Overview:Major Perspectives on Leadership Thought and Theory

MNGT 5670 – Spring 2, 2012

Trait TheoryBehavioral Theory

Leader/Member Exchange TheoryContingency Theory

Situational Leadership

1) Trait Approach - early 1900s

One of the first systematic attempts to study leadership.

It was believed that people were born with these traits and only the great people possessed them (hence the term “Great Man”).

Research during this time concentrated on identifying traits that differentiated leaders from followers.

The theories that were developed were often referred to as “Great Man” theories because the focused on identifying the traits found in great social, military and political leaders.

1) Trait Approach - highlights

In a major review in 1948, Stogdill suggested that no consistent set of traits differentiated leaders and non-leaders across a variety of situations.

In other words, an individual with leadership traits who was a leader in one situation might not be the leaders in another situation.

In recent years, there has been a resurgence in the trait approach, in explaining how traits influence leadership.

Leaders with Sweet Traits!

Studies of Leadership Traits

and CharacteristicsStogdill (1948)- Intelligence- Alertness- Insight- Responsibility- Initiative- Persistence- Self-

confidence- Sociability

Mann (1959)- Intelligence- Masculinity- Adjustment- Dominance- Extroversion- Conservatism

Lord, DeVader, & Alliger (1986)- Intelligence- Masculianity- Dominance

Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991)- Drive- Motivation- Integrity- Confidence- Cognitive

ability- Task

knowledge

Common trait themes: intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, sociability.

Trait Approach: Strengths & Applications

Allows for personal awareness and development.

As a theory, it is intuitively appealing.

A century of research backs it up.

Can provide greater depth on understanding what a leaders is due to its singular focus.

It provides benchmarks as to what to look for if we want to be leaders ourselves.

Trait Approach: Weaknesses & Consequences

Failure to delineate a clear, consistent list of leadership traits.

Studies over the years have been ambiguous and uncertain at times.

Fails to take situations and followers into account. Can result in highly subjective determinations of the

“most important” traits. Resulted in highly subjective determinations of the

“most important” leadership traits. Research does not effectively look at leadership

traits in relationship to leadership outcomes. Not a useful approach when it comes to training

and development of leadership.

2) Behavioral Approach

Very different from the trait approach:

Trait approach emphasizes the personality characteristics of the leader, this approach emphasizes the behavior of the leader.

A shift in emphasis from thinking about leadership in terms of traits that someone has to thinking about leadership as a form of activity.

2) Behavioral Approach

Researchers studying the behavioral approach determined that leadership is comprised essentially of two general kinds of behaviors:

▪ Task behaviors▪ Relationship behaviors

The central purpose of this approach is to explain how leaders combine these two kinds of behaviors to influence people to reach a goal.

Behavioral Approach:The Ohio State Studies

Conducted by Stogdill with the Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) in 1948.

Researchers found that responses of subordinate questionnaires clustered around two general types of leader behaviors:

▪ Initiating structure▪ Consideration

Behavioral Approach:The Ohio State Studies

The findings (initiating structure and consideration) are not two points on the same continuum – they are concepts that are separate from one another.

In other words: the degree to which a leader exhibited one behavior was not related to how much s/he exhibited another behavior.

Behavioral Approach:The Univ. of Michigan Studies

While the OSU studies were going on, Michigan was also conducting studies of its own (1950s).

The Michigan Studies focused on the impact of leaders’ behaviors on the performance of small groups.

Researchers identified two types of leadership behaviors:

▪ Employee orientation (human relations)▪ Production orientation (technical and

aspects of the job)

Behavioral Approach:The Univ. of Michigan Studies

Unlike the Ohio State studies, the Michigan studies viewed these behaviors (employee and production orientations) as opposite end of the same continuum.

