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Psykologiens Historie og Genstandsområde 2008 Forelæsning 8. Charles Darwin. Francis Galton. William James. William James 1842-1910. Henry James. Emanuel Swedenborg. William James 1842-1910. William James 1842-1910. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Psykologiens Historie og Genstandsområde 2008
Forelæsning 8
Charles Darwin
1. KONTINUITET - lægger grunden til den komparative psykologi 2. VARIATION - lægger grunden til de individuelle forskelles psykologi (differentialpsykologi) 3. FUNKTION - lægger grunden til den funktionelle psykologi, herunder behaviorismen
Francis Galton
1. KONTINUITET - lægger grunden til den komparative psykologi 2. VARIATION - lægger grunden til de individuelle forskelles psykologi (differentialpsykologi) 3. FUNKTION - lægger grunden til den funktionelle psykologi, herunder behaviorismen
William James
1. KONTINUITET - lægger grunden til den komparative psykologi 2. VARIATION - lægger grunden til de individuelle forskelles psykologi (differentialpsykologi) 3. FUNKTION - lægger grunden til den funktionelle psykologi, herunder behaviorismen
William James1842-1910
Henry James
William James1842-1910 Emanuel
Swedenborg
William James1842-1910
I suffer not only from ”insomnia, digestive disorders, eye troubles, weakness of the back and sometimes deep depression of spirits”, but ocassionally from ”a horrible fear of my own existence.”
Med Louis Aggasiz til Brasilien.
Jubii, evolution og darwinisme i
praksis!
James med Louis Aggasiz til Brasilien.
Det er døden!
James besøger fysiologerne og psykologerne i Tyskland.
James begynder at undervise i den nye psykologi på Harvard.
James skriver kontrakt om lærebog.
Efter megen pres fra forlæggeren ud-kommer bogen i 1890 - 12 år senere.
Den forkortede udgave udkommer i 1892, og herefter gider James ikke længere være psykolog.
I hate psychology that nasty
little science!
”The thought of psycho-physical and altogether of
brass-instrumental and algebraic-formula
psychology fills me with horror!”
”This method taxes patience to the utmost, and hardly could have arisen in
a country whose natives could be bored.”
W. James: Principles of Psychology 1890/1950 p. 192-193.
”Such Germans as Weber, Fechner…and
Wundt …”
” …obviously cannot.”
James ville i stedet være filosof.
The Metaphysical Club,
Harvard University
1878
Charles Sanders Peirce
1839-1914
In my article, How to make our Ideas clear, in 1878, I said: ”Consider what effect, which might conceivably have practical bearing, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then our conception of those effects is the whole of our conceptions of the object.”
I am impressed!
Now listen to me everybody!
Sigh!
”’The true’, to put it very briefly, is only the expedient in the way of our behaving, just as ’the right’ is only the expedient in the way of our behaving.”
FUNKTION
”It is very generally admitted…that consciousness grows the more complex and intense the
higher we rise in the animal kingdom. That of a man must
exceed that of an oyster. From this point of view it
seems an organ, superadded to the other organs which maintain the animal in the
struggle for existence; and the presumption…is that it helps
him in some way in the struggle, just as they do.”
FUNKTION
”The pursuance of future ends and the choice of
means for their attainment are thus the
mark and criterion of the presence of mentality in
a phenomenon.”
FUNKTION
Konsumtion
4
Håndtering
3
Sporing
21
Søgen
Objekt sominformation.
Objekt somGENSTAND.
Objekt somværdi.
Objekt somintention.
”The kind of psychology which could cure a case of melancholy, or charm a chronic insane delusion away, ought certainly to be preferred to the most seraphic insight into the nature of the soul.”
Det lyder fornuftigt!
Jo, men så skal jeg finde en nørd, jeg kan lokke til at overtage mit professorat i psykologi ved Harvard.
Tag en tysker, du, det er godt
råd!
Hugo Münsterberg1863-1916
Det lykkedes.
I have “twenty-seven rooms overspun with electric wires and filled with chronoscopes and
kymographs and tachistoscopes and ergographs and a mechanic busy at his work.”
”Det er mere naturligt at drikke
vandet end at analysere dets
elementer i laboratoriet.”
