, port, power, energy energy,bio-derived, waste, recycle, environment, assessment, marine.

Sustainability requirement that can besolved through energy conservation (cf. IPCC2007:13) are energy and associated efficiency,Development, environment, poverty. Stakeholderfrom government's consumers, industrytransportation, buildings, product designs(equipment networks and infrastructures) mustparticipate in the decision work for sustainablesystem. Recently the marine industry is getting thefollowing compliance pressure regardingenvironmental issues related to emission to airunder IMO MARPOL Annex VI. A world without portmeans a lot to economy transfer of goods,availability of ships and many things. Large volumeof hinterland transportation activities import tells alot about intolerant to air quality in port area.Adopting new energy system will make a lot ofdifference large number of people residing andworking in the port. Most port facilities are poweredby diesel plant. Integrating hybrid of hydrogen and

560 Sulaiman et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 7(2), 559-578 (2010)

solar into the existing system will be a good way forthe port community to adapt to new emerging cleanenergy concept1,2.

The search for new source of energy tomitigate threat of climate change is becoming anurgent matter. New knowledge and technologyhave emerged. and race is on for the choice of thebest. Ports of the world collect massive waste fromthe ship and oil platform. There is no drain in thisplanet; the waste got nowhere to go, but to returnback to the system with consequentialenvironmental damage, contamination of rivers,estuarine and the ocean and landfill and associateddegradation as well as cost treatment. The greatestchallenge for humanity lies in recycling waste forproduction of energy.

Sources of alternative energy are natural.There has been a lot of research about the use offree fall energy from the sun to the use of reverseelectrolysis to produce fuel cell. For one reason orthe other these sources of energy are noteconomical to produce. Most of the problems lie onefficiency and storage capability. Early humancivilization use nature facilities of soil, inlandwaterways, waterpower which are renewable forvarious human needs. Modern technologyeventually replaces renewable nature with nonrenewable sources which requires more energyand produces more waste. Energy, Economic andEfficiency (EEE) have been the main driving forceto technological advancement in shipping.Environmental problem linkage to source of energyposes need and challenge for new energy source.The paper discuss risk based iterative andintegrative sustainability balancing work requiredbetween the 4 Es in order to enhance andincorporate use of right hybrid combination ofalternative energy source (Biomass, solar andhydrogen) with existing energy source (steam dieselor steam) to meet marine system energy demands(port powering).

Hybrid use of alternative source of energyremains the next in line for the port and ship power.Public acceptability of hybrid energy will continueto grow especially if awareness is drawn to riskcost benefit analysis result from energy sourcecomparison and visual reality simulation of the

system for effectiveness to curb climate changecontributing factor, price of oil, reducing treat ofdepletion of global oil reserve. Malaysia tropicalclimate with reasonable sunlight fall promise usageof source of sun hybrid candidate energy, alsohydrolysis from various components to produce fuelcell and hybridization with conventional system andcombined extraction of heat from entire systemseem very promising to deliver the requirement forfuture energy for ports.

This paper discuss available marineenvironmental issues, source of energy today,evolution of alternative energy due to the needs ofthe time and the barrier of storage requirement,system matching of hybrid design feasibility,regulations consideration and environmentalstewardship. The paper also discusses holisticassessment requirement, stochastic evaluation,using system based doctrine, recycling andintegrated approach to produce energy. With hopeto contribute to the ongoing strives towardsreducing green house gases, ozone gas depletionagents and depletion of oxygen for safety of theplanet in order to sustain it for the right of futuregeneration.

Energy, environment and sustainabledevelopment

Since the discovery of fire, and theharnessing of animal power, mankind has capturedand used energy in various forms for differentpurposes. This include the use of animal fortransportation, use of fire, fuelled by wood, biomass,waste for cooking, heating, the melting of metals,windmills, waterwheels and animals to producemechanical work. Extensive reliance on energystarted during industrial revolution. For years therehas been increased understanding of theenvironmental effects of burning fossil fuels hasled to stringent international agreements, policiesand legislation regarding the control of the harmfulemissions related to their use. Despite thisknowledge, global energy consumption continuesto increase due to rapid population growth andincreased global industrialization. In order to meetthe emission target, various measures must betaken, greater awareness of energy efficiencyamong domestic and industrial users throughoutthe world will be required, and domestic,

561Sulaiman et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 7(2), 559-578 (2010)

commercial and industrial buildings, industrialprocesses, and vehicles will need to be designedto keep energy use at a minimum. Fig. 1 shows thatthe use of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) accountedcontinue to increase]. Fig. 2 shows the contributionof total energy consumption in the by global regionand Fig. 3 show natural gas consumption2, 3.

methods and fuels for heating and transport mustbe developed and used. Sustainable design canbe described as system work that which enhancesecological, social and economic well being, bothnow and in the future. The global requirement forsustainable energy provision is becomeincreasingly important over the next fifty years asthe environmental effects of fossil fuel use becomeapparent. As new and renewable energy supplytechnologies become more cost effective andattractive, a greater level of both small scale andlarge scale deployment of these technologies willbecome evident. Currently there is increasing globalenergy use of potential alternative energy supplysystem options, complex integration and switchingfor design requirement for sustainable, reliable andefficient system. The issues surrounding integrationof renewable energy supplies need to beconsidered carefully.

Current use of renewable energyMost renewable energy development and

supply are in small-scale, particularly on islandsand in remote areas, where the import of energysources through transport, pipeline or electricity gridis difficult or expensive. Individual buildings,industries and farms are also looking to thepossibility of energy self-sufficiency to reduce fuelbills, and make good use of waste materials whichare becoming increasingly difficult and expensiveto dispose various studies have been carried outinto the extensive use of new and renewableresources, to generate electricity, on a small scale,for rural communities, grid-isolated islands andindividual farms. Recent studies focus on:i. Security of supply: where consideration is

given to intermittent sources, demand andsupply must be as well matched as possible,and this is generally a function of climate.Available supply sources should beconsidered in order to find the best possiblecorrelation between demand and supply.

ii. Hybrid with conventional system: whereenergy limited sources used as spinningreserve for times when the intermittent supplydoes not meet the demand. If this type ofspinning reserve is not available, the needfor adequate electricity storage was shownto be an important consideration, especiallyin smaller scale projects.

