Psykologiens Historie og Genstandsområde 2008 Forelæsning 8

Psykologiens Historie og Genstandsområde 2008

Forelæsning 8

Charles Darwin

1. KONTINUITET - lægger grunden til den komparative psykologi 2. VARIATION - lægger grunden til de individuelle forskelles psykologi (differentialpsykologi) 3. FUNKTION - lægger grunden til den funktionelle psykologi, herunder behaviorismen

Francis Galton


William James


William James1842-1910

Henry James

William James1842-1910 Emanuel

Swedenborg

William James1842-1910

I suffer not only from ”insomnia, digestive disorders, eye troubles, weakness of the back and sometimes deep depression of spirits”, but ocassionally from ”a horrible fear of my own existence.”

Med Louis Aggasiz til Brasilien.

Jubii, evolution og darwinisme i

praksis!

James med Louis Aggasiz til Brasilien.

Det er døden!

James besøger fysiologerne og psykologerne i Tyskland.

James begynder at undervise i den nye psykologi på Harvard.

James skriver kontrakt om lærebog.

Efter megen pres fra forlæggeren ud-kommer bogen i 1890 - 12 år senere.

Den forkortede udgave udkommer i 1892, og herefter gider James ikke længere være psykolog.

I hate psychology that nasty

little science!

”The thought of psycho-physical and altogether of

brass-instrumental and algebraic-formula

psychology fills me with horror!”

”This method taxes patience to the utmost, and hardly could have arisen in

a country whose natives could be bored.”

W. James: Principles of Psychology 1890/1950 p. 192-193.

”Such Germans as Weber, Fechner…and

Wundt …”

” …obviously cannot.”

James ville i stedet være filosof.

The Metaphysical Club,

Harvard University

1878

Charles Sanders Peirce

1839-1914

In my article, How to make our Ideas clear, in 1878, I said: ”Consider what effect, which might conceivably have practical bearing, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then our conception of those effects is the whole of our conceptions of the object.”

I am impressed!

Now listen to me everybody!

Sigh!

”’The true’, to put it very briefly, is only the expedient in the way of our behaving, just as ’the right’ is only the expedient in the way of our behaving.”

FUNKTION

”It is very generally admitted…that consciousness grows the more complex and intense the

higher we rise in the animal kingdom. That of a man must

exceed that of an oyster. From this point of view it

seems an organ, superadded to the other organs which maintain the animal in the

struggle for existence; and the presumption…is that it helps

him in some way in the struggle, just as they do.”

FUNKTION

”The pursuance of future ends and the choice of

means for their attainment are thus the

mark and criterion of the presence of mentality in

a phenomenon.”

FUNKTION

Konsumtion

4

Håndtering

3

Sporing

21

Søgen

Objekt sominformation.

Objekt somGENSTAND.

Objekt somværdi.

Objekt somintention.

”The kind of psychology which could cure a case of melancholy, or charm a chronic insane delusion away, ought certainly to be preferred to the most seraphic insight into the nature of the soul.”

Det lyder fornuftigt!

Jo, men så skal jeg finde en nørd, jeg kan lokke til at overtage mit professorat i psykologi ved Harvard.

Tag en tysker, du, det er godt

råd!

Hugo Münsterberg1863-1916

Det lykkedes.

I have “twenty-seven rooms overspun with electric wires and filled with chronoscopes and

kymographs and tachistoscopes and ergographs and a mechanic busy at his work.”

”Det er mere naturligt at drikke

vandet end at analysere dets

elementer i laboratoriet.”

Selvfølgelig er det det!

Men så blev også Münsterberg grebet af amerikansk pragmatisme.

Münsterberg opfinder kriminalpsykologiMünsterberg opfinder pædagogisk psykologi

Classroom

Münsterberg opfinder terapeutisk psykologi Münsterberg opfinder arbejdspsykologi

Münsterberg opfinder organisationspsykologiMünsterberg opfinder jobpsykologi

Piet Hein

”Psychologists in the sweat of their browsstudy what everyone knows.”

