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Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014

1-1-1962

Stimulus durations and stimulus characteristics in paired-Stimulus durations and stimulus characteristics in paired-

associates learning. associates learning.

Calvin F. Nodine University of Massachusetts Amherst

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Nodine, Calvin F., "Stimulus durations and stimulus characteristics in paired-associates learning." (1962). Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014. 1445. https://doi.org/10.7275/60e8-hk39 https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1/1445

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STIMULUS DURATIONS AND STIMULUS CHARACTERISTICS

IN PAIRED-ASSOCIATES LEARNING

CALVIN NODINE - 1962

STIMULUS DURATIONS AND STIMULUS CHAHACTERI3TICS

IN PAIHED-A3S0CIATSS LEARNING

Calvin

A.B., Bucknell

M.A., Bucknell

P. Nodine

University, 1954

University, 1959

Thesis Submitted to

In Partial fulfillment of the

Doctor of

the Graduate Faculty

Hequirenients for the Degree of

Philosophy

University of lassaohusetts, Amherst

July, 1962

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to convey appreciation to the membersof his thesis committee, Professors A. E. Goss, C. C. Neetand J. W. Swanson. for their guidance in the preparation andcompletion of this manuscript. The author is particularly

indebted to Professor Albert S. Goss under whose direction a

major portion of the investigation was conducted.

The author's thanks are extended to the M.I.T. Computa-

tion Center, particularly to M. V. Solomita, Chief of Machine

Operations, for the use of the computer facilities.

Thanks are also due to Professor J. L. Myers and In Ho

Kim. Grace Craig, and J. R. Howell who made contributions in

various forms to problems concerned with statistical design

and computer programming.

In addition, appreciation is extended to Blase Garabino

who assisted in collection of the data, Joseph Mach for tech-

nical assistance with the apparatus, Helen L. Howell for

assistance in various aspects of the preparation and presen-

tation of the data and typing of the manuscript, Nancy Parrick

for aiding with data scoring, and finally to Professor Louis

Price and Barbara Nodlne for critical readings of the manu-

script.

iii

Table of Contents

Page

List of Tables and Figuresiv

Introduction1

3t and 8 DurationsM and Sim of Stimulus and* *?espoAse*Keabers* 1 ! ! ! ! ! ! iJ

Method13

SubjectsApparatus }^List !.*!!!!!!'.

^

Procedure !!!!!!!! }o18

Results20

St and a Durations^j,

Stimulus Characteristics ....!!!!!!!!!! iiDurations and Characteristics ..!!!!!!!.'.*.*!!!!!!!*

35

Discussion

DurationsRelationships among response members*!!!!!!!!! 41Present and previous findings 43Theoretical significance !!!! i^i

Stimulus Characteristics!

cqDurations and Characteristics ....!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 51

Summary

References

Appendix A. Data ^-^

Correct Responses on Hecall Trials 62!^ean Number of Correct Responses on

Anticipation Trials 78Response Latencies on Recall Trials !!!! 94

Appendix B. Instructions 110

Iv

List of Tables and Plgur^

TablePage

1.

162.

22

3.v^ui^Aji^ «xiuioj.pauion rests or '^rial Mlocks1 and 2 for Comblna^,ionG of Durations andStimulus Characteristics .... 23

«^. Means of Response Latencies during RecallTests of Trial Blocks 1 and 2 for Combi-nations of Durations and StimulusCharacteristics

22|.

$• Correlations between Means for H-^^call andthose for Anticipation and Latencies forSt Durations Singly and Combined 25

6. Analysis of Variance of Correct Responsesduring Hecall Tests of Trial Blocks 1 and 2 28

7. Increments in Means of Correct Responsesfrom Trial Block 1 to 2 for Combinations ofDurations and Stimulus CharacteristicsArranged to the Hi^rht and Downward in Orderof Increasing Ease of Learning 36

8. Ranges and Variances of Means of Correct Re-sponses for All Recall Tests and of Incre-ments in Means of Correct Responses fromTrial i31ock 1 to 2 for Combinations ofStimulus Characteristics within Com^>inationsof Durations of Decreasing Difficulty 39

Figure

1. Mean of numbers of correct responses forrecall and anticipation trials and of meansof response latencies for recall trials . .

.

21

Introduction

Experiments on effects of temporal attributes of thepresentation of stimulus and response members of paired-asso-ciate (PA) units have been infrequent and limited in scope.The primary objective of the present experiment, therefore,was to investigate PA learning as functions of duration of

presentation of the stimulus member of each pair alone (St

duration), and of duration of presentation of the stimulus

member and response member of each pair together (R duration).

Both meaningfulness (M) and similarity (Sim) of stimulus

and response members have pronounced effects on PA learning.

On grounds noted subsequently, it was hypothesized that dif-

ferences among acquisition rates for different combinations

of M and Sim of stimuli would be functions of St and a dura-

tions. The secondary objective of the present experiment,

therefore, was to obtain information about effects of stim-

ulus characteristics under different combinations of dura-

tions.

St and H Durations

Various theorists have assumed a parallelism between the

stimulus-response elements and relationships of classical

conditioning and those elements and relationships involved in

acquisition of the correct response of single PA units (e.g.,

Gibson, 19^0; Goss, Morgan, 'i. Golin, 1959; Spiker, i960).

Shown schematically for the anticipation technique of presen-

tation, the assumed parallelism is:

2

CS; presentation of stimulusmember, e.g., GEL

^j~

CR; occurrence of anticipation \response, e.g,, CIT \/\

UCR becomes anticipatbry (G!-{)

UCR: occurrence of response of sayingthe response member, e.g., CIT jA

UCS: presentation of response /member, e.g., CIT f

The stimulus member of a pair, which is usually selected

to have low or zero initial probability of evoking the re-

sponse of saying the response member, can be considered a CS.

When the stimulus member begins to evoke the response of say-

ing the response member before the response member occurs,

such anticipations can be considered CHs. The response mem-

ber and response of saying that member can be considered

analogous to the UC3-UCH relationship, i^ore specifically,

the particular relationship between exposure of stimulus and

response members which is schematized could be considered

homologous to classical delay conditioning in which the CS

appears before and remains on during the occurrence of the

UCS in contrast to classical trace conditioning in which CS

onset and offset is before occurrence of the UCS (Kimble,

1961, pp. 47-48).

Temporal variables have been rather extensively explored

In classical conditioning (Kimble, I96I, pp. 155-160). But,

despite the parallelism between classical conditioning and

the relationships of acquiring, the correct response in PA

3

learning, the St and H durations of PA learning have receivedlittle attention. Hegardless of the parallelism between PAlearning and classical conditioning, within the framework ofclassical associationism as well as for practical purposes,

such as design of teaching machines. Information is desirableabout PA learning as a function of St and R durations. How.

ever, in the last 50 years, only a few studies have been con-

cerned with the effects of these and closely related temporal

variables. In only three studies have both the St duration

and the i duration been varied (Hovland, 1949; Goss, Morgan.

& Golia, 1959; Wllcoxon, Wilson, & Wise, I96I).

Early attempts to investigate effects on PA learning of

temporal aspects of the presentation of stimulus and response

members were raainl^r concerned with strength of association as

a function of the interval between presentation of the stimu-

lus member and r^resentation of the response member using a

"trace conditioning" procedure. The criterion for acquisi-

tion was number of responses correctly recalled. Wohlgemuth

(1914) compared effects of simultaneous and successive pres-

entation of stimulus and response members. He discounted a

preliminary finding of the superiority of the successive

method on grounds that the total time for successive presen-

tation of each pair of stimulus and response members had been

twice that for simultaneous presentation of pairs. Twenty-

four color-figure pairs were presented under two conditions.

One condition was simultaneous presentation for twice as long

as successive presentation but with equal numbers of

4

preseatations. The other condition was equal length of pres.entation but twice as many presentations under simultaneousas under successive. Under both conditions, simultaneous

presentation produced better recall than successive. Unfor-tunately, Wohlgemuth presented either the stimulus member orthe response member of a pair as the stimulus for recall anddid not separate scores for backward recall from those forforward recall. Therefore, no general conclusions can be de-

rived from these data.

Froeberg's (I9I8) objection to the first condition of

presentation of Wolgemuth's main experiment was the apparent

assumption that strength of an association depends only upon

length of presentation of the stimuli regardless of conti-

guity or noncontiaiiity of stimulus and response members. In

Froeberg's first experiment, each 3 learned different 5-pair

lists of nonsense syllables under a simultaneous condition,

and under six different intervals between disappearance of a

stimulus member and presentation of its response member. The

successive intervals were from 0 to 5 ^ec. in l-sec. steps.

Stimulus and response members of a pair were each exposed for

.33 to .25 sec. Performance with the 5-sec. successive in-

tsrval was as good as performance with the 0-sec. interval.

However, on the average, there were 12; > more correct recalls

followin;j; experiences under the simultaneous than under the

six successive conditions.