Fig. 1: GHG Emissions Reductions through2050, by Consuming Sector

Fig. 2: World consumption of energy by region

Fig. 3: World consumption of natural gas EIA, 2007

Various measures must be taken to reduceemission targets. The current reliance on fossil fuelsfor electricity generation, heating and transportmust be greatly reduced, and alternative generation


Emerging renewable energy systemIn order to provide a reliable electricity

supply, reduce energy wastage, and enable theenergy requirements for heat and transport to bemet, the outputs of these intermittent sources maybe supplemented by various means. These mayinclude the use of storage devices and the use ofbiomass and waste materials in engines, turbinesand fuel cells for the production of electricity andheat, in vehicles for transportation, or in heatingsupply or storage systems. The integration andcontrol strategies for all of these components mustbe carefully considered and implemented, and thiscomplexity has been seen as a barrier torenewable energy system deployment. There aremany possible supply combinations that can beemployed, and the optimum combination for agiven area depends on many factors. The balancesbeing considered can be complex, and thishighlights the need for a decision supportframework through which the relative merits ofmany different scenarios and control strategiesfor a chosen area can be quickly and easilyanalyzed4,5.

The intermittent nature of most easilyexploited sources of alternative energy remains themajor problem for the supply the electricity network.This has implications for the management of thistransitional period as the balance between supplyand demand must be maintained as efficiently andreliably as possible while the system moves towardsthe ultimate goal of a 100% renewable energysupply over the next fifty to one hundred years. Itimportant to take the of amount intermittent electricitysources that can be integrated into a larger-scaleelectricity supply network into consideration.

Excess supply could be supplied by plantrun on fuels derived from biomass and waste. Therenewable hybrid age require utilities, localauthorities and other decision makers to be ableto optimization that beat constraints, potentials,and other energy requirements from portpowering. When intermittent electricity generatingsources are used in a sustainable energy supplysystem, it is important to consider how well theprofiles of demand and supply of electricity match.It is advisable to seek the best possible match byusing varying amounts of a range of different

intermittent sources. It is prudent to use as diversea mix of generators as possible.

Where substantial amounts of intermittentsources are used in a system, it is useful to have anoutlet for excess electricity, in order to avoid wastage.The electricity stored, using various means,depending on the scale of storage required can beavailable for use at times when there is not enoughbeing generated to meet demand. The sizing andtype of storage system required depends on therelationship between the supply and demandprofiles. For excess amount electricity produced thiscould be used to make hydrogen via the electrolysisof water. This hydrogen could then be stored, usedin heaters or converted back into electricity via afuel cell later as required. Using excess electricity,this hydrogen could be produced centrally andpiped to for port or produced at vehicle filling stationsfor haulage, or at individual facilities in the port6,7.

Energy consumption, demand and supplyEnergy is considered essential for

economic development, Malaysia has takenaggressive step in recent year to face challengesof the world of tomorrow, and this includes researchactivities strategic partnership. One example ispartnership with the Japanese Government forconstruction on sustainable energy power stationin the Port Klang power station, Pasir Gudang powerstation, Terengganu Hydro-electric power stationand Batang Ai Hydro-electric power station whichare main supply to major Malysian port. The aboveenumerated power stations are constructed withenergy-efficient and resource-efficienttechnologies. Where power station are upgradedthe power station by demolishing the existing aging,inefficient and high emission conventional naturalgas/oil-fired plant (360MW) and installing new750MW high efficiency and environment friendlycombined cycle gas fired power plant built at amountof JPY 102.9 billion. Table 1 shows Malaysia energyand environmental data from EIA, and Table 2shows energy outlook for Malaysia.

The combined-cycle generation plant isestimated to reduce the power station'senvironmental impact, raise generation efficiencyand make the system more stable. The total capacityof power generation of 1,500MW is equal to 14% of


total capacity of Tenaga National Berhad TNB inpeninsula of 10,835MW and indeed this powerstation is one of the best thermal power stationswith highest generation efficiency in Malaysia ofmore than 55%. The rehabilitation, the emissionsof Nitride oxide (NOx) is reduced by 60%, Sulfurdioxide (SO2) per unit is reduced by almost 100%

and Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission is reduced by30%. Port operation energy demands are fortransportation, hot water and heat. This thirdgeneration plan can easily be integrated withalternative energy. Table 1 and 2 show Malaysiaenergy and environment outlook And Fig. 4 showMalaysia energy consumption.

Table 1: Malaysia environmental review [EIA]

Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide 163.5 million Metric tons, of which Oil (44%),Emissions (2006E) Natural Gas (41%), Coal (15%)Per-Capita, Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide 6.7 Metric tonsEmissions ((Metric Tons of Carbon Dioxide) (2006E)Carbon Dioxide Intensity (2006E) 0.6 Metric tons per thousand $2000-PPP**96.0

billion kilowatt hours

Table 2: Malaysia Energy outlook [EIA, 2006]

Proven Oil Reservoir (January 2009) 4 Billion Barrels

Oil production (2008) 727, 2000 bbl/d, of which 84% is crudeoil

Oil consumption (2008) 547,000 bbl/dCrude oil ldistilation capacity (January 2009) 514,832 bbl/dProven natural reserve (2007) 83 trillion cubic feetNatural gas production (2007) 2.3 trillion cubic feetNatural gas consumption (2007) 1.2 trillion cubic feetRecoverable coal reserves (2008) 4.4 million short tonsCoal production (2007) 1.1 million short tonsCoal consumption (2007) 18.5 million short tonsElectricity Installed Capacity (2006E) 23.3 gigawattsElectricity Production (2006E) 99.1 billion kilowatt hoursTotal Energy Consumption (2006E) 2.56 quadrillion Btu*, of which Natural

Gas (35%), Oil (41%), Coal (15%),Hydroelectricity (2%)

Energy Intensity (2006E) 99.4 million Btu per personTotal Per Capita Energy Consumption ((Million Btu) (2006E) 8,891 Btu per $2000-PPP**