Implication: a leader can be strong in one area at the expense of the other

14

Behavioral Approach:The Univ. of Texas Studies

1,9

Country Club

Management

9,9

Team

Management

5,5

Middle-of-the-

Road

Management

Impoverished Management

1,1

Authority-

Compliance

Management

9,1Low

Low Concern for Results High

High

Conce

rn f

or

Peop

leThe Leadership Grid

®

15

Themes of Leader Behavior Research

People-Oriented Task-Oriented

Ohio State University(circa 1948)

Consideration Initiating Structure

University of Michigan(circa 1952)

Employee-Centered Job-Centered

University of Texas(circa 1991)

Concern for People Concern for Production

Behavioral Approach:Strengths & Applications

The behavioral approach provides a framework for assessing leadership in a broad way.

It marks a major shift in the general focus of leadership research by broadening the scope of study. It expanded to include what leaders did

and how they acted.

Behavioral Approach:Strengths & Applications

The wide range of studies validates and gives credibility to the basic tenants of the behavioral approach.

The significance of the two major leader behaviors (task and relationship) cannot be understated.

It applies to nearly everything a leader does.

Behavioral Approach:Weaknesses & Consequences

While the research is extensive, it does not show how leaders’ behaviors are associated with performance outcomes.

▪ The only strong finding is that leaders who are considerate have followers who are more satisfied.

It fails to find a universal style of leadership that could be effective in any situation.

The behavioral approach implies that the most effective leadership style is one that is simultaneously high-task and high-relationship.

3) Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

An individualized leadership model that explores how leader-member relationships develop over time and how the quality of exchange relationships impacts outcomes.

Focuses on building relationships. Has been referred to as ‘leadership

making.’Offers insights as to how mangers

can improve their own leadership behavior.

20

Leader Behavior Toward In-Group versus Out-Group Members…

In-group Discusses objectives;

gives employee freedom to use his or her own approach in solving problems and reaching goals

Listens to employee’s suggestions and ideas about how work is done

Treats mistakes as learning opportunities

Out-Group Gives employee

specific directives for how to accomplish tasks and attain goals

Shows little interest in employee’s comments and suggestions

Criticizes or punishes mistakes

21

Leader Behavior Toward In-Group versus Out-Group Members…In-GroupGives employee

interesting assignments; may allow employee to choose assignment

Sometimes defers to subordinate’s opinion

Praises accomplishments

Out-GroupAssigns

primarily routine jobs and monitors employee closely

Usually imposes own views

Focuses on areas of poor performance

22

Stages of Development of Individualized Leadership

1. Vertical Dyad Linkage

Leaders’ behaviors and traits have

different impacts across followers,

creating in-groups and out-groups.2. Leader-Member Exchange

Leadership is individualized for each

subordinate. Each dyad involves a

unique exchange independent of

other dyads.3. Partnership Building

Leaders can reach out to create a

positive exchange with every

subordinate. Doing so increases

performance.4. Systems and Networks

Leader dyads can be created in all

directions across levels and

boundaries to build networks that

enhance performance.

LMX Theory:Strengths and Applications

Provides insights into manager/follower relationships; how they develop and evolve.

Provides insights as to how leadership networks can develop.

Has broad application in a variety of organizational settings.

Raises awareness as to how subordinates can/should be treated.

LMX Theory:Weaknesses and Consequences

On the surface, it runs counter to the basic human value of fairness.

Out-group discrimination.Basic ideas of the theory are not fully

developed (i.e., why high-quality LM exchanges are developed, how relationship-building concepts work together.).

Questions regarding measurement (differing scales).

4) Contingency Theory

Fiedler (1967) is the name most associated with contingency theory.

This theory is a “leader-match” theory, which means it tries to match leaders to appropriate situations.

Basic premise: to understand the performance of leaders, it is essential to understand the situations in which they lead.

26

Comparing the Universalistic and Contingency Approaches to Leadership

Universal Approach

Contingency Approach

Leadership (traits/behaviors

)

Leader Style

TraitsBehaviorPosition

Followers

NeedsMaturit

yTrainingCohesio

nSituation

TaskStructur

eSystem

sEnv.