Though the superiority of simultaneous to successive

presentation had not been significant, Froeberg considered it

sufficient to Justify a second experiment in which colors andletters of the alphabet replaced the nonsense syllables.With these materials, successive presentation was slightlybut not significantly superior to simultaneous, ^roeberg

attributed the superiority of successive presentation to the

requirement that with colors and letters each member of a

pair had to be attended to separately. In a further experi-

meat with the same materials. 3s read aloud 2-digit numbers

inserted between presentation of the stimulus and response

member of a pair "to eliminate the persisting memory images

during the interval- (p. l6l). Simultaneous presentation was

superior to successive with an irregular decrease in the num-

ber of correct responses for longer intervals between stimu-

lus and response members.

Guthrie (1933), in an experiment similar to Wohlgemuth' s,

had each S practice seven trials with figure-word and word-

figure series in counterbalanced order. These series were

presented under successive intervals of 2.55, 3.33, and 4.93

sec. between onset of a stimulus member and onset of its re-

sponse member. On the subsequent test, there was no differ-

ence between forward or backward recall of the words; the

longer the interval, the better the recall. Another group of

Ss was then run under simultaneous presentation of stimulus

and response members for Al sec. The mean number recalled

after training under this condition was greater than the means

for forward or backward recall after training with the 2.55-

sec. interval but less than means for the longer intervals.

6

In the Wohlgemuth, Proeberg. and Guthrie experiments,

Grier (I96O) contends, effects of temporal intervals of stim-

ulus and response terras were confounded with learning the

terms as such. In order to minimize the latter process, he

used seven letters of the alphabet as stimulus members and

digits from 2 to 8 as response members. The list was learned

with eight intervals between offset of stimulus members and

onset of response members from -2 to +5 sec. Stimulus and

response members of a pair were each presented for 2 sec.

Length of interval had essentially no effect on correct re-

sponses in the recall trial which followed the one learning

trial.

In these studies, acquisition was tested by one recall

trial; consequently, there were no learning curves. Also,

the "trace conditioning" presentation of stimulus and response

members differs markedly from the currently conventional

"delay conditioning" presentation of stimulus and response

members. Thus, the resultant findings are primarily sugges-

tive of the potential importance for PA learning of the in-

terval between offset of the stimulus member and onset of the

response member.

Suggestive of the importance of the St and R durations

are findings of comparisons of learning under prompting and

under confirmation conditions of presentation. Prompting has

involved presentation of the stimulus member simultaneously

or shortly before the response member. Confirmation resembles

trace conditioning: the stimulus member is presented and

removed, Hs anticipate the response .e.ber. and the response.e^ber is presented. In order to compare acquisition underthese two conditions, every nth trial is a recall test inWhich the stimulus members are presented alone. Thus, thetwo conditions represent variations in 3t durations with es-sentially equal R durations. In general, prompting has provedsuperior to confirmation (Cook, 1958; Cook & Kendler, 1956;Cook & Spitzer, 196O; Kopstein Roshal, 1955; Sidowski, K^p.stein, * Shillestad, 196I). Kopstein and Hoshal interpretedtheir results which favor prompting over confirmation as dueto longer R duration under prompting than under confirmation,

which may also be the basis of oidowski, Kopstein and Shil-

lestad's finding of fewer errors under prompting than under

confirmation. Cook and Spitzer note that the longer "S-R"

delay with confirmation than prompting may be a source of

interference with the association of paired stimulus and re-

sponse members. Limiting the usefulness of these results for

understanding effects of the St and R durations are the use

of only two St durations, and no manipulation of R duration.

The sSt and R durations were varied jointly, but in con-

founded fashion, in three studies. Hovland (19^9) used 1- or

2-sec. St durations with 1- or 2-sec. R durations, respec-

tively, to yield combinations of 1-sec. St and 1-sec. R dura-

tions (1:1 sec.) and of 2-sec. St and 2-sec. R durations {2:2sec.).

Kis major concern was whether practice was due to differences

in rate of responding. Under both distributed and massed

practice about twice as many trials were required to reach

8

criterion under the l:l.sec. duration than under the 2:2-sec.duration. Ho inforn^ation was provided on the interaction of'durations and distribution of practice.

aosa. Morgan, and Golin (1959) investigated PA learningas a function of percentage of occurrence of response members(^OHM) under 2:2- and 3:3.sec. durations. With 100^, 75:g,

50;^ and 25 5^ schedules, respectively, 511:. 85%, 103 and 60%more trials were required to reach a 7/8 criterion under the

2:2-8ec. duration than under the 3:3-sec. duration. The 7/8

criterion was less stringent than Kovland's two successive

perfect trials and there were various other differences be-

tween conditions of the two studies. Durations accounted for

843^ of the total variance of trials to criterion; but dura,

tions did not interact with ,^03M,

Wilcoxon, Wilson, and Wise (I96I) used lists of l^, 6 or

8 PA units which were each learned under 1:1-, 2:2-, and

sec. durations ^.'ith 100^, 50%, and 25% OHM. For all combina-

tions of length of list and %0m, there was a direct relation-

ship between speed of learning and length of St and R dura-

tions. In the analysis of variance of square-root transfor-

mations of trials to criterion, durations accounted for 76i

of the total variance.

All three studies suggest that St and H durations may be

important variables, at least with respect to trials to cri-

terion, though not necessarily with respect to total learning

time. Further, the results of the latter two studies sug.!;est

that the St and H durations may have greater relative effects

on trials to criterion than Xom, length of list, or dlstri-bution of practice. However, the confounding of 3t and Hdurations precludes infonnation about separate and joint ef.fects of these two variables.

The primary objective of the present experi..ent was toinvestigate the effects of independent variations of St dura,tion and R duration on PA learning. Thus both separate andjoint effects of durations could be assessed.

Several analyses of PA learning (e.g.. Sheffield. 1946;Underwood Schulz. i960) have distir^guished the process of'

learnirv?: or integrating responses from the process of associ-ating those responses with their paired stimulus members. In

addition. Goss. Nodine, Gregory. Taub, and Kennedy (1962) have

suggested that once responses are correctly associated with

their paired stimulus members, latency of those stimulus-re-

spouses associations must be reduced so that a response can be

evoked and completed in the St duration. Sta^dish and Champion

(i960) present curves which not only show a progressive in-

crease in speeds but also suggest that curves for easy items

are negatively accelerated throughout while those for hard

items are first positively and then negatively accelerated.

Brown and Huda (196I) report faster reduction of latency under

spaced than under massed conditions.

St durations may be so short that, even though a response

is correctly associated with a stiTiulus member, the response

cannot be evoked and completed within the time available.

Very short CS-UC3 intervals in classical delay and classical

trace conditioning pose the sa.e problem. Therefore, as inClassical conditioning, some procedure is necessary to deter-mine the degree to .^hich responses have been associated withtheir paired stimulus members somewhat indepenaently of la.tency of those associations and of limitations inherent inshort anticipation intervals. The procedure of the presentexperiment was a recall test after every five acquisitiontrials With an anticipation technique of presentation. Duringrecall tests each stinulus member alone was presented for l\r

sec, the longest St duration. Interpolation of recall-test

trials reduces mn from lOO;^' to 83.3,*; but available data

suggest that this should have little or no effect on acquisi-

tion rate (Goss, Morgan, & Golin, 1959; Schulz * Hunquist,

I960). In any event, the reduction was the same across con-

ditions.

M and Sim of Stimulus and Response Members

M and Sim of stimulus and response members are known to

influence rate of acquisition of correct responses of PA

units (Goss, 1963; Goss, Nodine, Gregory, Taub, i Kennedy,

1962; Underwood >k ;3chulz, i960). Acquisition rate is related

directly to M of stimulus and of response members with M of

response members usually more potent than K of stimulus mem-

bers. Acquisition rate is Inversely related to Sim of stimu-

lus and of response members with Sim of stimulus members usu-

ally more potent than Sim of response members.

Stimulus integration and response integration or strict-

ly, integration of responses to stimulus and response raembers

11

r asso-

on

er

are among the processes which presumably underlie effects ofSim and M of stimulus anc response members on PA learning(Goss. 1963). The earlier and more complete the integrationof response members, the sooner they are available fo

elation with appropriate stimulus members and for reductiin the latency of resultant correct associations. The earlieand more complete the selection and integration of responsesto the most distinctive features of stimulus members, the

sooner maximum differentiation of those members is achieved.

The more differentiated the stimulus members, the faster the

formation of associations between response members and appro-

priate stimulus members.

Integration of stimulus and response members should vary

directly with frequency and duration of experiences with

those members. Meaningfulness is conceived as a direct indi-

cant of integration of stimuli. Thus, the amount of further

integration of stimuli required in PA learning should be less

with stimuli of high M than with stimuli of low M. Increasing

St and R durations provides more opportunity for integration

of stimuli through rehearsal. Therefore, differences in

acquisition rates due to M of stimulus and response members

should decrease as functions of St and R durations.

With increasing Sim, more time should be necessary for

selection and integration of responses to the most distinctive

features of stimulus members and. perhaps, of response mem-

bers. Therefore, differences in acquisition rates due to Sim

of stimulus and response members should also decrease as

12

functions of 3t and R durations. Kor Sin, and H combined, theexpected effects are decreasing differences a»ong pairs rep.resenting different combinations of .;im and M of stimulus Indresponse members under progressively longer St and H dura-tlons.