Fig. 2 shows the statistic of energy use inMalaysia. The energy use in all sectors hasincreased in recent years, most especially theenergy use for transport has almost doubled itcontinues to grow and becoming problem. This trendis being experienced in industrialized anddeveloping world

Energy demand for port work is supply fromgrids which are well established in most developedworld. The method and sitting of generatingconventional energy and renewable energydetermine system configuration. Hierarchy systemsthat can be deduced from these two variables are:i. Limited capacity energy: This includes

traditional thermal plants coal fired, gas fired,oilfired and nuclear power plants, which


supply almost all of the electricity to thenational grid. The amount of electricity thatcan be generated is limited by the physicalcapacity of the plant, time for maintenanceand unplanned outages.

ii. Limited energy plant: they are RenewableEnergy Generators plant that are limited bythe amount of energy or fuel available tothem at a certain time from a certain area(e.g. rainfall, waste, seasonal energy cropyields) and cannot always run at their ratedcapacity.

iii. Intermittent energy plant: recent year hasseen increased hybrid generators. Growingdistributed renewable generating plants hasimplications for the organization of theelectricity supply network. Interconnectivitynetwork of electrical system configuration.For centralized system it is better to haveminor generators throughout the networkthat will allow many smaller areas of thatnetwork to become mainly self sufficient, withthe grid stand as backup.

Fossil fuel use for transportation and portactivities has increased dramatically over the pastdecade, and shows little signs of abating. This hascaused concern about related environmental andhealth effects. There is need to develop alternativelyfuel system that produces little or no pollution. Themain fuels that can be used in a variety of land, seaand air vehicles are biogas in natural gas and fuelcell vehicles, biodiesel in diesel vehicles, ethanoland methanol in adapted petrol and fuel cell. Biogascan be converted to run on natural gas and in somefuel cell. It must be cleaned first to create a highheating value gas (around 95% methane, aminimum of heavy gases, and no water or otherparticles).

Fuel cell powered engine can run on purehydrogen, producing clean water as the onlyemission. Biodiesel can be used directly in a dieselengine with little or no modifications, and burnsmuch more cleanly and thoroughly than diesel,giving a substantial reduction in unburnedhydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulatematter. The main barriers to the implementation ofalternative fuels is the requirement for a choice offuel at a national level, the necessity to create asuitable refuelling infrastructure, the length of timeit will take to replace or convert existing vehicles,and the need for a strong public incentive tochange3,7,8.

Biomass demand and supplyRecent year has witnessed emerging

trade on biofuel product between the US, EU, andAsia. Particularly South America, Brazil has alreadybeen branded to be producing en-mass ethanolfrom sugar cane since the 1970s with a cost perunit reportedly the lowest in the world. The topimporters from US, EU, Japan and Korea haveincreasing demand that will have to be satisfied byincreased shipping capacity. Also seabornevegetable oil supply is increasingly growing. TheEU imports 5.7 mt in 2001 and rise to 10.3 mt for2008, an almost 50% of total capacity. Fig. 2 showstatistic of present food related biofuel, this reflectfuture food scarcity. Fig. 1 shows the present globalpercentage of consumption for ethanol. Brazilexports the most ethanol globally at about 2.9million tonnes per year7,9.

Fig. 4: Malaysia Natural gar productionand consumption trend,

Fig. 5: Malaysia Natural electricityconsumption (EIA, 2007)


BioenergyThe 21st century is becoming age of

recycling where a lots of emphasize is placed onreducing waste and reuse of material to curb currentenvironmental problems, maximizing use ofdepleting natural resources and conserve energy.Modern day sustainable use and management ofresource recommend incorporating recyclingculture in human ways and the use of modestprocess. Biomass is not left behind in this. The useof biomass energy resource derived from thecarbonaceous waste of various natural and humanactivities to produce electricity is becoming popular.

Table 1: World ethanol consumption 2007 [EIA]

Region Consumption

World ethanol 51 million tones, 2007consumptionUS and brazil 68%EU and China 17% - surplus of 0.1

million tonesUS deficit 1.7mtEU deficit 1.3 mtWorld deficit 1mt

Table 2: Biofuel growth [NREL]

Biofuel source Growth in 2008 Gowth per annum

Vegetable oil 33 mt in 2000 to 59 mt 7.5%Palm oil 13 mt in 2000 to 32 mt 8.9%Soya bean 7 mt to some 11.5 mt 39%

Biomass is considered one of the clean, moreefficient and stable means of power generation.Enormous waste being generated from marinesystem make it imperative for marine industry totap this new evolving green technology to employmobile based micro generation biomass for mobilefor marine energy system.

Advantage of biomass compared to otherrenewable based energy systems is that biomasscan generate electricity with the same type ofequipment and power plants that burn fossil fuels.Innovations in power generation of fossil fuels mayalso be adaptable to the use of biomass fuels. Alsothe ashes from biomass consumption, which arevery low in heavy metals, can be recycled. Variousfactors notably have hindered the growth of therenewable energy resource, especially efficiency,likewise most biomass power plants operating todayare characterized by low boiler and thermal plantefficiencies. Both the fuel’s characteristics and thesmall size of most facilities contribute to theseefficiencies. In addition, such plants are costly tobuild. All in all, converting waste into fuel isbeneficial even without a energy gain, if that wastewill otherwise pollute the environment. Biomass has

low sulfur content, this give biomass combustionadvantage of less acidification than fossil fuelsource.

Biomass remains potential renewableenergy contributor to net reduction in greenhousegas emissions and offsetting of CO

2 from fossilgeneration. The current method of generatingbiomass power is biomass fired boilers and Rankinesteam turbines, recent research work in developingsustainable and economic biomass focus on high-pressure supercritical steam cycles. It usesfeedstock supply system, and conversion ofbiomass to a low or medium Btu gas that can befired in combustion turbine cycles. It result inefficiencies of one-and-a-half times that of a simplesteam turbine. Biofuels has potential to influencemarine industry, and it as become importance forship designers and ship owners to accept theirinfluence on the world fleet of the future. Especiallythe micro generation concept with co generationfor cargo and fuel can be a good biomass systemfor ship. And the waste being dumped by ships inport can be use to power land based and coastalinfrastructure.