Hugo Münsterberg opfinder herefter i Amerika helt alene DEN ANVENDTE PSYKOLOGI. Og får en sørgelig skæbne.

(Herom se Powerpointpræsentationen General psychology 10)

JAMES

William James’ hus i Harvard

What’s the matter, son?

Drinking?Fornicating?

Not paying rent?

UHUU, UHUU, UHUU, UHUU.

My landlady is going to throw me out from my room.

JAMES


She says I can’t keep chicken in

my room!

I see.

But why do you want to keep

chicken in your lodgings, son?

Edward, sir.

Yes, well, Edward. Are you a country

boy, Edward?

It is nothing like that, sir. I need the chicken for

my learning experiments.

JAMES


Learning experiments?Yes, I want to become

a psychologist like you, professor James.

I see.Look here, Edward, if everything else fails….….you can run your chicken in the basement

of my house.

That should please my children!

Gee thanks, professor

James!Yes, well, just be sure to remember

what I have taught, Edward.

I shall, professor

James!

Edward Lee Thorndike1874-1949

Thorndike

Thorndike

TRIAL AND ERROR



ØVELSESLOVEN

LAW OF EXERCISE

”Any response to a situation will, other things being equal, be more strongly connected with that situation and to the average vigor and duration of the connections.”

William James Habit eller Vane.


EFFEKTLOVENLAW OF EFFECT

Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; [fortsættes]

William James selektion af det funktionelle

Those which are accompanied or closely followed with discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to recur.”


William James selektion af det funktionelle

”Pleasure stamps in, pain stamps out!”


”I was wrong!”

1929


”I learned that somewhat similar experiments on animals had been performed in America, and indeed

not by physiologists but by psychologists…and now I must acknowledge that the honour of

having made the first steps along this path belongs to E.L. Thorndike.

By two or three years his experiments proceeded ours.”

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov1849 – 1936

Nobelprisen 1904

Stimulus1.

Respons2.

Naturlig refleks

Naturlig refleks

HVAD LAVER DU???

Naturlig refleks

Aha!

Naturlig stimulus

Naturlig respons

Sagen uvedkommende

stimulus

Naturlig stimulus

Naturlig respons

Betinget stimulus

Betinget respons

KLASSISK BETINGNING

Signalindlæring

KLASSISK BETINGNING

G.T. FechnerElemente derPsycho-physik

1860

DING-DING-DING-DING-DING-DING

G.T. FechnerElemente derPsycho-physik

1860DING-DING-DING-DING-DING-DING

G.T

.

Fech

ner

Elem

ente

der

Psyc

ho-

phys

ik

1860

ReinforceringForstærkningEkstinktionUdslukningSpontan genopdukkenInhibition ogdisinhibition

Sensorisk diskriminationEksperimentel neurose

KLASSISK BETINGNING

Sensorisk generalisering

ThorndikePavlov

ER IKKE ENS!

Skal erstatte en stimulus med en andenSTIMULUS SUBSTITITION

Skal undslippe indespærring v. AKTIV HANDLING

ThorndikePavlov



Skinner

RESPONDENT OPERANT

Klassisk betinging

Instrumentel betinging

ThorndikePavlov



Skinner

RESPONDENT OPERANT

Klassisk betinging

Instrumentel betinging

Modtage Serve

ModtageServe

Konsumtion

4

Håndtering

3

Sporing

21

Søgen


Objekt somGENSTAND.

Objekt somværdi.


H.S. Jennings

J. Loeb

Jacques Loeb

1859-1924

Uddannet i Tyskland som forstmand med en særlig interesse for plantefysiologi. Begyndte studier af primitive dyrs bevægelser i Würzburg på en Romanes-agtig måde.