13

Method

Subjects

Data are reported on 160 undersraduates drawn from theintroductory psychology courses at the University of Massa-chusetts. A total of 10 Ss, five males and five females, wereassigned to each of the 16 combinations of St and R durations

in order of his or her appearance. Each S was run individu-

ally by one of two male Es. One E ran three counterbalanced

cycles {kQ Ss); the other ^ ran seven counterbalanced cycles

(112 Ss).

Data on 12 additional Ss were discarded because of Es'

errors (N«3), apparatus failure (N^=2), 3s' failure to learn

by the end of the experimental session (M=6), or 3's failure

to follow instructions (N=l). Since these Ss were distrib-

uted among the 16 combinations of durations there is little

likelihood that the results were influenced by differential

elimination of Ss from some few combinations.

Apparatus

The apparatus components consisted of an electronic mem-

ory drum (Gordon H, Stowe Associates, Model 459B); a Hunter

Klock Kounter (Model 120); a Gerbrands electronic voice key;

and an i:;iectro-V^oice spherical microphone ( Jpherex 920).

Rotation of the .nemory drum and activation of the shut-

ter mechanism were electronically controlled in a manner which

permitted independent variation of 3t duration and R duration.

The drum was driven by a constant-speed electric motor.

During the presentation of each pair, the drum was held in astall position by a solenoid-operated escapement lever. Ac-tivation of the solenoid released this lever momentarily,

allowing the drum to rotate one step. Simultaneously, acti-vation of a second solenoid lowered the shutter for initial

concealment of the response member of the next stimulus-

response pair. After a specified duration had elapsed, de-

activation of the second solenoid released the shutter which

was returned to its original position by a spring to expose

the response member. After the specified duration of ex-

posure of stimulus member and response member together, the

solenoids were again activated to present the next pair.

When all pairs of the list had been presented the drum was

stopped and, after the intertrlal interval had elapsed,

started for the next trial.

The voice key and microp?ione were used to obtain laten-

cies of 3s' responses. A leaf-type microswitch was attached

to the shutter housing so that downward excursion of the

shutter started the clock. Since downward excursion of the

shutter and rotation of the drum were simultaneous, the clock

started as each stimulus member appeared. Speaking into the

microphone, which S held just below his mouth, activated the

voice key to stop the clock. When Ss failed to respond with-

in the St duration, release of the microswitoh by upward ex-

cursion of the shutter stopped the clock. The timer and

voice key were reset manually during the R interval prior to

rotation of the drum to the next pair.

15

List

The list was made up of 16 pairs of consonant-vowel-

consonant (CVC) trigrams. Each pair represented one of the

16 possible combinations of high or low Sim and high or low M

of both stimulus and response members. Table 1 shows these

pairs.

Particular combinations of Sim and M of response members

are coded by a letter code in which the first L or H indi-

cates low or high Sim and the second L or H indicates low or

high M. Combinations of 3ira and M of stimulus members are

coded in the same manner. Thus, any particular combination

of M and Sim of stimulus and response members is coded L or H

in each of the first two positions to indicate the values of

M and Slra of stimulus members and L and H in each of the last

two positions to indicate the values of M and Sim of response

members. Also, Sim of stimulus and response members are,

henceforth, abbreviated StSim and RSim, respectively, and M

of stimulus and response members are abbreviated 3tM and RM,

respectively.

Shown in parentheses after each trigram is its Archer

(i960) M value. These values ranged from 6i to 95%, Means

of the Archer M values for the trigrams representing the four

combinations of 1 and Sim of stimulus members are in the last

row. Means of Archer M values for the trigrams representing

the four combinations of M and Sim of response members are

shown in the extreme right-hand column. The means of from

86.00 to 92.25 for high M of stimulus and of response members

0)

HJO(A

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• • •On CM HiH CM

C3\ ?H CVi rH

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16

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17

were at or close to the maximum attainable within constraintsimposed by the requirement that the stimulus and responsemembers be high or low Sim. The means of from 15.75 to 21.25for low M of stimulus and of response members were likewiseat or close to the minimum attainable within the requirement

of high or low Slra.

Within each of the two sets of four stimulus members of

high Sim and of the two sets of four response members of high

Sim. each member had a counterpart in reverse with which it

had three letters in common. Each member of a set also had

two letters in common with the remaining two members of that

set. V;ithin each of the two sets of four stimulus members of

low Slra and of the two sets of four response members of low

Sim, with three exceptions, no member had any letter in com-

mon with those of any of the other three members of the set.

E;xcept for vowels, there was no duplication of letters be-

tween sets of stimulus members of high Sim and of low Sim and

likewise for the sets of response members. The overlap of

vowels and consonants of the 16 stimulus members with those

of the 16 response members was minimal. Interlist Sim was at

or close to the minimum attainable within the requirement of

stimulus and response members of low and of high M,

Serial learning was minimized by the use of five orders

of the pairs for acquisition trials and four other orders for

recall-test trials. These orders of the pairs were deter-

mined randomly within the constraint that no pair was pre-

ceded by or followed by any one of the other pairs more than

18

on

once.

The pairs in the five different orders for acquisitl,were typed in pica capitals in a column down the center ofthe right half of a continuous tape. The stimulus membersalone in the four different orders for recall were typed ina column down the center of the left half of the tape. Whennot used, the pairs or the stimulus members alone were con-

cealed by a sliding metal shutter which covered one-half of

the aperture in front of the drum.

Procedure

The same list was acquired under all combinations of Zt

and of H durations of 1/2. 1. 2 and 4 sec.^ Intertrial inter-

vals averaged 8 sec. Pollowing instructions which described

the task (see Appendix B), Ss were administered blocks of

acquisition trials by the anticipation technique of presenta-

tion alternating with a recall-test trial. There were five

trials in each of the four blocks of acquisition trials.

During- these trials, only complete occurrences of the paired

response to each stimulus member during the St interval were

considered correct.

Following the fifth trial of each block of anticipation

trials, 3s were tested by presenting only the stimulus mem-

bers alone for recall of response members. In order to maxi-

mize the number of responses recalled correctly, regardless

1. Calibration of 1/2, 1, 2, and 4 sec. St durations and of Rdurations by an electronic timer yielded actual durationsof 0.51, 1.05, 2.07, and 3.86 sec, respectively.

19

of the combination of 3t and H durations for acquisition, ksec. wore allowed for recall of the response. On these

'

trials. Zs spoke into the microphone so that latencies ofrecall responses could be obtained. Only occurrences of thepaired response during the 4 sec. a particular stimulus mem-ber was exposed were considered correct.

In order to have an acquisition trial immediately beforeand immediately after each recall trial, following the last

recall trial, there was one more acquisition trial. Thus, in

all, 38 had 21 anticipation trials and four systematically

interpolated recall-test trials.

20

Results

The three response measures were correct responses toeach pair during each recall trial, mean number of correctresponses to each pair during the anticipation trial immedi-ately before and immediately after each recall trial, andlatency of response to each pair during each recall trial. A

latency of k sec. was assigned arbitrarily to failures to re-

spond and to incorrect responses. Figure 1 shows the means

for each of these measures for the entire list of 16 pairs

under each of the 16 combinations of durations through the

four recall trials and the four pairs of adjacent anticipa-

tion trials.

Each S's score could only be 0 or 1 for a recall trial

and 0, 0,5 or 1 for adjacent anticipation trials. By com-

bining the first two and last two recall trials and the first

two and last two pairs of adjacent anticipation trials into

first and second trial blocks, possible recall scores for

each pair were extended to 0, 1, or 2, and possible anticipa-

tion scores to 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 or 2. Means of numbers of re-

sponses recalled correctly and of responses anticipated cor-

rectly for each pair in each trial block are shown in Tables

2 and 3 for all combinations of St and R durations and of Sim

and ^1 of stimuli. Means of latencies of recall responses are

presented in Table k.

Table 5 shows Pearson product-moment correlations be-

tween means for recall frequencies and those for anticipation

21

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01

Table 5

Correlations between Means for Hecall and

those for Anticipation and Latencies

for St Durations Singly and Combined

St Recall-Anticipation

Recall-Latency

1/2 .00 -.98

1 .85 -.98

2 .96 -.99

.97 -.98

1. 2. k .88

1/2. 1, 2, k .87 -.98

26

frequencies and for recall latencies for the 512 cells ofTables 2, 3, and k for St durations separately and combined.No 3 was able to anticipate in less than 1/2 sec; conse-quently, the r for the relationship between means of recalland anticipation frequencies for the 1/2-sec. St duration was

.00. Difficulty in anticipating in less than 1 sec. may alsoaccount for the r of .85 for the 1-sec. duration in contrast

to the rs of .96 and .97 for the 2- and if-sec. durations. The

r of .88 for the 1-, 2-, and ^-sec. durations combined was

essentially unaffected by inclusion of the 1/2-sec. duration.

The latency means are essentially means of weighted frequen-

cies of correct recall, which, in part, contributes to the

high rs of -.98 and -.99 for relationships between means of

recall frequencies and recall latencies for durations sepa-

rately and combined.

These correlations were between means for the combina-

tions of stimulus durations and stimulus characteristics:

they are theoretically independent of correlations between

scores for response measures for individual Ss within each

combination of conditions. To estimate the extent of rela-

tionships between scores for response measures for individ-

uals within combinations, correlations for pairs of scores

for Individual Ss were computed for a sample of combinations.