This paper discuss review of conceptualwork, trend, sociopolitical driver, economic,development, risk approach and future of biomasswith hope to bring awareness to local, national andmultinational bodies making to adopt biofuelspolicies. The maritime industry is always slow toadopt new technology. The paper direct awarenesscall to maritime multidisciplinary expertise inregulation, economics, engineering, vessel designand operation to break the nity gritty barrier. Timehas come for the shipping industry to takeadvantage of growing tide to tap benefit promisedby use of waste to power generation for marinesystem.

Biomass developmental trendThe concept of using of biofuels for energy

generation has been existing for a long time. In theface of challenges posed by environmental need,the treat of climate change, pollution of waterresources, and its growth is likely to dominaterenewable energy market. The production and useof biofuels worldwide has grown significantly inrecent years. Biofuels exist in solid, liquid or gasform, thereby potentially affecting three main coreenergy markets of materials. Solid biofuels orbiomass is used in external combustion. Table 3shows trend in biomass development. Biomass usein the shipping industry is limited to liquid biofuel

Industry Progress

UK on June 2007 First train to run on biodiesel went into service for a six month trial period. The trainuses a blended fuel, which is Central. 20% biodiesel hybrid mix augmentationpossibility to at least a 50% mix. It has future possibility to run trains on fuelsentirely from non-carbon sources.

Argent Energy (UK) UK buses running on B100 was launched A UK pilot project where buses are runon 26th of October on B100 Argent Energy (UK) Limited is working together with Stage coach to2007 supply biodiesel made by recycling and processing animal fat and used cooking

oil for marine system. Limited is working together with Stagecoach to supplybiodiesel made by recycling and processing animal fat and use of cooking oil forthe pilot project.

Ohio Transit Authority Successfully tested a 20% blend of biodiesel (B20) in its buses wich eventually(COTA) on leads to approval of fleet wise use of biodiesel. In April 2006. COTA is working toJanuary 15, 2006 use 50-90% biodiesel blends (B50 - B90) during the summer months.US DOE development Funded five new advanced biomass gasification research and a A projection forprojects in 2001 regular decrease of diesel fuel consumption by over one million gallons per year.(Vermont project)Ford on 2008, Announce £1 billion research project to convert more of its vehicles to new biofuelsources.BP Australia Sold over 100 million liters of 10% ethanol content fuel to Australian motorists,

and Brazil sells both 22% ethanol petrol nationwide and 100% ethanol to over 4million cars.

The Swedish Several Swedish universities, companies, and utilities, In 2008,Collaboration toNational Board for accelerate the demonstration of the gas turbine natural-gas firing plant (0.6Industrial & Technical megawatts of power output for a simple gas /.turbine cycle). It is a trend that isDevelopment in gathering momentum.Stockholm‘AES Corporation Recently completed a successful trial to convert the plant to burn a mixture of coal

and biomass. With further investment in the technology, nearly half of NorthernIreland’s 2012 renewable target could be met from AES Kilroot alone.

For power stations, B&W have orders in the EU for 45 MW of two-stroke biofuel engines with a thermalefficiency of 51-52%. Specifically, these operate on palm oil of varying quality.


due to lack of appropriate information, economicsforecasts, sources of solid biomass include by-products from the timber industry, agricultural crops,raw material from the forest, major parts ofhousehold waste, and demolition wood. All thingsbeing Table 3: Biomass development trend equalusing pure biomass that does not affect human andecological food chain is suitable energy source forbiomass.

The current world biofuels market isfocused on: Bioethanol blended into fossil motorgasoline (petrol) or used directly and biodiesel orFatty Acid Methyl Ester diesel blended into fossildiesel. The Fischer-Tropsch model involvescatalyzed chemical reaction to produce a syntheticpetroleum substitute, typically from coal, natural gasor biomass. It is used to runs diesel engines andsome aircraft engines. The use as synthetic biofuellubrication oil or aid synthetic fuel from waste seemspromising and negates risk posed by food basedbiomass. Oil product and chemical tankers beingconstructed now are likely to benefit from the use ofbiomass. However use on gasoline engines ignitesthe vapors at much higher temperatures poselimitation to inland water craft as more oxide ofnitrogen can be released to the atmosphere10, 11.

Biomass developmental trend spillage toshipping

Just like tanker revolution influence onship type, demand for biomass will bring capacity,bio - material change from source to productionarea to the point of use. Technological,environmental change will also require ships ofdifferent configuration, size and tank coating typeas well as impact on the tonne mile demand.Recently biofuel is driving a new technologyworldwide; the use of biofuels for cars and publicvehicles has grown significantly. Effect on shippingis likely to be followed by shipping of large scalegrowth on exports and seaborne trade of biomassproduct from key exporting regions in order tobalance supply and demand. With excess capacitywaiting for source material it seems inevitable thatshipping demand will increase.

Classification of biomassAccording to generation types

Biomass generation and growing trend

can be classified into 3 generation types:

First generation biofuels, are made fromfood like from sugar or starch, vegetable oil oranimal fats to produce biodiesel.

Second generation biofuels, are wastederived biomass from agricultural and forestry, fast-growing grasses and trees specially grown as so-called "energy crops".

Third generation biofuels, use greenfuels like algae biofuel made from energy andbiomass crops that have been designed in such away that their s tructure or properties conform tothe requirements of a particular bioconversionprocess.

According to sources typesNorth American Electric Reliability

Council (NERC) region supply has classifiedbiofuel into the following four types: agriculturalresidues, energy crops, forestry residues, andurban wood waste and mill residues. A briefdescription of each type of biomass is providedbelow:i. Agricultural residues from the remaining

stalks and biomass material left on theground can be collected and used for energygeneration purposes this include residuesof wheat straw

ii. Energy crops are produced solely orprimarily for use as feedstocks in energygeneration processes. Energy cropsincludes hybrid, switch grass grown on idled,or in pasture. The most important agriculturalcommodity crops being planted in theUnited States are corn, wheat, and soybeansrepresent about 70 percent of total croplandharvested. Thus, this is not encouraged toprevent food scarcity.

iii. Forestry residues are composed of loggingresidues, rough rotten salvageable deadwood, and excess small pole trees.

iv. Urban wood, waste and mill residues arewaste woods from manufacturing operationsthat would otherwise be landfilled. The urbanwood waste and mill residue categoryincludes primary mill residues and urbanwood such as pallets, construction waste,


and demolition debris, which are nototherwise useful.