Selvfølgelig er det det!
Men så blev også Münsterberg grebet af amerikansk pragmatisme.
Münsterberg opfinder kriminalpsykologiMünsterberg opfinder pædagogisk psykologi
Classroom
Münsterberg opfinder terapeutisk psykologi Münsterberg opfinder arbejdspsykologi
Münsterberg opfinder organisationspsykologiMünsterberg opfinder jobpsykologi
Piet Hein
”Psychologists in the sweat of their browsstudy what everyone knows.”
Hugo Münsterberg opfinder herefter i Amerika helt alene DEN ANVENDTE PSYKOLOGI. Og får en sørgelig skæbne.
(Herom se Powerpointpræsentationen General psychology 10)
JAMES
William James’ hus i Harvard
What’s the matter, son?
Drinking?Fornicating?
Not paying rent?
UHUU, UHUU, UHUU, UHUU.
My landlady is going to throw me out from my room.
JAMES
William James’ hus i Harvard
She says I can’t keep chicken in
my room!
I see.
But why do you want to keep
chicken in your lodgings, son?
Edward, sir.
Yes, well, Edward. Are you a country
boy, Edward?
It is nothing like that, sir. I need the chicken for
my learning experiments.
JAMES
William James’ hus i Harvard
Learning experiments?Yes, I want to become
a psychologist like you, professor James.
I see.Look here, Edward, if everything else fails….….you can run your chicken in the basement
of my house.
That should please my children!
Gee thanks, professor
James!Yes, well, just be sure to remember
what I have taught, Edward.
I shall, professor
James!
Edward Lee Thorndike1874-1949
Thorndike
Thorndike
TRIAL AND ERROR
Edward Lee Thorndike1874-1949
Edward Lee Thorndike1874-1949
ØVELSESLOVEN
LAW OF EXERCISE
”Any response to a situation will, other things being equal, be more strongly connected with that situation and to the average vigor and duration of the connections.”
William James Habit eller Vane.
Edward Lee Thorndike1874-1949
EFFEKTLOVENLAW OF EFFECT
Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; [fortsættes]
William James selektion af det funktionelle
Those which are accompanied or closely followed with discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to recur.”
Edward Lee Thorndike1874-1949
William James selektion af det funktionelle
”Pleasure stamps in, pain stamps out!”
Edward Lee Thorndike1874-1949
”I was wrong!”
1929
Edward Lee Thorndike1874-1949
”I learned that somewhat similar experiments on animals had been performed in America, and indeed
not by physiologists but by psychologists…and now I must acknowledge that the honour of
having made the first steps along this path belongs to E.L. Thorndike.
By two or three years his experiments proceeded ours.”
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov1849 – 1936
Nobelprisen 1904
Stimulus1.
Respons2.
Naturlig refleks
Naturlig refleks
HVAD LAVER DU???
Naturlig refleks
Aha!
Naturlig stimulus
Naturlig respons
Sagen uvedkommende
stimulus
Naturlig stimulus
Naturlig respons
Betinget stimulus
Betinget respons
KLASSISK BETINGNING
Signalindlæring
KLASSISK BETINGNING
G.T. FechnerElemente derPsycho-physik
1860
DING-DING-DING-DING-DING-DING
G.T. FechnerElemente derPsycho-physik
1860DING-DING-DING-DING-DING-DING
G.T
.
Fech
ner
Elem
ente
der
Psyc
ho-
phys
ik
1860
ReinforceringForstærkningEkstinktionUdslukningSpontan genopdukkenInhibition ogdisinhibition
Sensorisk diskriminationEksperimentel neurose
KLASSISK BETINGNING
Sensorisk generalisering
ThorndikePavlov
ER IKKE ENS!
Skal erstatte en stimulus med en andenSTIMULUS SUBSTITITION
Skal undslippe indespærring v. AKTIV HANDLING
ThorndikePavlov
Skal erstatte en stimulus med en andenSTIMULUS SUBSTITITION
Skal undslippe indespærring v. AKTIV HANDLING
Skinner
RESPONDENT OPERANT
Klassisk betinging
Instrumentel betinging
ThorndikePavlov
Skal erstatte en stimulus med en andenSTIMULUS SUBSTITITION
Skal undslippe indespærring v. AKTIV HANDLING
Skinner
RESPONDENT OPERANT
Klassisk betinging
Instrumentel betinging
Modtage Serve
ModtageServe
Konsumtion
4
Håndtering
3
Sporing
21
Søgen
Objekt sominformation.