For the relationship between recall and anticipation frequen-

cies, scores for individual were correlated for one of the

16 combinations of stimulus characteristics under each of the

12 combinations of ot and R durations, excluding St durations

27

se-

.on

of 1/2 sec. Such correlations were also computed between re-call frequency and latency for one of the 16 combinations ofstimulus characteristics under each of the 16 combinations ofSt and R durations. The particular combination of stimulus

characteristics under each combination of durations was

lected randomly within the constraint that each combinati.

of stimulus characteristics be represented only once.

The rs for recall and anticipation frequencies ranged

from .00 to .91. Only two were below .60, and six were .90

or above. All but one of the rs for recall frequency and

latency were -.90 or above; the remaining r was .00. Both of

the rs of .00 were with St duration of 1 sec. under which no

Ss either anticipated correctly or recalled correctly. On

the whole, for individual Ss within combinations of condi-

tions, recall frequency was related strongly both to antici-

pation frequency and to recall latency.

Because conclusions based on means for combinations

would be consistent with expected outcomes for individual Ss,

and because of the very high correlations between means of

recall frequencies and those for anticipation frequencies and

recall latencies, only recall frequencies were treated by the

analysis of variance summarized in Table 6. 3t and H dura-

tions were the variables of greatest importance; their ef-

fects, disregarding trials and then through trials (T), are

examined before considering effects of Sim and M of stimulus

and response members. Interactions of stimulus durations and

stimulus characteristics are then considered.

28

Table 6

Analysis of Variance of Correct Responses

during Recall Tests of Trial Blocks 1 and 2

Between SsStBSt X R

Krror (b)

Within SsStM

"

StM X 3tStM X RStM X St X H

StM X Ss/aStSimStSim X StStSim X RStSim X St X R

StSim X Ss/RMRM X StRM X RRM X St X RRM X Ss/

RSimRSim X StRSlffl X RRSira X St X RRSim X Ss/

TT X StT X RT X St X R

T X Ss/StSim X StMStSim X StM X StStSim X StM X RStSim X StM X St X R

StSim X StM X Ss/

339

144

36.34130.69

1.422.31

15.73**

I 80.00 190.48**3 0.48 1.143 1.58 3.76*9 0.43 1.02

144 0.421 44.25 80 . k5^-^

3 1.13 2.053 1.73 3.14*9 0.75 1.36

144 0.551 250.28 510.78**3 2.64 5.18*»3 1.29 2.63*9 0.72 1.47

144 0.491 132.61 210.49**3 0,153 1.05 1.679 0.34

144 0.631 402.75 1088. 51»»3 3.23 8.73**3 5.54 14.97**9 0.33

144 0.371 0.85 1.523 0.613 1.54 2.75*9 0.67 1.20

144 0.56

« £ <.05£<.01

a. Slash indicates nesting of between effects within each"within error.

*

29

bource

StM X RMStM XStM XStM X

HM X StHM X RRM X St X H

StM X RM X Ss/StM X RSimStM X asim X 3tStM X RSirn X RStM X RSlm X St X R

StM X RSlrn X Ss/TT X

XXX

StSlmStSimStSimStSini X

StSim X TStSim X RMStSim X RM X StStSim X RM A RStSim X HM X St X R

X Ss/

StT X RT X St X R

X Ss/

A RMRSim

StSimStSim XStSim X RSim X StStSim X RSim X RStSim X RSim X St a R

StSim X RSim X Ss/StM XTStM X T X StStM X T X RStM X T X St X R

StM X T X Ss/RSimRSim X StRSim X RRSim X St X RX RSim X Ss/

RM XRM XRM XRM X

RMRM XRM XRM XRM X

RMRSim XRSim XRSim X

X StX HX St X RT X Ss/TT X StT X R

RSim X T X St X RRSim X T X Ss/

StM X StSim X RMStM X StSim X RM X StStM X StSim X RM X RStM X StSim X RM X St X R

StM X StSim X RM X Ss/

VJ.X

1 11.063 1.543 0.779 0.44

0.711 0.043 1.383 0.149 0.26

n ii ii144 0.60X 4.173 0.613 1.459 0.43

144 0.271 0.753 0.933 0.469 0.18

144 0.401 6.763 0.363 1.559 0.28

•« 1.1.

144 0.471 2.203 0.013 0.279 0.12

144 0.4l1 5.463 1.033 1.659 0.30

144 0.451 5.913 0.073 4.239 0.49

144 0.311 7.363 0.013 1.669 0.21

n ! I.144 0.301 19.023 0.203 0.929 0.38

144 0.21

15.58**2.171.08

2.30

15.44**2.265.37**1.59

1.872.321.15

14.38**

3.30*

5.37*

12.53**2.293.67*

19.06**

13.64**1.58

24.53**

5.53**

90.57**

4.38**1.81

30

•J

StM

'Source

StM X StSim X RSimStM X StSim X RSim X StStM X StSiin X RSim X BStM X StSim X RSim X St X R

X StSim X RSim X Ss/StSim XT

StM X StSira X T X StStM X StSira X T X R

StSira X TX StSira XRM X RSimHM X RSim X St

StM X RM X RSim X RStM X RM X RSim X St X R

StM X HM X HSim

StM XStM

StM XStM X

XT

St X RX Ss/

StMStM

AX

TTTT

X Sa/

StRSt X R

StM X RM XStM X RM X

RM XRM X

StM X RM X T X Ss/StM X RSim XT ~

StM X RSim X T XStM X RSim X T XStM X RSim X T X

StM X RSim X TStSiin X RM X RSimStoim X RM X HSim X StStSim X RM X RSira X fl

StSim X RM X RSira X StStSira X m X RSim

StRSt X RX Ss/

StSim XStSim X

RM XRM X

StSim X EM X

TTT

X RX 3s/

StH

StSim X RM X T X St X RStSim X RI^ X T X Ss/

StSim X RSim X TStSim X RSim X TStSim X RSim X TStSim X RSira X TRSira

StSim X RSim X TRM X RSim X TRM X RSim X T X StRM X RSira X T X RRM X RSira X T X St X

RM X RSira X T X Ss/StM X

X StX RX St X RX Ss/

StM XStM XStM X

StSira X RM X RSiraStSim X RM X RSim XStSim X RM X RSim X

StR

StSim X RM X RSim X St X RStM X StSim X RM X RSim X Gs/

1*1 O

1 0.533 0.743 0.189 0.52

0.341 0.903 0.123 0.309 0.33

0.081 24.763 1.143 2.869 0.37

0.411 0.013 0.123 0.539 0.44

"1 I.I.

144 0.081 0.043 0.033 0.149 0.16

144 0.141 15.323 0.023 0.889 0.30

144 0,521 0.013 0.053 0.349 0.17

144 0.201 0.043 0.473 0.259 0.20

144 0.221 0.033 0.123 0.479 0.17

1 ii ii144 0. 241 9.613 1.023 0.309 0.13

144 0.63

F

1.562.18

1.53

11.25**1.503.75*4.12*»

60.39**2.78*6.98**

1.506.62*-^

5.50**

1.001.14

29.46**

1.69

1.70

2.141.14

1.96

15.25**1.62

31

Source

StM X StSim X RM XStn X St Sim X RM XStM X StSlmStn :: stsim

X RM XX RM X

TTTT

StM X StSim X RM XStM X RM X liSim X TStM X RM X RSim X T XStM X RM X RSim X T XStM X RM X RSim X T X

StM X RM X RSim X TStM X StSim X RSim XStM X StSira X RSim X

XrAXT

StRSt XX Ss/

R

StMStM X

StRSt X aX Ss/

T*"

T X St

StMSt Sim X RMStSlm X RMStSim

X RX Ss/

StSim X RSim X T X RStSirn X RSim X T X StX StSira X RSim X T

X RSim X TA lira X RSim X T X StX RM X RSim X T X R

StSim X RM X RSim X T X St X RStSira X RM X RSim X T X Ss/

StM X StSim X RM X RSim X fStM X StSira X RM X RSim X T X StStM X StSim X RM X RSim X T K R

StSim X RM X RSim X T X St X RX RM X RSim X T X Ss/

StMStM X StSim

df ir

1 1.0? 2.743 0.0?3 0,41 1.059 0.11

0.391 0.003 0.223 0.259 0.29

-1 )i )144 O.^i-l

1 3.51 9.00**3 0.49 1.263 0.119 0.30

0.391 2.54 10.16"-*

3 0.32 1.283 0.73 2.92*9 0.41 1.64

0.251 1.66 27.67**3 0.42 7.00**3 0.36 6 . 00**

9 0.34 5.67**0.06

3t and H durations. As shown In Figure 1, the curvesfor the 4:2, 1:^,. and 1/2:4 combinations of dura-tions through the four recall trials are negatively acceler-ated. However, for the 4:4 combination, even with 20 antlci-pation and three recall trials the mean of 14.00 for the lastrecall trial and the mean of 14.05 for the last pair of an-

ticipation trials were short of a perfect performance of 16

correct responses. The slope of the curve for the 4:4 corabi-

nation between Recall Trials 3 '^nd 4 was still relatively

steep so that perfect or near-perfect performance might have

been achieved with 5 or 10 more anticipation trials. The

corresponding slopes for the 2:4, 4:2, 1:4, and 1/2:4 combi-

nations were sufficiently less steep to preclude useful

graphic or visual estimates of the number of additional an-

ticipation and recall trials necessary for Ss to reach per-

fect or near-perfect recall.