Biomass for electricity generation is treated in fourways in NEMS:i. new dedicated biomass or biomass

gasification,ii. existing and new plants that co-fire biomass

with coal,iii. existing plants that combust biomass directly

in an open-loop process, andiv. biomass use in industrial cogeneration

applications. Existing biomass plants areaccounted for using information such as on-line years, efficiencies, heat rates, andretirement dates, obtained through EIAsurveys of the electricity generation sector.

Choice of conventional power systemInternal Combustion and Diesel Engines

Two common load following generationtechnologies involve the use of diesel incompression ignition engines (diesel engines), andnatural gas in internal combustion engines (ICEs).Both of these engine types may also be run onsustainable fuels derived from biomass and waste,with diesel engines running on biodiesel, pyrolysisoil, or vegetable oil, and ICEs running on biogas,ethanol or methanol and this requires little or nomodification. Diesel engine generating sets withrated outputs from 50 kWe to 10 MWe, and ICEgenerating sets with rated outputs of between 100kWe and 2 MWe are available. Fig. 6 shows dieselengine retrofit option towards reducing emission.Typically in the order of 2:1, and electricalefficiencies at full load are around 25 to 30%, againvarying with partial load. Fig. 6 shows a typicalinternal combustion engine

Steam TurbinesSteam turbines may be used for larger

applications (between 1 and 1000 MW). These usean external boiler to raise steam, which may befuelled by any type of solid, liquid or gaseous fueldesired. This steam is then expanded across turbineblades to produce rotary motion, and, when coupledwith a generator, electricity]. Again, waste heat maybe recovered for use. Fig. 7 shows typical staemengine system Electrical efficiencies at full load canrange from 15 to 50%, depending on the complexity

of design. This means that heat to electricity ratioscan vary from 1:1 to 5:1. This generation method isparticularly suited to the use of large quantities ofsolid waste or biomass, provided suitable boilersare used, though start-up times are slow.

Stirling EnginesA Stirling engine is an external combustion

engine, where combustion of the fuel does not takeplace inside the engine, but in an external boiler.Mechanical work is derived from the pressurechanges that result from the cyclic heating andcooling of an enclosed working gas. Heat from anysource may be used to run a Stirling engine,including concentrated solar rays, and waste heatbut only fuelled Stirling engines will be consideredhere. This type of engine has many advantagesover other engines and turbines as it allows theuse of fuels that are hard to process, and it has afairly simple design, which makes it suitable forsmall-scale applications, gives the plant a lowercapital cost and reduces maintenance costs.Interest in Stirling engines is beginning to re-emergedue to increased interest in biofuel use. Currentlyavailable Stirling engine generating set outputsvary from 1 kWe to 200kWe, although larger enginesare feasible. Fig. 8 shows typical gas turbineengine.

Gas TurbinesGas turbines may be run on biogas, and

are available with rated outputs of between 3 and50MWe. Their operation is based on the BraytonCycle, where incoming air is compressed to a highpressure, fuel added to the air is burned to increasethe gas temperature and pressure, and the resultinggases are expanded across the turbine blades,giving rotational movement. Coupled to a generator,this provides electricity generation, and waste heatmay also be recovered for use. Fig. 8 shows a typicalgas turbine engine operation system.

Choice of cogeneration alternative energyFuel Cells

The principle of the fuel cell wasdiscovered over 150 years ago. NASA has improvedthe system in their emission free operation forspacecraft. Recent years has also seenimprovement in vehicles, stationary and portableapplications. As a result of this increased interest,


stationary power plants from 200W to 2 MW arenow commercially available, with efficienciesranging from 30 to 50% and heat to electricityratios from 0.5:1 to 2:1. Fuel cell re load followerenergy, the efficiency of a fuel cell typicallyincreases at lower loadings. Fuel cell systemalso has fast response. This make them wellsui ted to load fol lowing and transportapplications. Fuel cell is advanced alternativeenergy technology with electrochemicalconversion of fuel directly into electricity withoutintermediate stage, the combustion of fuel;hence by-pass the restriction of second law ofthermodynamic .the basic fuel supply in the fuelcell systems is hydrogen and carbon dioxide.The former has to be produced and feed in largequantity as pure hydrogen. Hydrogen is the

and it is completely cyclic as it can be readilycombined and decompose9,10,11. Table 3 showstypes of electrolyte source for fuel cell energy.

2H2->4e- +4H+ ...(1)

4h+ +4e- +O2->2H20 ...(2)

2H2+02 -> 2H20 +Heat ...(3)

promising and economical source thatguarantee future replacement of fossil fuel.However efficiency maximization of fuel cell powerplant remains important issue that needsconsideration for its commercialization. As a resultthe following are important consideration forefficient fuel cell power plant efficiency calculationcan be done through the following formula fi9shows a typical fuel cell power system:

CnF

GE g= ...(4)

G= H*T *Si ...(5)

Where: Ec=EMF, G =Gibbs functionnF=Number of Faraday transfer in the reaction, H=Enthalpy, T=Absolute temperature, S=Entropychange i=Ideal efficiency

Advantages of fuel cell include size, weigh,

Fig. 6: Typical steam plant unit system

Fig. 7: Steam engine system

lightest chemical element as demonstrated bythe periodic table. Thus ,other lighter gas gasesexist that can be use as fuel cell, but hydrogenoffer greater energy per unit weight compare toother element candidate for alternative energy,

Fig. 8: Typical gas turbine engine

flexibility, efficiency, safety, topography, cleanliness.Mostly use as catalyst in PAFC, and howeverrecovery of platinum from worn -out cell can reducethe cost and market of the use of PACF economical.It has cost advantage over conventional fossil fuelenergy and alternative energy. Disadvantages offuel cell are adaptation, training, and cost of


disposal. Fuel cell has found application intransportation, commercial facility, residentialfaculty, space craft and battery. Fig. 9 shows a typicalarrangement fuel cell hybrid power configuration.