Efter sit møde med Ernst Machs Analysis of Sensation (:science is ”consisting of the completest possible presentment of facts with the least expenditure of thought.”)bliver det Loebs mål at finde det simpleste princip for at kontrollere adfærd.

Solens stråler påvirker cellernes kemiske processer, således

at plantevævsaktiviteten er kraftigst, hvor lyspåvirkningen er kraftigst, hvilket betyder

at planten ’strækker sig’ mod sollyset.

Denne fysio-kemiske bevægemåde kaldes en TROPISME.

I dette tilfælde en HELIOTROPISME.

Tropismer navngives efter den stimulus, der afstedkommer reaktionen, og deles i positive og negative

Jacques Loeb

Loeb mente, at den samme fysisk-kemiske tropisme-mekanisme kunne forklare dyrenes bevægelsemåde.Med disse dyr gik det vel meget godt:

Men hvad med dem her. Og det var dem, slaget stod om.

Det vil sige, TAXIS

Jacques Loeb

Loeb mente imidlertid, at tropismen kunne forklare al adfærd.”The tropism theory might include human conduct also.” (1919)Dette kan kaldes ’The Mechanistic Conception of Life’ – titlen på Loebs bog fra 1912 – bemærk årstallet.

Jacques Loeb

Aristotle

Alt levende: Indtage næring, vokse og formere sig. Dyr: Stedbevægelse og perception.

Højere dyr: Fore- stillingsbilleder, drømme, erindring

og fantasi.

Mennesker: Fornuft, sprog og evnen til at leve i samfund.

Alle levende væsener skal grundlæggende forstås som PLANTER

hyldest til Loeb som ”prophet of the new movement”:

”Starting in 1888, he set his face against anthropomorphism and teleology and began the attempt to describe all behavior in physical and chemical terms.”

(Fraenkell & Gunn, 1961, p. 6)

Loeb mente imidlertid, at tropismen kunne forklare al adfærd.”The tropism theory might include human conduct also.” (1919)Dette kan kaldes ’The Mechanistic Conception of Life’ – titlen på Loebs bog fra 1912 – bemærk årstallet.

Loeb kom til University of Chicago i 1891, hvor han bl.a. fik Dewey og Mead som kolleger.

Jacques Loeb

Herbert Spencer Jennings

1868-1947

Jennings var søn af en Darwin-entusiastisk farmer-doctor og begyndte at studere hvirvelløse dyrs fysiologi og adfærd, først på Harvard (hvor hans lærer var Loeb-fan), senere i Chicago, hvor Dewey gjorde stort indtryk på ham.Sit post-doctorale arbejde udførte han i Jena i Tyskland under datidens berømte ekspert i primitive dyr, Verworn.

Vi skal bemærke ham for to vigtige ting:1. Identifikationen af det psykiske i selve adfærden.

2. Afvisningen af, at adfærd kan reduceres til stimulus-response alene.

Jennings’ interesse var at finde det elementære livsgrundlag for det psykiske.

”the psychological processes in the realm of the protista are the bridge which connects the chemical processes of inorganic nature with the mental life of the highest animals… the development of the human psyche begins with those very psychological processes found in the protista, since the human egg has essentially the same status as a single cellular organism.”

Behavior of the Lower Organisms 1906:

Konsumtion

4Håndtering

3Sporing

21Søgen

Objekt sominformation

.

Objekt somGENSTAND.

Objekt som

værdi.


Behavior of the Lower Organism 1906:

”The writer is thoroughly convinced, after long study of the behavior of this organism, that if Amoeba were a large animal, so as to come within the everyday experience of human beings, its behavior would at once call forth the attribution to it of states of pleasure and pain, of hunger, desire, and the like, on precisely the same basis as we attribute these things to the dog.””In conducting objective investigations we train ourselves to suppress this impression, but thorough investigation tend to restore it stronger than at first.”

Konsumtion

4Håndtering

3Sporing

21Søgen


.

Objekt somGENSTAND.