The curves for the remaining 11 combinations, with the

possible exception of the curve for the 1:1/2 combination,

were still approximately linear. 'further, none had risen

sufficiently for satisfactory graphic or visual extrapola-

tion. The small number of points, relatively Halted seg-

ments of entire curves available for about half of the combi-

nations, and lack of a satisfactory rational basis were con-

sidered sufficient grounds for not fittlm^ the functions

necessary to estimate number of trials to perfect or asymp-

totic performances under each of the combinations of condi-

tions. Precluded, therefore, are comf>arison8 among combinations

33

of durations with respect to total amount of time to reacheither perfect or asymptotic performance.

In the analysis of variance, both 3t and H durations hadhighly significant effects with the latter the more potent

factor. Within each 3t duration, increasingly faster learn-

ing occurred with R durations of 1/2. 1, 2. and k sec. with-

in each R duration, increasingly faster learning occurred

with 3t durations of 1/2. 1. 2. and sec. The very small

mean square for the interaction of durations suggested that

each doubling of St and of H durations produced essentially

equal increments in numbers of correct responses. However,

each doubling of the ^ duration produced increments about

twice as large as those produced by each doubling of the St

duration.

The significant St x T and R x T interactions reflect

the greater differences among St durations and among R dura-

tions during the second trial block than during the first

trial block. The T x St x H interaction was not significant.

Stimulus characteristics . Highly significant ?s indi-

cated that responses recalled correctly were directly related

to M of stimulus and of response members and inversely rela-

ted to Sim of stimulus and of response members. The Fs fbr

the interactions of StM with StSlm and with RH were signifi-

cant as were the interactions of StSira with RSira and with HM,

The two interactions of particular importance are those for

StM and m and for StSim and RSim. The 3t7i x RM interaction

reflected increasing numbers of responses for combinations of

3^^

« of LL. HL. LH. and HH with pro.,ressively larger incrementsbetween each adjacent combination. The StSim x RSirn inter-action reflected increasing numbers of responses for cotnbina,

tions of Sim of HH, HL, LH, and LL with progressively largerincrements between each adjacent combination.

The significant StM x StSlm x m interaction reflected a

greater increment in numbers of correct responses from high

to low StSim with LH and HL than with HH and LL combinations

of M of stimulus and response members. A greater increment

in numbers of correct responses from high to low RSim with LH

and HL than with HH and LL combinations of l^. of stimulus and

response members gave rise to the significant StM x RM x RSim

interaction. Finally, the significant StSim x RM x RSim in-

teraction was due to a greater increment in numbers of correct

responses from high to low HSim with the LH, HH, and LL combi-

nations than with the HL combination of M of stimulus and re-

sponse members.

The significant interaction among all four stimulus char-

acteristics could be interpreted as due to progressively

larger differences among means for the four combinations of Ki

within combinations of Sim in the order LL, LH, HH, HL and to

progressively larger increments between adjacent combinations

of Sim in the order HH, LH, HL, LL.

All of the first-order interactions of each stimulus

characteristic with trials were significant from less than

.05 to less than .01. Some of the interactions of combina-

tions of stimulus characteristics with trials were also

35

significant. The pattern of relationships among means under-lying most, if not all of these interactions, was increas-

ingly large increments from the first to the second trial

blocks for successively easier combinations of stimulus char-

acteristics.

Durations and characteristics. Of the interactions in-

volvin£: durations and from one to all four stimulus charac-

teristics, disregarding and with trial blocks, 6 of 13 first-

order interactions, 6 of 10 second-order interactions, 5 of 8

third-order interactions, 3 of ^ fourth-order interactions,

and 2 of 2 fifth-order interactions were significant from

less than .05 to less than .01. The St x R x StSim x JtM x

RSlm X X T interaction was significant at less than .01.

The various significant interactions below the highest-

order interaction can be regarded as reflecting more promi-

nent features of the pattern of relationships among means

giving rise to the significant highest-order interaction.

Accordingly, rather than considering each of the former in-

teractions separately, the pattern of relationships underly-

ing the highest-order interaction is described. Table 7 pre-

sents increments in means of responses recalled correctly

from trial block 1 to 2 for the 256 combinations of durations

and characteristics. The 16 combinations of durations are

ordered downward in terms of increasing number of correct re-

sponses across all I6 combinations of characteristics. The

16 combinations are arranged from left to right in terms of

increasing numbers of correct responses across all I6

W

o

a

B 3oo ^

O -H

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ocvlc^r^v^HV^Or^r^l^-vo^cv^v^^r^ ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOH CD

ocnc\lv^^cvir^^^Hr^c\Jr^vovosoc^vo ^oooooooooooooooo oI I

rHr^Ocvicsjcvjjd-r^^r^HC^cv»Aooc^ <r\oooooooooooooooo o

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37

corflbinations of durations.

Proceeding downward, fco the right, or diagonally, the

increments are progressively larger. Shown in the last

column are means of increments for durations, disregarding

characteristics. Shown in the last row are means of incre-

ments for characteristics, disregarding durations. A rank-

order coefficient of .90 was obtained for the relationship

between means of increments and means of numbers of responses

recalled correctly through all trials under each combination

of durations. The rho was .31 for means of increments and

responses recalled correctly for each combination of charac-

teristics. The r between increments and means of responses

recalled correctly for all 256 combinations ves .54, which was

significant at less than .01. Thus the highest-order inter-

action reflected a pattern of increasing increments from the

first to the second trial block for increasingly easy combi-

nations of both durations and characteristics. Most of the

significant lower-order interactions involving durations and

trials, characteristics and trials, and durations, character-

istics, and trials can be regarded as special cases of this

more general pattern. The pattern also appeared in most of

the nonsignificant interactions but less markedly.

On the basis of an analysis of PA learning in terms of

stimulus Integration and response integration, the expecta-

tions were of decreasing differences in acquisition rates

among combinations of Sim, of M, and of Sim and M with longer

durations. When the same number of trials are administered

38

to all conditions, over-all acquisition rate can be expressed

as means of total numbers of correct responses. Instantane-

ous or "local" acquisition rate is indicated by increments in

means of correct responses from one trial block to the next.

Within each combination of stimulus durations, differences

among combinations of stimulus characteristics in either

over-all or local rates can be expressed as ranges or vari-

ances of means of numbers of correct responses or of incre-

ments in means.

In Table 8, combinations of durations are arranged down-

ward in order of Increasing means of responses recalled cor-

rectly. This order deviates slightly from the order for

total time of the sum of St and R durations, but the two

orders are highly correlated. Further, the order employed

allows for the relatively greater potency of R durations than

of St durations. Ranges and standard deviations of means of

correct responses for combinations of stimulus characteris-

tics within each combination of durations are shown, as are

means and standard deviations of increments in means from

trial block 1 to 2.

Contrary to expectations, as combinations of durations

became less difficult, ranges and standard deviations of

means of correct responses increased. Rank-order coefficients

of correlation of .66 and .53 were obtained for ranks with

respect to difficulty of durations and, respectively, ranges

and standard deviations for means of correct responses. The

ranges and standard deviations for increments in means of

39

Table 8

Ranges and Variances of Means of Correct Responses for

All Recall Tests and of Increments in Cleans of Correct

Responses from Trial Block 1 to 2 for Combinations

of Stimulus Characteristics within Combinations

of Durations of Decreasing Difficulty

eans of Correct ^iesponses Increments in Means

Range SD rtange 3D

1/2 1/2 1 6 0 . 6 1.87

1 1/2 0.9 2.16

1/2 1 1 7 7 OQ 0.9 2.62

2 1/2 2 0 1.5 3.70

1 1 i . N' 3.78

1/2 2 2.5 8.75 1.2 3.25

1/2 2.5 7.66 0.9 3.25

2 1 2.7 8.57 1.5 4.39

1 2 2.5 9.77 0.9 2.83

1 2.6 8.74 1.3 3.97

2 2 2.6 8.96 1.0 2.99

1 2.6 9.06 0.9 2.94

1/2 2.2 7.69 0.6 1.15

2 2.7 8.44 0.8 1.93

2 2.8 9.74 1.2 2.10

2.2 6.89 0.7 2.03

correct responses from trial block 1 to 2 first increasedwith decreasing difficulty of durations and then increased.

Consequently, the rank-order coefficients between ranks withrespect to difficulty and those for ranges and standard devi-ations were, respectively, -.1? and -.26. neither of which

was significant.

Discussion

The primary objective of the present experiment was todetermine the effects of St and of R durations on PA learning.

The secondary objective was, within combinations of durations,

to determine the effects of and Sim of stimulus and response

members on PA learning, h^indin-s for durations are discussed

first, then those for stimulus characteristics, and, finally,

those for durations and characteristics combined.