Objekt somGENSTAND.
Objekt somværdi.
Objekt somintention.
H.S. Jennings
J. Loeb
Jacques Loeb
1859-1924
Uddannet i Tyskland som forstmand med en særlig interesse for plantefysiologi. Begyndte studier af primitive dyrs bevægelser i Würzburg på en Romanes-agtig måde.
Efter sit møde med Ernst Machs Analysis of Sensation (:science is ”consisting of the completest possible presentment of facts with the least expenditure of thought.”)bliver det Loebs mål at finde det simpleste princip for at kontrollere adfærd.
Solens stråler påvirker cellernes kemiske processer, således
at plantevævsaktiviteten er kraftigst, hvor lyspåvirkningen er kraftigst, hvilket betyder
at planten ’strækker sig’ mod sollyset.
Denne fysio-kemiske bevægemåde kaldes en TROPISME.
I dette tilfælde en HELIOTROPISME.
Tropismer navngives efter den stimulus, der afstedkommer reaktionen, og deles i positive og negative
Jacques Loeb
Loeb mente, at den samme fysisk-kemiske tropisme-mekanisme kunne forklare dyrenes bevægelsemåde.Med disse dyr gik det vel meget godt:
Men hvad med dem her. Og det var dem, slaget stod om.
Det vil sige, TAXIS
Jacques Loeb
Loeb mente imidlertid, at tropismen kunne forklare al adfærd.”The tropism theory might include human conduct also.” (1919)Dette kan kaldes ’The Mechanistic Conception of Life’ – titlen på Loebs bog fra 1912 – bemærk årstallet.
Jacques Loeb
Aristotle
Alt levende: Indtage næring, vokse og formere sig. Dyr: Stedbevægelse og perception.
Højere dyr: Fore- stillingsbilleder, drømme, erindring
og fantasi.
Mennesker: Fornuft, sprog og evnen til at leve i samfund.
Alle levende væsener skal grundlæggende forstås som PLANTER
hyldest til Loeb som ”prophet of the new movement”:
”Starting in 1888, he set his face against anthropomorphism and teleology and began the attempt to describe all behavior in physical and chemical terms.”
(Fraenkell & Gunn, 1961, p. 6)
Loeb mente imidlertid, at tropismen kunne forklare al adfærd.”The tropism theory might include human conduct also.” (1919)Dette kan kaldes ’The Mechanistic Conception of Life’ – titlen på Loebs bog fra 1912 – bemærk årstallet.
Loeb kom til University of Chicago i 1891, hvor han bl.a. fik Dewey og Mead som kolleger.
Jacques Loeb
Herbert Spencer Jennings
1868-1947
Jennings var søn af en Darwin-entusiastisk farmer-doctor og begyndte at studere hvirvelløse dyrs fysiologi og adfærd, først på Harvard (hvor hans lærer var Loeb-fan), senere i Chicago, hvor Dewey gjorde stort indtryk på ham.Sit post-doctorale arbejde udførte han i Jena i Tyskland under datidens berømte ekspert i primitive dyr, Verworn.
Vi skal bemærke ham for to vigtige ting:1. Identifikationen af det psykiske i selve adfærden.
2. Afvisningen af, at adfærd kan reduceres til stimulus-response alene.
Jennings’ interesse var at finde det elementære livsgrundlag for det psykiske.
”the psychological processes in the realm of the protista are the bridge which connects the chemical processes of inorganic nature with the mental life of the highest animals… the development of the human psyche begins with those very psychological processes found in the protista, since the human egg has essentially the same status as a single cellular organism.”
Behavior of the Lower Organisms 1906:
Konsumtion
4Håndtering
3Sporing
21Søgen
Objekt sominformation
.
Objekt somGENSTAND.
Objekt som
værdi.
Objekt somintention.