Solar energy systemHistory and human existent has proved

that the sun is the source of all existing energy onearth. From plant photosynthesis to formation ofbiomass earth fossil fuel including oil and coal, tothe generation of wind and hydrogen power, thesun has his mark on almost every planetary system.For decades, people have worked to generaterenewable and cost saving solar energy. But littlehas been achieved to get a lot out f its abundantsupply of sun light. Harnessing energy from sunrequire production, distribution, control andconsumer utilization at low cost. Risk work for thesystem should address the back drop and hybridsystem alternative energy system that can beinstalling as auxiliary for synchronization throughautomatic control system that activate storagesupply whenever supply is approaching theminimum setup limit. Prior to installing solar, it isimportant to collect, analyze data and informationto determined initial condition necessary to startthe project and come with acceptable design. Suchdata should be use for simulation and constructionof prototype model of the system that includeexisting system, central receiver, collectors, powerconversion, control system, sunlight storage, solar

radiation to supply a solar system to convert sunlightto electricity and distribute through existing channel.

Sola collector can be plate or dish type.Stefan‘ law relates the radiated power totemperature and types of surface:

4PT

Tεσ= ...(6)

Where P/A is the power in watts radiatedper square meter, ε is surface emissivity,

σ

isStefan-Boltzmann constant= 5.67x10e8 W/

2m

. 4K

The maximum intensity point of the spectrum ofemitted radiation is given by:

max

2898

( )T Kλ = ...(7)

Hybrid systemWith a focus on developing applications

for clean, renewable, non-fossil fuel, energysystems. Our final emphasis is on maritime relatedactivities, however, as marine engineers we aredevoted to promoting all types of alternative &sustainable energy technologies.Various types ofengine, turbine and fuel cell may be run on a varietyof fuels for combined heat and power production.Hybrid system can provide control over powerneeds, green and sustainable energy that deliversa price that is acceptable and competitive. Thepower plants can be located where it is needed

Table 3: Type of electrolyte fuel cell

Types Electrolyte Operatingtemperature

Alkaline Potassium 50-200hydroxide

polymer Polymer 50-100membrane

Direct Polymer 50-200methanol membranePhosphoric Phosphoric 160-210acid acidMolten Lithium and 600-800carbonate potassium carbonateSolid oxide Ceramic compose 500-1000

of calciumFig. 9: Fuel cell hybrid configuration


less high power lines are required, not only reducingcosts but assisting health by reducing magneticfields that people are so worried about, Globalwarming is addressed d by direct action by providingpower that does not release any emissions ordischarges of any kind. The technology associatedwith the design, manufacture and operation ofmarine equipment is changing rapidly. Thetraditional manner in which regulatory requirementsfor marine electrical power supply systems havedeveloped, based largely on incidents and failures,is no longer acceptable. Fig. 10 show a typical hybridpower arrangement for solar hydrogen andconventional power. Fifure 11,12 and 13 can behybrid to the same sstem to provide integratedalternative energy power

Current international requirements formarine electrical power supply equipment andmachinery such as engines, turbines and batterieshave evolved over decades and their applicability tonew technologies and operating regimes is now beingquestioned by organizations responsible for theregulation of safety and reliability of ships7, 11.

Various technologies have beenemployed towards the use of alternative free energyof the sun since the first discovery in the 18thcentury. Improvement and and development hasbeen made towards making it available for use likeexisting reigning source of energy. Major equipmentand hardware for the hybrid configuration are:i. Semiconductor solar with high efficient

storage capability designedii. Hybrid backup power design based on

integrative capability to other alternativepower source like wind and hydrogen

iii. Controller design for power synchronizationwill be designed and prototyped

iv. Inverter and other power conversion unitswill be selected based on power needs

v. Solar collector or receiver with high efficiencycollection capacity designed

vi. Software development and simulationvii. Steam used as energy transfer medium

The power plants can be built in smallunits combined, which allow greater control overthe output and maintains full operational output100% of the time. The plant produces fewer

emissions, the plant can be located close to theareas where the power is required cutting down onthe need for expensive high power lines. Excessenergy produced can be connected to the grid underpower purchase arrangement.

The system can be built in independentpower configuration and user will be free fromsupply cut out. In a typical off-grid scenario a largebattery bank is required to store energy. Solarhydrogen hybrid energy is stored in the form ofhydrogen gas. When it is dark out, instead ofdrawing energy from a battery bank, hydrogen gasis converted into electricity through a fuel-cell.Likewise, during the day when there is plenty ofenergy from the sun, water is converted intohydrogen gas through the use of a hydrogengenerator. Most electrical power systems are acombination of small units of power group to providethe larger output.

Hybrid system design should begin withproblem definition of providing a port with power,follow by refining the design so that each individualunits power output could be combined to providethe input for a larger unit and ensure efficient, effectoperation, maintenance. The hybrid system should

Fig. 10: Hybrid configuration


be able to provide more power that can keep thestress and strain of operation to a minimum andreduces the failure of the component parts. Thesystem should be designed with built in redundancyto compensate for failure of a component. Thesystem has advantage of maintenance that can becarries out while keeping the system delivering thefull capacity as well as alternation of deliverydevices to extend their operational life. Fig. 11.

One of the unique features of hybridsystem is the sustainable, clean energy system thatuses a hydrogen storage system as opposed totraditional battery. Its design construction andfunctionality are inspired by the theme ofregeneration and the philosophy of reuse. Highefficiency solar panels works with an electrolyserto generate the hydrogen for fuel cell. The systemcan universal solar energy for marine applicationand other energy application as needed in equalcapacity to existing fossil power plants.