Durations

Means of frequencies and latencies of responses recalled

and of frequencies of anticipations on trials adjacent to re-

call trials were approximately direct functions of 3t duration

and of H duration. Each doubling of 3t and of ^ durations

produced approximately equal increments in means of responses

recalled. The increments produced by doubling R duration were

approximately twice those produced by doubling St duration;

thus, H duration was more potent than St duration.

Three details of these results are of interest: relation-

ships among response members, consistency between present and

previous findings, and the significance of these and previous

findings for theoretical interpretations of PA learning.

Relationships among response measures . For St and R

durations, disregarding Sim and M of stimulus and response

members, the family of curves through the four recall trials

for recall frequency and the family of curves for recall

latency were mirror images. The relationship between the

^2

family of curves for recall frequency and the family for fre-quency of anticipations was more complex. Por the level of

performance achieved in 25 anticipation and recall trials,

the 1/2-sec. St duration was simply too short for complete

anticipation responses to occur. Indeed, 3s were rarely able

to begin an anticipation response in 1/2 sec. l.ith the 1/2-

sec. St duration regardless of R durations, no correct an-

ticipations occurred. Whether at least some Ss would eventu-

ally be able to shorten their anticipation latency to the

200-300rasec. necessary for occurrence of a complete antici-

pation response prior to exposure of response members is con-

jectural. The shortest latency of recall responses achieved

in 25 trials was 800 msec.

Failure to anticipate did not mean that no learning had

occurred. In the l/2:l/2-8ec. and l/2:l-sec. combinations,

some correct responses were obtained on recall trials, and

their frequency increased slightly over trials. }]ore marked

increases in responses recalled correctly were obtained in

the 1/2:2- and l/2:4-sec. combinations. Thus, even with very

short St durations, with sufficient time to respond, there is

evidence of some, though slight, learning. Furthermore, for

progressively longer 3t durations, the curves for anticipa-

tion responses for the four R durations were increasingly

closer to the corresponding curves for recall responses so

that, for the 4-sec. St duration, there were essentially no

differences between pairs of curves for anticipation and re-

call responses in the 4:1/2-, 4:1-, 4:2-, and 4:4-sec.

43

combinations. Although no formal statistical test was em.ployed, comparison of the families of curves for recall andfor anticipation responses suggests an interaction amon:

durations, characteristics, trials, and response measures in

the form of greater divergence through trials of curves for

anticipation responses than of those for recall responses.

The range of means of anticipation responses was greater

than that for means of recall frequencies; but rank-orders of

means for durations, disregarding- characteristics, and of

means for durations and characteristics combined were compar-

able. :^he correlations between these means of recall and an-

ticipation responses for l-sec. 2-.sec., and 4-sec. St dura-

tions both separately and combined were from .85 to .96. Most

of the correlations between recall and anticipation scores for

individual 3s within a sample of combinations of durations and

characteristics were above .60 and half were .90 or above.

Thus, except for combinations involving the 1/2-sec. Jt dura-

tions, recall and anticipation frequencies for groups of Ss

and for Ss within groups were highly related. Even stronger

relationships were obtained between recall frequency and re-

call latency. On the whole, these correlations were suffi-

ciently high to suggest that only responses on recall trials

need be recorded. Furthermore, for si ort St durations, re-

oall trials provide evidence of the formation of associations

which cannot be obtained under an anticipation technique of

presentation.

Present and previous finding:s . The previous findings of

greatest pertinence are those of Hovland {19^9) for 1:1- and2:2-sec. durations, of Goss. r^organ and Golin (I959) for 2:2-

and 3:3-sec. cluratlons. and of Vilcoxon, WHson and Wise

(1961) for 1:1-, 2:2-, and 4:i^-sec. durations. ^or these

confounded St and R durations, trials to criterion was an in-

verse function of durations. Totals of times to criterion,

however, were essentially invariant.

In the present experiment, disregarding stimulus charac-

teristics. 57, 187. 263, and 412 correct responses were ob-

tained thr>ough all four recall trials with, respectively, the

1:1-, 2:2-, 3:3-, and k:k~3eo. combinations. The eightfold

increase in length of exposure to members of pairs of the kik.

sec. combination, relative to pairs of the l/2:l/2-sec. corabi-

nation, produced slightly less than an eightfold increase in

total number of responses recalled. However, by the third

recall trial, the curve for the k:k~sec. combination showed

negative acceleration and. by the fourth recall trial, was

fairly close to a criterion of perfect performance. In con-

trast, the curves for the 1/2:1/2-, 1:1-, and 2:2-sec. combi-

nations were not sufficiently high to show negative acceler-

ation and hence diminishing returns per unit of practice,

with more trials, therefore, numbers of trials to perfect

performance with 1/2:1/2-, 1:1-, and 2:2-sec. combinations

might increase over those for the 4:4-sec. combinations more

than 2. k, and 8 times, respectively. Por reasons noted pre-

viously, extrapolation of the curves obtained in the present

study to estimate trials at which asymptotic or perfect

^5

performance might be reached was not considered feasible.

Whether or not trials to criterion are inversely related to

St and to R durations, but total time to criterion is invari-

ant, oiust be determined by carrying Ss under each combination

of 3t and a durations to asymptotic or to perfect performance.

The 2:2-sec. combination is the conventional one for in-

vestigations of PA learning. The curve for this combination

was slightly above the middle of the families of curves for

recall and anticipation measures. A 2;2-sec. combination,

therefore, produces relatively representative performance.

However, should total time to criterion prove essentially in-

variant over a wide range of combinations of St and of i dura-

tions, considerable savings in Es' recording efforts can be

achieved by using combinations of longer durations which

should entail fewer trials.

Theoretical siRnificance . The present findings of ef-

fects of St and R durations are of theoretical significance

in terms of relationships between classical conditioning and

PA learning, and with respect to interpretations of the proc-

esses which enter into PA learning.

Parallels can be suggested between the elements and re-

lationships among elements of classical-conditioning situa-

tions and the elements and relationships among elements of

single units of PA learning situations. However, the present

findings do not suggest parallel effects of essentially the

same temporal variable, the CS-UCS interval in classical con-

ditioning and St duration in PA learning. For the purpose of

k6

comparison, the only satisfactory data from classical condi-

tioning- are those on frequency of conditioned eyelid closures

by human os as functions of the CS-UGS Interval m delay and

short trace conditioning. A 1/2-sec. Interval has generally

proved optimal (Kimble, 196I). The 20 anticipation trials of

PA learning of the present experiment are only one-third to

one-fifth of those usually administered in classical condi-

tioning of eyelid closure. Nonetheless, by the second block

of 10 trials of eyelid conditioning, most Ss make one or more

CRs. In contrast, anticipatory nonsense-syllable responses

were not even beginning to occur by the end of 20 anticipation

trials of PA learning. Moreover, in terms of nonsense-sylla-

ble responses anticipated and recalled correctly in the same

number of trials, acquisition rate and, possibly, asymptotic

performance were directly related to St duration.

One direction of reconciliation of findings of effects

of the CS-UCS interval and of St duration is to assume that

longer ;t durations allowed more frequent rehearsal of the

relationship between stimulus members and responses to paired

response members. Thus, lengthening St duration in PA learn-

ing would have the same effect as increasing the number of

trials in classical conditioning with a 1/2-sec. CS-UCS in-

terval. Unfortunately for the purpose of comparison, time

within a trial in PA learning is then equated with number of

trials in classical conditioning, furthermore, this inter-

pretation of within-trial events in PA learning provides no

reconciliation of findings of acquisition as a direct function

47

asof 3t duration with findings of poorer eyelid conditioningthe CS-UCS interval increased beyond 500 msec. Finally, at

least in the present experiment, most 3s did not report any

type of rehearsal during the interval in anticipation trials

when stimulus raembers were presented alone.

Implicit in the suggested reconciliation by means of a

direct relationship between .-t duration and amount of re-

hearsal is the problem of definition of a trial. Definition

of a trial as a single observed or inferred occurrence of a

particular response during or immediately after the presence

of a particular stimulus may approximate the most satisfac-

tory theoretical criterion of a trial. However, until some

better means of empirical or inferential specification of

single stimulus and response sequences is developed, the most

feasible criterion for a trial in i'k learning is overlapping

or immediately successive occurrences of stimulus and response

members or occurrences of one or the other alone for some

minimum duration, just as the most feasible criterion for a

trial in classical conditioning is paired presentation of the

CS and UCS or presentation of one or the other alone. By

these criteria of trials in PA learning and classical condi-

tioning, achievement for anticipatory responses during 20

trials of PA learning lags behind achievement for anticipatory

CHs during 20 trials of classical eyelid conditioning.

Underwood and 3ohulz (I960) propose two overlapping

stages of Pa learning: response integration and association

of a particular response to a particular stimulus. Cross

k8

(1963) suggests a third stage: reduction of latency of the

association between a particular stimulus and a particular

response.

With respect to response integration, it was suggested

earlier that lengthening <l duration should give Ss more time

per trial to rehearse each response member and thus hasten

integration and increase availability of response members.

Of Ss who experienced R durations of 1/2, 1, 2, and 4 sec,

^5%9 55%, 62%, and SZi, respectively, reported that, at some

time during acquisition, they rehearsed during the period

stimulus and response members were presented together. About

90% of Ss who said they rehearsed, reported rehearsing the

response member, rather than the stimulus member or both.