Objekt som

værdi.


The behavior of the lower organisms, 1906:

"A first and essential point for the understanding of behavior is that activity occurs in organisms without present external stimulation. The normal condition of the Paramecium is an active one, with its cilia in rapid movement; it is only under special conditions that it can be brought partly to rest... The organism is activity, and its activities may be spontaneous, so far as the present stimuli are concerned."

Konsumtion

4Håndtering

3Sporing

21Søgen


.

Objekt somGENSTAND.

Objekt som

værdi.


”…the truth of matter is I have never been able to read Jennings through; his whole criticism of the tropism theory seemed so strange to me that I always lost patience whenever I began to read, and turned the pages aside; and when finally Mast began to write I stopped reading them altogether.”

*

* brev til T.H. Morgan, genetikeren der opfandt brugen af bananfluer.

Nå, ja. Skidt med Jennings. I praksis var det jo nok mig, der vandt.Det var mig, der fik John!!!

John B. Watson 1878-1958

White trash sydstatsfamilie.Moderen stærkt religiøs, faderen voldsmand, drikkebror, skørtejæger og døgenigt.Juvenile delinquent – drikkeri, racistiske slagsmål – skyderi.

I was ”lazy, insurbordinate, vicious and violent. A poor

student, constantly in trouble with both school and civic

autorities.”

Mønsterbryder og snyder til sig college.I 1915 – 37 år gammel bliver Watson valgt til præsident for the American Psychological Association.

John B. Watson 1878-1958

Hans collegelærer koster ham et ekstra år og skaffer ham ind på University of Chicago, hvor han får John Dewey som lærer.

Ham forstod jeg ikke et kuk af!

Men også Jacques Loeb.

Han var god. Ham ville jeg lave

en Phd hos!

Afhandling 1903: Animal Education. The Psychical Development of the White rat.Dyreeksperimenter med aber, høns, hunde katte, frøer, fisk og terner.

”I never wanted to use human

subjects… I always was uncomfortable

and acted unnaturally. With animals I was at

home.”

Jeg lavede en mini-kopi af den berømte labyrint i Hampton Court og lod mine

rotter lære den.

Det kunne de sagtens. Men hvordan bar de

sig ad? Hvilke sanser brugte de?

Først blindede jeg dem.Men de kunne stadig finde

vej. Så det var ikke synet, som de brugte.

Jeg brugte extirpationsmetoden,

som er en slags udelukkelsesmetode.

Så stoppede jeg deres ører til.

Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke hørelsen, som de brugte.

Så klippede jeg deres knurhår af.

Så klippede jeg deres knurhår af.

Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke den taktile følesans, som de brugte.

Så skar jeg næsen af dem.

Så skar jeg næsen af dem.

Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke

lugtesansen, som de brugte.

Så klippede jeg benene af dem.

Så klippede jeg benene af dem.NU KUNNE DE IKKE FINDE VEJ!

Jeg havde hermed bevist, at rotterne brugte muskelsansen til

at finde vej!

Den lærer er ikke til at stole på. SELVFØLGELIG

skar jeg ikke benene af dem!

s - rClick! s - r s - r

s - r s - r s - r

Kæderefleksteorien

Men ellers er det rigtig nok.

I 1913 udgav Watson i Psychological Review sit berømte manifest:

”Psychology as the Behaviorist sees it is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to introspection in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal responses, recognizes no diving line between man and brute.”

I 1919 begyndte Watson at studere spædborn

Det er i den forbindelse, at vi skal se Watsons andet berømte forsøg.

Forsøget medLille Albert.

John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner: Conditioned emotional reactions 1920.

Forsøget medLille Albert.

Albert præsenteres for en rotteAlbert smiler glad til rotten

1. akt

Albert præsenteres for en rotteHvorefter der kommer en høj lyd

2. akt

Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.