The hybrid system can provide means toby- pass and overcome limitation posed by pastwork in generating replaceable natural energy ofthe sun and other renewable energy source thatcan be designed in hybrid system. Reliabledeployment of hybrid system developments ofmathematical model follow by prototyping,experimentation and simulation of the system arekey to the design and its implementation. The mainadvantages of hybrid configurations are:Redundancy and modularity, high reliability ofhybrid circuitry embedded control system, improveemergency energy switching and transfer, lowoperating cost through integrated design, lowenvironmental impacts due to nature of the energysource. System optimization with combined heatand alternative power production technologies:i. The Production and Storage of Heatii. Space Heating Storage Heatersiii. Hot Water Storage

Fig. 11: Biogas hybrid

Fig. 12: Fuel cell hybrid


iv. Instantaneous Space and Water Heatersv. Uses for Excess Electricityvi. Electricity Storage Devices

Time has gone when maritime industrycould not afford nitty gritty in adopting newtechnology, other industry are already on a fast trackpreparing themselves technically for evitablechanges driven by environmental problem, globalenergy demands and political debate that addpressures to find alternative energy especially bioenergy. The implication is that shipping could becaught ill prepared for any rapid change in demandor supply of biofuel. Thus this technology is in the

early stages of development but the shippingindustry need to be prepared for the impacts of itsbreakthrough because shipping will eventually berequired at the centre of this supply and demandlogistics chain. System integration hybridization ofold and new system offers advantage for requirechange. Fig. 15 and show the regional projectionfor biofuel usage and demand for the US andEurope which are the current main user in future.

Potential impacts to marine systemImpact to marine system

The use of biofuels as a fuel has increasedin most transportation sectors. Adopting this

Fig. 13: Typical hybrid system (USMMA, 2008)

technology in marine industry is still slow despiteflexibility offered by use of energy on ship compareto mass requirement for land based industry andambient temperature performance for aviationindustry. Cost remain one of the main driver, slowspeed diesel engines can run on lower quality fuels,they can replace distillate marine oils associatedtechnical difficult. Calorific energy value for mainpropulsion could also result in a reduced servicespeed, range or larger bunker tanks. Major benefitof using environmental friendly engine is illustratedin Fig. 16. Fig. 14: Typical solar collector control system


Potential for port coastal and port infrastructureA variety of methods could turn an age-

old natural resource into a new and efficient meansof generating electricity. Biomass in large amountsis available in many areas, and is being consideredas a fuel source for future generation of electricity.Biomass is bulky, widely distributed and electricityfrom conventional, centralized power plantsrequires an extensive distribution network.Traditionally power is generated throughcentralized, conventional power plant, wherebiomass is transported to the central plant. Typicallya steam or gas turbine power plant and the electricityis then distributed through the grid to the end users.Costs include fuel transportation, power plantconstruction, maintenance operation, anddistribution of the electric power, including lossesin transmission. This is system is ideal for coastaland port infrastructure marine system powering.Table 4 shows efficiency comparison between coaland biomass.

Potential for ship and offshore systemMicro-biomass power generators seem to

offer a path for new solution for energy at end userdisposal. Recent development towards use ofmicro biomass can offer best practice adaptationfor marine unitized biomass power. Such biomasscan be used near the site of end-use, with heatfrom external combustion converted directly toelectricity by a biomass fired free-piston genset.Costs of installation include fuel acquisition andmaintenance of the genset and burner. Since theelectricity is used on site, both transmission lossesand distribution costs are minimal. Thus, in areaswithout existing infrastructure to transmit power,there are no additional costs. It is also possible tocogenerate using the rejected heat for space or hotwater heating, or absorption cooling. This is idealfor ship and offshore system. Fig. 17 shows typicalprime mover arrangement for ship

Micro-biomass power generation is a moreadvantageous and cost-effective means ofproviding power than centralised biomass powergeneration. Especially in area where there is a needfor both power and heating. Domestic hot water,space heat and absorption chilling are attractivefor cogeneration configurations of microbiofuelplant. Biomass can be generated using single organged free-piston Stirling engines gensets. Theycan be placed at the end-user location takingadvantage of local fuel prices and do not require adistribution grid. They can directly provide electricaloutput with integral linear alternators, or wherepower requirements are larger they can beconnected in series and parallel to drive a

Fig. 15: Bio energy usage projection [DOE, 2008]

conventional rotary turbine. They are hermeticallysealed and offer long lives through their non-contactoperation12,13.

Emissions offsets and waste reductioncould help enhance the appeal of biomass toutilities. An important consideration for the futureuse of biomass-fired power plants is the treatmentof biomass flue gases. Biomass combustion fluegases have high moisture content. When the fluegas is cooled to a temperature below the dew point,water vapor starts to condense. By using flue-gascondensation, sensible and latent heat can berecovered for district heating or other heatconsuming processes. This increases the heatgeneration from a cogeneration plant by more than

Fig. 16: Benefit of usingenvironmental friendly engine


30 percent. Fuel-gas condensation not onlyrecovers heat but also captures dust and hazardouspollutants from flue gases at the same time. Mostdioxins, chlorine, mercury, and dust are removed,and sulfur oxides are separated out to some extent.

steam engines, with low efficiency and limited life,can offer the end user economic electric power.Free-piston Stirling micro biomass engine are aneconomic alternative. Stirling offers the followingadvantages over significantly larger systems:i. Stirling machines have reasonable overall

efficiencies at moderate heater headtemperatures (~600ƒC)

ii. cogeneration is simpleiii. large amounts of capital do not have to be

raised to build a single evaluation plant withits associated technical and economic risks

iv. A large fraction of the value of the enginealternator can be reused at the end of its life

v. Stirling systems can be ganged with multipleunits operating in parallel.

Biodiesel machinery design, installation,operation and maontaonace requirements are:

Fuel managementFuel management is complex in this new

era because fuel aging and oxidation can lead tohigh acid number, high viscosity, the formation ofgums and sediments. Supply chain supply of biofuelto ship can be done through pre-mixed to the

Table 4: Efficiency comparison [EIA]

Electrical efficiency Capacity

Biomass thermal efficiency-40 % $2,000 perkilowatt

Coal 45 % $1,500 perkilowatt,

Another feature of flue gas condensation is waterrecovery, which helps solve the problem of waterconsumption in evaporative gas turbines.

Biomass is a substantial opportunity togenerate micro-biomass electric power, at powerlevels from fractions of kilowatts through to tens orhundreds of kilowatts, at the point of end use.Neither small internal combustion engines, whichcannot use biomass directly, nor reciprocating

Fig. 17: Typical prime mover arrangement on board ship


required blend. Here the biofuel and diesel aresupplied separately to the ship, and then mixed onboard. This gives the operator the chance to dictatethe exact blend of biofuels depending on conditions.But that would require retrofitting or new technologyto be installed on board together with additionalcomplexity for the crew. It is also important to monitorthe fuel acid number value to ensure that no rancid,acidic fuel is introduced to the injection system. Atypical layout should involve separators to ensurethat water is removed from the fuel, as well asheaters at various stages to ensure the fuel is at thecorrect temperature before they enter engine.