Thus, an important if not the primary basis of the direct re-

lationship between acquisition and ? duration is probably

greater response integration and availability due to more

opportunity to rehearse response members, and greater use of

this opportunity.

The data of the present experiment are of little value

for explicating the course of formation of associations be-

tween integrated, available response members and the stimulus

members with which they were paired. However, the discrepancy

between responses recalled and responses anticipated with,

particularly, the 1/2-sec. St duration, but also the 1-sec.

St duration, is corroborative of the notion of a latency-

reduction stage in PA learnin/;?. Although none of the 3s were

able to anticipate in 1/2 sec, during the longer time for

^9

response of the recall trial some correct responses did occur:correct associations had been formed but could not bo revealedin very short anticipation intervals. The superiority of re-

call to anticipation frequencies di.uinished with 1- and 2-sec.

St durations and essentially disappeared with the i+-sec. 3t

duration. However, the greater number of recall than of an-

ticipation responses with the two intermediate ,t durations

suggests that stronger associations between stimuli and re-

sponses had been formed than were indicated by frequencies of

anticipatory responses.

The greater potency of H duration than of 5t duration,

and also the tendency to rehearse response members, rather

than stimulus members or both, may have reflected essentially

the same weighting of factors presumed to underlie the greater

potency of M of response members than of il of stimulus mem-

bers. In conventional PA learning, all that is required is

differential recognition responses to stimulus members. Such

differentiation may oftentimes be merely noticing and respond-

ing to the particular one of the three letters of a member

which is different from the letters of most or of all of the

other stimulus members. But response members must be differ-

entiated from each other and differential recognition re-

sponses iTiust be integrated into units which can be rehearsed

readily and can be said during short anticipation intervals.

Because lengthening R durations allows greater opportunity

both for differentiation and for integration, IJ duration

should be more potent than St duration.

50

stimulus CharaoteristlGs

In the present experiment, effects of 51m and M of stim-ulus and response members on acquisition were less important£er se than as providln,, a ran«e of differences among the com-blnations in a rank-order reasonably consistent with otherfindings for those same combinations. Uisregardinc 3im, thedirect relationships between M of stimulus and of responsemembers and the greater potency of M of response members were

consistent with previous findings for mixed, partly-mixed,

and unmixed lists (Goss * Nodine, I962) as were, disregarding

M. the inverse relationships between Sim of stimulus and re-

sponse members. Contrary to previous findings. 31m of stimu-

lus members was less potent than Sim of response members.

The mixed list of the present study was the first in

which all 16 combinations of high and low M and Sim of stim-

ulus and response members were realized. The rank-order for

these combinations in a mixed list might be compared to their

rank-order in Goss. Nodine. Gregory. Taub and Kennedy's (I962)

Experiments lA and IB, In which each combination was repre-

sented by a different four-pair list. The correlation coef-

ficient obtained in this coraparlson was .68. The most impor-

tant difference in ranks was the much greater relative diffi-

culty of the combination of low and high Sim of both stimu-

lus and response members among the unmixed lists than of the

pair representing this combination within the mixed list.

Sampling of pairs representing particular combinations is the

probable basis for this and other discrepancies between ranks

51

of particular combiaations of Sim and M of stimulus and re-sponse members in mixed and unmixed lists.

There were, however, differences In the Joint actions ofstimulus Characteristics. With the unmixed lists, -.ost ofthe interactions among various combinations of Sim and ri ofstimulus and response members were nonsignificant. In the

present experiment with a mixed list, several of these inter-

actions. includln,2 the interaction of all four characteris-

tics, were significant: their pattern was progressively

larger differences between adjacent combinations for succes-

sively easy combinations.

The processes presumed to underlie effects of M and Sim

of stimulus and response members were described briefly ear-

lier; they are described more extensively elsewhere (Goss,

1963; Goss, Nodine, Gregory, Taub, 4 Kennedy, 1962). The

significance of effects on acquisition rate of stimulus char-

acteristics as such is primarily as confirmation and exten-

sion of Goss, Nodine, and Levitt's (196I) findings of differ-

ences in effects of Sim and M of stimulus and response mem-

bers of single paired associates (-experiments IV, V).

Durations and Characteristics

jixamlnation of the basis of the highest-order interac-

tion, the interaction involving 3t and R durations, all four

stimulus characteristics, and trials, revealad a relatively

si aple pattern. All 256 combinations of durations and charac-

teristics were arranged in order of increasin^^ numbers of cor-

rect responses through all four recall trials for the combina-

52

tlons of durations, and sioiilarly for the combinations ofstimulus characteristics. Increments from trial block 1 to 2were then calculated for each of the 256 conibinations a. ar-ranged in this manner (Table 7). ^or progressively easiercombinations of durations, of characteristics, and of both,the increments increased. The 256 combinations could be

viewed as producing differences among means during the firstblock of trials which were even greater during the second

block. While the Str^ X StSim x \m x iiSim interaction was sig-

nificant, within each of the combinations of durations rank-

orders of combinations of stimulus characteristics were essen-

tially the same. Thus, for pro ressively longer durations,

all 16 combinations of stimulus characteristics were displaced

upward, and differences among them became more pronounced.

Most of the significant lower-order interactions in-

volving trials also reflected Increasing increments from

trial block 1 to 2 for progressively easier combinations of

durations, of characteristics, or of both. Except for degree,

the same pattern of relationships among means was apparent in

many of the nonsignificant interactions. :i duration entered

into more significant interactions than did St duration. The

relationships producing significant interactions in combina-

tions of conditions involving 1 duration often occurred in

the same form in combinations involving 3t duration, but were

sufficiently attenuated to preclude significant interactions.

The direct effects of M of stimulus and response members

on acquisition rate have been interpreted as due to degree of

integration of recognition responses to those members.

Greater integration of recognition responses to stimulus mem-bars is viewed as allowing 3s more time for anticipation andfor rehearsal. Greater integration of recognition responsesto response members presumably provides a more complete unitfor anticipation earlier In acquisition and also allows more

time for rehearsal. Sim of stimulus and of response members

are also conceived as influencing recognition responses: the

greater the Sim. the greater the difficulty of forming stable,

different recognition responses.

Len^^thenlng St duration, R duration, or both can be re-

garded as providing increased opportunity for Ss to form

stable, different recognition responses to stimulus members

and to response members. Therefore, as durations lengthen,

all pairs representing combinations of stimulus characteris-

tics should benefit. In the present experiment, the combina-

tions which benefitted most from longer durations were those

which during the first half of the trials seemingly had the

most stable, dlscriminable recognition responses.

r-lost PA learning tasks, as noted above, require only

differentiations among stimulus members; but recognition re-

sponses to response members must be both Integrated and dif-

ferentiated. Accordingly, concentration on response members

and, as a consequence, relatively greater potency of R dura-

tions and of M of response members would be anticipated.

Supporting this anticipation were ^s* reports that their re-

hearsals were primarily of response members during exposure

5^

of stimulus and response members together.

St duration was probably of some importance with respectto opportunity to develop stable, differential recognition

responses to stimulus members. However, the marked discrep-

ancies between frequency of anticipation responses and fre-

quency of recall responses with the 1/2-sec. and 1-sec. St

durations, which diminished with the 2- and k^aec. St dura-

tions, suggest that the particular significance of St dura-

tion is simply providing sufficient tifne for associations

which exist in some strength to occur. ore generally, oppor-

tunity for single responses and chains of responses to occur

to stimuli is an obvious and important, but often overlooked,

prerequisite to occurrence of correct responses.

Effects of r\ and Sim of stimulus and response members on

acquisition rates were analyzed in terms of underlying proc-

esses of stimulus integration and response integration. The

expectations based on this analysis were decreasing differ-

ences in acquisition rates due to Sim, M, and Sim and n com-

bined for longer 3t and H durations. Some interactions of St

duration, and particularly of d duration, with stimulus char-

acteristics alone were significant; but the pattern of these

interactions which was of increasing differences with longer

durations vxas opposite that predicted.

The interactions of one or both durations with two or

more of the stimulus characteristics were interpreted within

the pattern of the si^rnificant interaction among St and R

durations, the four stimulus characteristics, and trials.

55

Differences among means of correct responses indicated by theranges and standard deviations of their distributions in-creased with decreasing, difficulty of 3t and H durations.

Differences among increments from trial block 1 to 2 increasedand then decreased with decreasing difficulty of durations.

Thus, the findings for differences among means of correct re-

sponses for the combinations of stiaiulus characteristics weredirectly contrary to expectations; and those for increments

of a form which had not been anticipated.

Other aspects of the findings, such as Ss' reports of

rehearsal during the period stimulus and response members

were presented together, are consistent with a response inte-

gration analysis of PA learning. In order to maintain a

stimulus integration and response integration analysis of PA

learning of simple form, the most plausible explanation of

the contrary findings is that Ss' mastery of the list under

the shorter Jt and R durations had not progressed sufficiently

to reveal maximum differences among means of correct responses

and among increments in means of correct responses for succes-

sive trial blocks.