Albert præsenteres for en rotte3.

akt


Albert præsenteres for en kanin4.

akt


Albert præsenteres for juleskæg5.

akt


Albert præsenteres for mors pels6.

akt


Albert præsenteres for en rotteHvorefter der kommer en høj lyd

2. akt


ubetinget stimulus

ubetinget response

Albert præsenteres for en rotte3.

akt


betinget stimulus

betinget response

Albert præsenteres for en kanin eller julemandsskæg eller mors pels.

4. akt


Stimulusgeneralisering

Watson og grædende Albert

BELØNNING

BELØNNING

STRAF

BELØNNING

Albert blev aldrig afbetinget.

Det var PeterMen altså ikke Albert

”The Freudians twenty years from now…when they come to analyze Albert’s fear of a seal skin coat…will probably tease from him the recital of a dream which upon their analysis will show that Albert at three years of age attempted to play with the pubic hair of the mother and was scolded violently for it. If the analyst has sufficiently prepared Albert to accept such a dream… as an explanation of this avoiding tendencies, and if the analyst has the authority and personality to put it over, Albert may be fully convinced that the dream was a true revealer of the of the factors which brought about the fear.”

gnæk, gnæk, gnæk

• Throughout his marriage Watson had affairs with many women, but then he fell hopelessly in love with his research assistent, Rosalie Rayner.

•Watson allowed his feelings to become known and wrote many passionate letters to Rosalie.

•His wife, Mary Watson, obtained these letters by feigning illness while visiting Rosalie’s parents, asking for a few minutes to lie down, and using her time alone to search Rosalie’s beedroom.•Her mistake was to show the letters to her brother, John, a mercenary character whose reaction was to demand money from watson and from Rosalie’s rich and socially prominent Baltimore family.•When they refused, the letters mysteriously fell into the hands of President Goodnow of John Hopkins.Etc., etc., etc.

Watson måtte forlade universitetet og begynde en ny karriere.

Han startede fra bunden i reklamebureauet Walter Thomson, og sluttede som dets vicedirektør.Man kan sige, at han revolutionerede branchen ved at forstå den emotionelle betingnings betydning.

Eksempelvis:

In a Johnson and Johnson Baby Powder campaign aimed at first-time mothers, Watson stressed the purity and cleanliness of the product and the dangers of dirt and disease.”The consumer is to

the manufacturer, the department stores and advertising agencies, what the green frog is to the physiologists.”

Eksempelvis:

In an advertisement for the Scott Paper Company, Watson featured a photograph of a surgical team at work, with the caption ”And the trouble began with harsh toilet tissue.”

Eksempelvis:

In one carefully controlled experiment Watson found that smokers were unable to discriminate one brand of cigarettes from another, so he used slogans like ”I’d walk an extra mile for a Camel!”

Eksempelvis:

To increase the sales of Maxwell House Coffee, Watson devised the coffee break, which became a feature of American life.

Et eksempel på Watsons arbejde

William McDougall 1871-1938Foreslår en behavioristisk psykologi i 1908.

Ja, men ikke noget med kun reflekser og

stimulus-respons, det skal være

virkelighedstro og common sense….

…det skal være

purposiv behavior!

”The healthy animal is up and doing!”

Konsumtion

4

Håndtering

3

Sporing

21

Søgen


Objekt somGENSTAND.

Objekt somværdi.


1. Purposive behavior is spontaneous. That is, unlike reflexive behavior, it need not be elicited by a known stimulus.2. In the absence of environmental stimulation, it persists for a relatively long time. 3. It varies. Although the goal of purposive behavior remains constant, the behavior used to attain the goal may vary. If an obstacle is encountered, an alternate route is taken to reach the goal. 4. Purposive behavior terminates when the goal is attained. 5. Purposive behavior becomes more effective with practice. That is, the useless aspects of behavior is gradually eliminated. Trial-and-error is purposive, not reflexive.

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Psykologiens Historie og Genstandsområde 2008 Forelæsning 8