Outcomes(Performance,

satisfaction, etc.)

Outcomes(Performance,

satisfaction, etc.)

Contingency Theory is concerned with two things:

Leadership Styles:▪ Described as task motivated or relationship motivated▪ Fiedler developed the Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC)

scale.

Situational variables:▪ Situations can be categorized by assessing three

factors:▪ Leader member relations (atmosphere and confidence)▪ Task structure (clarity of requirements)▪ Position power (authority of the leader to reward or punish)

Together, these variables determine the “favorableness” of the situation.▪ Most favorable: High leader/member relations, high

task clarity, strong leader position power.▪ Least favorable: Poor leader/member relations, low

task clarity, weak leader position power.

How does it work?

By measuring a leader’s LPC and and the three situational variables, one can predict whether or not a leader is going to be effective in a particular situation:

Those with a low LPC score (task motivated) will be effective in both very favorable and in very unfavorable situations.

Those with a high LPC score (relationship motivated) will be effective in moderately favorable situations.

- Leaders will not be effective in all situations -

Contingency Theory:

Strengths and Applications Supported by a great deal of research.

Broadens our understanding of by having us consider the impact of situations on leaders.

The theory is predictive.

It does not require everyone to be effective in all situations.

It provides data on leader styles that can be useful to organizations in developing leaders profiles.

Contingency Theory: Weaknesses & Consequences

It fails to full explain why individuals with certain styles are more effective in some situations than others.

The LPC is not really a standard scale or measurement. It asks the leader to characterize the another person’s behavior.

It is a cumbersome and complex theory to apply in real world settings.

It fails to suggests what an organization should do when there is a mismatch between the leader and the situation.

5) Situational Approach

One of the most widely recognized approaches.

Developed by Hersey and Blanchard (1969) an has been revised since then.

As the name implies, this approach focuses on leadership in situations.

This approach stresses that leadership is composed of both a directive and supportive dimension, and each is to be applied appropriately in a given situation.

5) Situational Approach

This approach expects the following form the leader: An evaluation of the competency and

commitment of group members A matching of the leader’s style to these

assumptions.

The SL-II Model: Believes that group members move forward

and backwards along a developmental continuum in terms of their competency and commitment.

Sup

por t

i ve B

ehavio

r

Directive Behavior(Low)

(High)

(High)

“Delegating” or “Facilitating”

Turn over responsibility for

decisions and implementation

“Participating” or “Supporting”

Share ideas and facilitate in decision making

“Selling” or “Coaching”

Explain decisions and provide opportunity

for clarification

“Telling” or “Directing”

Provide specificinstructions and closelysupervise performance

S3 S2

S4 S1

D4 D3 D2 D1

High Moderate Low

Development of Group Members

Developing

Developed

Situational Approach:Strengths and Applications

It identifies major leadership styles.

It is concerned with the development levels of group members.

One of the most well-known and widely used models in a variety of settings.

It’s very practical.

It is prescriptive.

Emphasizes the concept of leaders flexibility.

Situational Approach:Weaknesses & Consequences

Time consuming.

Assessing group member levels of development is as ambiguous as it is subjective.

Transformational Leadership

Core elements TL is concerned with emotions, values, ethics,

standards, and long-term goals includes assessing followers’ motives,

satisfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings

Encompassing approach TL describes a wide range of leadership

influence Specific: one-to-one with followers Broad: whole organizations or entire cultures

follower(s) and leader are inextricably bound together in the transformation process

Transformational Leadership & Charisma Charisma - A special personality

characteristic that gives a person superhuman or exceptional powers and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the person being treated as a leader (Weber, 1947)

Charismatic Leadership Theory (House, 1976) Charismatic leaders act in unique ways that have

specific charismatic effects on their follower (such as MLK)

Theory of Charismatic Leadership (House, 1976)

Additive Effect of Transformational Leadership

Julio