Behavior of the Lower Organism 1906:
”The writer is thoroughly convinced, after long study of the behavior of this organism, that if Amoeba were a large animal, so as to come within the everyday experience of human beings, its behavior would at once call forth the attribution to it of states of pleasure and pain, of hunger, desire, and the like, on precisely the same basis as we attribute these things to the dog.””In conducting objective investigations we train ourselves to suppress this impression, but thorough investigation tend to restore it stronger than at first.”
Konsumtion
4Håndtering
3Sporing
21Søgen
Objekt sominformation
.
Objekt somGENSTAND.
Objekt som
værdi.
Objekt somintention.
The behavior of the lower organisms, 1906:
"A first and essential point for the understanding of behavior is that activity occurs in organisms without present external stimulation. The normal condition of the Paramecium is an active one, with its cilia in rapid movement; it is only under special conditions that it can be brought partly to rest... The organism is activity, and its activities may be spontaneous, so far as the present stimuli are concerned."
Konsumtion
4Håndtering
3Sporing
21Søgen
Objekt sominformation
.
Objekt somGENSTAND.
Objekt som
værdi.
Objekt somintention.
”…the truth of matter is I have never been able to read Jennings through; his whole criticism of the tropism theory seemed so strange to me that I always lost patience whenever I began to read, and turned the pages aside; and when finally Mast began to write I stopped reading them altogether.”
*
* brev til T.H. Morgan, genetikeren der opfandt brugen af bananfluer.
Nå, ja. Skidt med Jennings. I praksis var det jo nok mig, der vandt.Det var mig, der fik John!!!
John B. Watson 1878-1958
White trash sydstatsfamilie.Moderen stærkt religiøs, faderen voldsmand, drikkebror, skørtejæger og døgenigt.Juvenile delinquent – drikkeri, racistiske slagsmål – skyderi.
I was ”lazy, insurbordinate, vicious and violent. A poor
student, constantly in trouble with both school and civic
autorities.”
Mønsterbryder og snyder til sig college.I 1915 – 37 år gammel bliver Watson valgt til præsident for the American Psychological Association.
John B. Watson 1878-1958
Hans collegelærer koster ham et ekstra år og skaffer ham ind på University of Chicago, hvor han får John Dewey som lærer.
Ham forstod jeg ikke et kuk af!
Men også Jacques Loeb.
Han var god. Ham ville jeg lave
en Phd hos!
Afhandling 1903: Animal Education. The Psychical Development of the White rat.Dyreeksperimenter med aber, høns, hunde katte, frøer, fisk og terner.
”I never wanted to use human
subjects… I always was uncomfortable
and acted unnaturally. With animals I was at
home.”
Jeg lavede en mini-kopi af den berømte labyrint i Hampton Court og lod mine
rotter lære den.
Det kunne de sagtens. Men hvordan bar de
sig ad? Hvilke sanser brugte de?
Først blindede jeg dem.Men de kunne stadig finde
vej. Så det var ikke synet, som de brugte.
Jeg brugte extirpationsmetoden,
som er en slags udelukkelsesmetode.
Så stoppede jeg deres ører til.
Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke hørelsen, som de brugte.
Så klippede jeg deres knurhår af.
Så klippede jeg deres knurhår af.
Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke den taktile følesans, som de brugte.
Så skar jeg næsen af dem.
Så skar jeg næsen af dem.
Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke
lugtesansen, som de brugte.
Så klippede jeg benene af dem.
Så klippede jeg benene af dem.NU KUNNE DE IKKE FINDE VEJ!
Jeg havde hermed bevist, at rotterne brugte muskelsansen til
at finde vej!
Den lærer er ikke til at stole på. SELVFØLGELIG
skar jeg ikke benene af dem!
s - rClick! s - r s - r
s - r s - r s - r
Kæderefleksteorien
Men ellers er det rigtig nok.
I 1913 udgav Watson i Psychological Review sit berømte manifest:
”Psychology as the Behaviorist sees it is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to introspection in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal responses, recognizes no diving line between man and brute.”
I 1919 begyndte Watson at studere spædborn
Det er i den forbindelse, at vi skal se Watsons andet berømte forsøg.
Forsøget medLille Albert.
John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner: Conditioned emotional reactions 1920.
Forsøget medLille Albert.
