Research Methodology

An Introduction

Ashok Karri

Research Methodology A search for knowledge A scientific and systematic search for

pertinent information on a specific topic A systematized effort to gain new

knowledge Research as an academic activity comprises

– defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis; collecting organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions.

Definition

Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.

Research Methodology

The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.

Objectives of research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures

Objectives of research

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this objective are known as explorative or formulative studies)

Objectives of research

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive studies)

Objectives of research

To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else

(known as diagnostic studies)

Objectives of research

To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (known as hypothesis testing)

Types of Research

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical2. Applied vs. Fundamental3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative4. Conceptual vs. Empirical

1.Descriptive vs. AnalyticalThe major purpose of the descriptive research

is description of the state of affairs as it exists; usually includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries. The main characteristic here is that the researcher has no control over the variables – he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Ex: survey methods to identify people’s preferences. In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already available and analyze these for critical evaluation.

2. Conceptual vs. Empirical

Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea or theory. Used by philosophers and thinkers.

Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone; it is data based research;

3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity – it is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena – relating to or involving quality or kind. Ex.-motivation research.

4. Applied vs. Fundamental

Research can either be applied (action) research or fundamental (basic or pure). Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing society or an organization, whereas, fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with formulation of a theory.

Research Process

Research Process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research.

The process consists of closely related activities; such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence.

The steps are as follows:

Research Process1. Formulating the research problem2. Extensive literature survey3. Development of working hypothesis4. Preparing the research design5. Determining sample design6. Collecting the data7. Execution of the project8. Analysis of data9. Hypothesis-testing10. Generalization and Interpretation11. Preparation of the Report

1. Formulating the Research Problem

Two types of problems: Problems which related to state of

nature Problems which relate to relationships

between variablesThe formulation of a general topic into a

specific research problem is the first step in scientific enquiry

Formulating the Research Problem…

Two steps in formulating the research problem:

Understanding the problem thoroughly

Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view

Formulating the Research Problem…

Must review two types of literature: The Conceptual literature concerning

concepts and theories The Empirical literature consisting of

earlier studies, which are similar to the one proposed

Formulating the Research Problem…

Formulating/defining a research problem is of great importance and significance in the entire research process

The problem must be defined unambiguously

Must verify the objectivity and validity of background facts concerning the problem

2. Extensive Literature Review

Abstracting/Indexing journals Published/Unpublished bibliographies Academic journals Conference proceedings Govt. Reports Books

3. Development of Working Hypothesis

The researcher should state, in clear terms the working hypothesis

Working Hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical assumptions

Hypothesis is the focal point of the research, for ex: “students who receive counseling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not receiving counseling” or “car A is performing as well as car B”

Functions of a Hypothesis

It guides the direction of the study.

It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not.

It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate.

It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result

4. Preparing the Research DesignNeed to prepare a research design – a conceptual

structure within which the research would be conducted

The primary objective of the research design is to collect the relevant data

Research Purposes may be grouped into4. Exploration5. Description6. Diagnosis7. Experimentation

Many research designs exist.

5. Determining the Sample Design

All the items under consideration in any field constitute a “Universe” or “Population”

A complete enumeration of all the items in the “population” is known as a “census enquiry”

Since a complete census enquiry is not possible generally, we select a ‘sample’ – a few items from the “universe” for our study

Researcher selects the sample by using ‘sampling design’ – a definite plan determined before any data is actually collected

Types of Sampling

1. Deliberate Sampling2. Simple Random Sampling3. Systematic Sampling4. Quota Sampling5. Stratified Sampling6. Cluster/area Sampling7. Multi-stage Sampling8. Sequential Sampling

6. Collecting the DataNeed to collect appropriate dataPrimary data can be collected thru experiment or surveyIn experiment, he observes some quantitative

measurements (data), with which the hypothesis is tested

In Survey, data can be collected by the following methods:

v. Observationvi. Personal Interviewvii. Telephone Interviewviii. Mailing Questionnairesix. Through Schedules

7. Execution of the Project

The research study must be executed in a systematic manner to ensure that adequate and dependable data are collected.

Should be rigorously methodological

8. Analysis of DataRequires that the data be necessarily condensed into

manageable groups and tables for further analysesShould classify the new data into some purposeful and

usable categoriesCoding is done at this stageTabulation – classified data are put into tablesAnalysis, after tabulation is based on the computation of

various percentages, coefficients, etc. by applying statistics

Tests of significance would be applied wherever relevant

9. Hypothesis Testing

Do the data support the hypothesis or they contrary?

Chi Square test, t-test, f-test are normally used

Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it

10. Generalization & Interpretation

To arrive at a generalization, that is, to build a theory

Or to interpret the data in terms of existing state of knowledge (theories)

11. Preparation of Report/Thesis

Has to prepare the reportThe layout of the report is as follows: The prefatory part The Main Body/Text The Supplemental Part

The Prefatory Part

Title page Certification Acknowledgments Preface Contents page

The Main Body

Introduction Summary of Findings Main Report conclusion

The Supplemental Part

References, or Bibliography Appendices Index

Good Research Requires The scope and limitations of the work to be clearly defined.

The process to be clearly explained so that it can be reproduced and verified by other researchers.

A thoroughly planned design that is as objective as possible.

Highly ethical standards are applied.

All limitations are documented.

Data be adequately analyzed and explained.

All findings are presented unambiguously and all conclusions be justified by sufficient evidence.