Temperature monitoring systemTechnical problem that need to be further

mitigated is the CFPP indication of low temperatureoperability of range between 0°C and 15°C fordifferent types of biodiesels. This can causeproblems with filter clogging, this can only beovercome by carefully monitoring of the fuel tanktemperatures. This can affect ships operating in coldclimates, where additional tank heating coils andheating may be required to avoid this fromhappening.

Corrosion controlBiodiesels are hygroscopic and require

to be maintained at 1200-1500 ppm water, whichcan cause significant corrosion damage to fuelinjection systems. Mitigation can be exercisethrough appropriate fuel conditioning prior toinjection. Biodiesels. Injector fouling especiallythe blend type produces deposits due topresence of fatty acid and water in the fuel. Thiscan result to increased corrosion of the injectorsystem. Also viscous glycerides can contributeto further injector coking. Biodiesel due to itschemical properties degrades, softens or seepsthrough some gaskets and seals with prolongedexposure. Biodiesels are knows to be goodsolvents and therefore cause coating complexity.Reports of aggressiveness of biodiesel andbioethanol on tank coatings have been reported.In its pure form biodiesel, as a methyl ester, isless aggressive to epoxy coatings than ethanol.Therefore ethanol should be carried in tankscoated with dedicated tank coatings such aphenolic epoxy or zinc silicate tank coatings.

LubricationBiofuel lubricant may have impact on

engine crankcase cleanliness and the potentialconsequences of fuel dilution. The dropletcharacteristics and lower volatility of biodieselcompared with conventional diesel, together withspray pattern and wall impingement in the moderndiesel engines, can help noncombusted biodieselpast the piston rings. And also to make contact withthe cylinder liner and be scrapped down into the oilsump. The unburnt biodiesel tends to remain in thesump and the level of contamination mayprogressively build up over time. This can result inreduced lubricant viscosity and higher risk ofcomponent wear. A serious concern is the possibilitythat the unburnt biodiesel entering the oil sumpmay be oxidised, thus promoting oil thickening andrequiring greater oil changes.

Impact to shippingIt is clear that biomass will fuel freight

increase as well asspecialized new design ofchemical tankers. Biodiesel is an IMO 2 cargo, itsvegetable oil feedstocks are IMO cargoes withdouble hull IMO 3 vessel configuration required.Ethanol typically transports in chemical tankersdue to its cargo requirement but technologicalchange break through could bring potentialregulatory design change. Flexibility for shipconversion and retrofitting system could upset initialcost problem.

Port, Inland waterways and coastal vesselThere is potential for us of biodiesels for

small craft that operate within inland water becauseof air and water pollution sensitivity associated withinland water transportation. The port facilities inMalaysia and Indonesia are already being

Table 5: Regional impact [EIA]

Biofuel Demand

North Ethanol 33 millionAmerica tonsEurope ethanol and 30 million

biodiesel.: 50:50 tonsAsia ethanol and 18 million

biodiesel.: 50:50 tons


improved to handle Handysize and Panamaxtankers. There is also potential requirement fortransshipment and supply vessel, supply chain forshort sea service.

Cargo3rd generation biofuels wil required to be

processed from solid cargoes to liquid cargoes. Ofthe wood currently harvested, 30% is waste. This isnot going to be a waste in the future and will beconverted by a Fischer Tropsch biomass to liquidprocessing plant. For coastal shipping to handlethis trade, there wil be need for new generation of5,000 tonne deadweight dry cargo vessels. It isexpected that these voyages will be regulated underthe new Dry Bulk Cargo Code (BC Code). This isdue to become mandatory in 2011.

Shipping Routes and Economics ImpactsThe above trend analysis discussed

indicate potential capacity requirement fromshipping. so far North America, Europe and SouthEast Asia are the key importing regions where thisgrowth is concentrated. Latin American counties ofBrazil, Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay andSoutheast Asia’s Indonesia and Malaysia willremain key suppliers for the palm oil, Philippinesand Papua New Guinea have potentials forvegetable oil and agricultural while Thailand haspotential for sugarcane.

Regulatory framework impactIn many parts of the world, environmental

concerns are the leading political driver for biofuels.This driving force evolved regulation like Kyotoprotocoal, Marpol Annex VI and other environmentalregulation. The tonne mile demand for future tankers

will be greatly affected by national, regional, globalpolicy and political decision making. There is agreater flexibility in the sourcing of biofuels thanthere is in hydrocarbon energy sources and thismay be attractive to particular governments. Oncethe regulatory framework is clear, economics willdetermine how the regulations will best be met andseaborne trade will be at the centre of the outcome.

CONCLUSION

The main challenge to use of biomass forpower generation, therefore, is to develop more-efficient, lower-cost systems. Advanced biomass-based systems for power generation require fuelupgrading, combustion cycle improvement, andbetter flue-gas treatment. Future biomass basedpower generation technologies need to providesuperior environmental protection at lower cost bycombining sophisticated biomass preparation,combustion, and conversion processes with postcombustion cleanup. Such systems include fluidizedcombustion, biomass integrated gasification, andbiomass externally fired gas turbines. Ships lifecycle is around 20- 25, for ship owners to make themost of the upcoming markets, it is necessary to beprepared for the new cargoes. Current ship designsmay not be suited for biofuel ships. Therefore thereis potential for pressure on organizations to adoptnew standards to accommodate the demand drivenby governmental legislation. This in itself has somerisk involved, also the trade routes could createeconomy of large scale leading to larger shipproduction and sub sequential requirement fromdesigner .Other evolving challenges to secureenergy and environment are fuel cell technology,nuclear, natural gas and fuels made from waste.

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2. M. K. Mann and P. L. Spath, "A Comparisonof the Environmental Consequences ofPower from Biomass, Coal, and Natural Gas".Presentation at 3. the Energy Analysis

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