Albert præsenteres for en rotteAlbert smiler glad til rotten
1. akt
Albert præsenteres for en rotteHvorefter der kommer en høj lyd
2. akt
Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.
Albert præsenteres for en rotte3.
akt
Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.
Albert præsenteres for en kanin4.
akt
Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.
Albert præsenteres for juleskæg5.
akt
Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.
Albert præsenteres for mors pels6.
akt
Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.
Albert præsenteres for en rotteHvorefter der kommer en høj lyd
2. akt
Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.
ubetinget stimulus
ubetinget response
Albert præsenteres for en rotte3.
akt
Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.
betinget stimulus
betinget response
Albert præsenteres for en kanin eller julemandsskæg eller mors pels.
4. akt
Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.
Stimulusgeneralisering
Watson og grædende Albert
BELØNNING
BELØNNING
STRAF
BELØNNING
Albert blev aldrig afbetinget.
Det var PeterMen altså ikke Albert
”The Freudians twenty years from now…when they come to analyze Albert’s fear of a seal skin coat…will probably tease from him the recital of a dream which upon their analysis will show that Albert at three years of age attempted to play with the pubic hair of the mother and was scolded violently for it. If the analyst has sufficiently prepared Albert to accept such a dream… as an explanation of this avoiding tendencies, and if the analyst has the authority and personality to put it over, Albert may be fully convinced that the dream was a true revealer of the of the factors which brought about the fear.”
gnæk, gnæk, gnæk
• Throughout his marriage Watson had affairs with many women, but then he fell hopelessly in love with his research assistent, Rosalie Rayner.
•Watson allowed his feelings to become known and wrote many passionate letters to Rosalie.
•His wife, Mary Watson, obtained these letters by feigning illness while visiting Rosalie’s parents, asking for a few minutes to lie down, and using her time alone to search Rosalie’s beedroom.•Her mistake was to show the letters to her brother, John, a mercenary character whose reaction was to demand money from watson and from Rosalie’s rich and socially prominent Baltimore family.•When they refused, the letters mysteriously fell into the hands of President Goodnow of John Hopkins.Etc., etc., etc.
Watson måtte forlade universitetet og begynde en ny karriere.
Han startede fra bunden i reklamebureauet Walter Thomson, og sluttede som dets vicedirektør.Man kan sige, at han revolutionerede branchen ved at forstå den emotionelle betingnings betydning.
Eksempelvis:
In a Johnson and Johnson Baby Powder campaign aimed at first-time mothers, Watson stressed the purity and cleanliness of the product and the dangers of dirt and disease.”The consumer is to
the manufacturer, the department stores and advertising agencies, what the green frog is to the physiologists.”
Eksempelvis:
In an advertisement for the Scott Paper Company, Watson featured a photograph of a surgical team at work, with the caption ”And the trouble began with harsh toilet tissue.”
Eksempelvis:
In one carefully controlled experiment Watson found that smokers were unable to discriminate one brand of cigarettes from another, so he used slogans like ”I’d walk an extra mile for a Camel!”
Eksempelvis:
To increase the sales of Maxwell House Coffee, Watson devised the coffee break, which became a feature of American life.
Et eksempel på Watsons arbejde
William McDougall 1871-1938Foreslår en behavioristisk psykologi i 1908.
Ja, men ikke noget med kun reflekser og
stimulus-respons, det skal være
virkelighedstro og common sense….
…det skal være
purposiv behavior!
”The healthy animal is up and doing!”
Konsumtion
4
Håndtering
3
Sporing
21
Søgen
Objekt sominformation.
Objekt somGENSTAND.
Objekt somværdi.
Objekt somintention.
1. Purposive behavior is spontaneous. That is, unlike reflexive behavior, it need not be elicited by a known stimulus.2. In the absence of environmental stimulation, it persists for a relatively long time. 3. It varies. Although the goal of purposive behavior remains constant, the behavior used to attain the goal may vary. If an obstacle is encountered, an alternate route is taken to reach the goal. 4. Purposive behavior terminates when the goal is attained. 5. Purposive behavior becomes more effective with practice. That is, the useless aspects of behavior is gradually eliminated. Trial-and-error is purposive, not reflexive.
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