56

on

re-

Summary

Acquisition of a list of 16 paired associates was inves-tigated as functions of orthogonal combinations of duratiof stimulus members alone and of duration of stimulus and

sponse members together, of meaning fulness of stimulus and ofresponse members, and of similarity among stimulus and among

response members. Bach of the paired associates represented

one of the combinations of high or low meaningfulness and

similarity of stimulus and response members. The durations

of stimulus members alone were 1/2. 1, 2, and 4 sec. and the

durations of stimulus and response members together were also

1/2, 1, 2, and 4 sec. Ten Ss were assigned to each of the

combinations of durations.

Pour blocks of five acquisition trials with the antici-

pation technique of presentation were each followed by a re-

call trial in which stimulus members alone were presented for

4 sec. The last recall trial was followed by one additional

acquisition trial.

The three response measures were number of correct re-

sponses and latency of responses on recall trials, and also

number of correct responses on the acquisition trial just be-

fore and just after each recall trial. Because high correla-

tions obtained between recall and anticipation frequencies

and between recall frequencies and latencies, statistical

analyses were performed only on recall scores.

Responses recalled correctly were a direct function of

57

duration of stimulus members, duration of stimulus and re-sponse members together, meaningfulness of stimulus membersand meaninsfulness of response members; they were an inversefunction of similarity among stimulus members and of simi.larity among response members. Duration of stimulus and re-sponse members together was more potent than duration of

stimulus members alone. Similarity among response members

had a more pronounced effect than similarity among stimulus

members. The same relationship held for meaningfulness of

stimulus and response members.

Various significant interactions amon^ durations, charac-

teristics and trials were obtained, including the interaction

among the two duration variables, the four stimulus variables,

and trials. Both this highest-order interaction and many of

the lower-order interactions involving trials were interpret-

able as increasing increments in correct responses through

trials for combinations of durations, of characteristics, and

of both which led to progressively larger means for all trials.

The results were considered consistent with an analysis

of paired-associates learning in which meaningfulness and

similarity of stimulus and response members are conceived as

acting through stable, discriminable recognition responses to

stimulus and to response members. Lengthening durations of

stimulus members alone and lengthening durations of stimulus

and response members to^^ether are presumed to provide greater

opportunity for occurrence and rehearsal of such recognition

responses.

58

References

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61

Appendix A

Data for Number Correct on Recall and Anticipation Trials andLatencies for each S on Trial Blocks 1 and 2 for each Combi-

nation of Stimulus Characteristics and Stimulus i^rations

Listed below are the numbers used in the Tables which

follow to designate each of the 16 combinations of high or

low Sim and M of 3t and R.

St R

Code Sim M Sim i 1

1 un rU H H

2 Txt

TLi H H

J un TLi L H

T Tll L H

5 H L H L

6 L L H L

7 H L L L

8 L L L L

9 H H H H

10 L H H H

11 H H L H

12 L H L H

13 H H H L

14 L H H L

15 H H L L

16 L H L L

62

O4)

oCO

o

oo

CM

00

0^

CM

CO omH O»H r-l

09

43

OCM OH OO OO HH OO OOo o o o o o o

o o o

CM

o o o o o o o

OO OO OO OO OO

o O O O O oOO OO OO OO

OO OO OO HCM HCM OO OO

rHOJ OH OO OO OO OO OCM

OH OO OO OCV OO OO OO

OO OO OO OO o

OO HO OO OO OO

O O H

OO OO OO HCM O

O O O O O CM

o O O o o O

o o o o o o

o o o o o o

O O O O H CM

CM CM O CM CM CM

o o o O O o

OO OO OO OO OO

OO OO OO OCM OO OO OH O O CO O O

OO OO OO OO OO

OO OO OO OO OO OO OO

OO OO OO OO O

O O O O O O

O O O O O o

OO OO OO OO OO

OO OCM OO OO CM H OH HCM

OO OO OO OO OO OO OO

O O O O O o

o o o o o o

OO OO OO OO OO OO OO OO OO OO

Cvi HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM

CM 00 ON

NO•HCVi rH<M OO OCvi

iH<M OO CCM OO

O (H O O O O O

OCM OO rHCNi rHCVJ OO

<N» CVJ o O r-l CM rHCVi OO rHCM r^C^^

O OO OCM r-ICsi OO OO o

O O O O O O t-i

O O O O O O O

O O O iH O O iH

63

OO OO OrH HCM OO OO

OO OO OO OCM OO OO

O OO OO OO OO OO OHO OO OO OO OCM OO OO OO OO OCM

OO rHCM rHCM HCM

iH O CM CM O CM

r-i O O O O O O

CMCM OO OCM OrH OCM OO H CM HO OCM OH

OO OO OO HCM OO OO OO Or O O O O

O OO OO OO OO OH OO

H OO OO OO OO OH OO

fH OO OO OO OO OO OO

rHCM CMCM HCM HCM OO OH OH OH OH OCM

CMCM HCM OH HO OH OO HH OCM OO OO

OCM OO OH OH OO OO HO OO OCM OCM

OCM OO OH OO OO OO OO OO OO OO

CM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM CM

CM ^ \0 00 c^

6^

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00

r-i i<cs o^ oU rH?H CD

CO

00

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OrH OO OO OO

O O O rH rH O rH O O

OO Csl C\i OO rH CM rH CM H CM CM CM

CM C^ 00 Ov

H CNJ OO OO OO OH

< pH OO OrH OO H CM

OCM OO OO OO OrH OO OO OO OO OO

rHCM OO rHCM O CM rH Cvi CMO OH O CM H CM CM

.HCM OO 0<M CMCM H CM CM H H CM O CM O CM CM Cvj

OO OCM OCM CMCM OH H CM CM OJ OO OO H CM

HO H CM

OCM OO OCM HCM OH OCM OCM OO OH OCM

OO OO OO OO OH OO OO OO OO OH

OO OH OO HO OH OO HO HH OO OH

OH OO OH OO OO OO OO OH OH OO

CMCM OH CMCM OH CMCM H CM OCM OO OO OCM

OO OO HH OH HH OO HH OH OO OO

OCM OO OO OO OO OH H CM OO OO OO

OO OO OO OH OO OO OO OO OO OO

CM H CM H CM H CM H CM H CM H CM H CM H CM H (V

OH

65

rHrH OO (MCM CVCSJ CsJ C\J CSJ CM CVi CNJ CM

OCV OO CMCM rHCM OM rH r

rH rH

H (NJ rH rH

rH CM O CM

rH CM O O

OO OO OCM OCM rHCM OO rH CM O CM O O O

OO OO OO CMCM O O rH OCM OO OO O

H CM CMCM rH CM OCM CMCM CM O CM H CM O CM

OCM CMrH CMCM CMCM O rH CMCM CMCM CMCM H CM rH CM

rH rH O rH CMCM CMCM CMCM

CMCM OCM rH Cvl CMCM O CsJ

O rH CMCM O Cvi rH CM O rH

rHrH rHCvi rHOJ rHCM rHrH

OrH OO CMCM CMCM OCM rHCM rHCM OCM H CM H C^J

rHrH OO OrH CMrH OH OCM OCM rHCM OrH OO

OrH OO rHCM rHCM rHCM OO O rH O rH O O

OO OO rHCM OCM C^iCM OCM OCM OO CMrH OO

OO rHrH CMCM CMCM CM OJ CM H CM CMCM O CvJ OCM

OO rHCM CMCM OCM OO OCM OCM CMCv? CMCM

OO OO rHCM CMCM rHCM CMCM H CM OCM H CM rHCM

OO rHCM OO OCM OrH OO rH O O O O

rH CM r-i rH CM CM CM rHCM H CM rHCM rHCM rHCM

CM <r\ 00 O

tH

iH

rHrH

OrH

O

00

O CM oo oo oo o o oo oo oo oo

oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo

O O O r-4

66

ocvj OO oo oo OO OM rvjcvj OO OO ooOO oo oo oo oo OrM HfM OO OO OO

o o

o o

i-t o orHCVi oo rHCM OO rH CVJ O rH OO O (NJ CM

rHCV OO HCV OrH OCM OOvj OO OO OCM OO

OrH OO OO OrH OCM OO OO OO OO OrH

OO OO OO OO OO CMCM OO OO OO OH

OH OO OO OO OO OH OO OO OH OO

OO OO OO OH OH OH OO OO OO OO

OO OO OO OO OO OCM OO oo OH OO

OO OH OO OO OO OH OH HC\1 OO OO

OH OCM OH OO OO OH OO OH OO OO

OO OO OH OH (M CM OO

OO OO OO OO OO OO OO OO OCM OO

OO OO OO OO oo oo OCM OO OO OO

H ^cij o•H OU H

<Ni HCM HCV HCM HC>J H(M CM CV» H CM H CM

I

CO Q)

CM C^ CO ON

67

fH

O

ON

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O iH O O O r-4

O rH O O O O

O rH C\J CV O O

O CV O CNJ o o

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O rH O OJ rH C\J O

OO OO OOM rHC\!

O O O CVJ O OJ

OO OO OO OO OO OO

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OO OH CNJ rH CM <M H C\i O rH

O rH OO OO OO O pH OO

OO HO OO OO HH HO

OO OH OO OO OO O

OH O O

OH OO OO OO OCVi OO OO 0(\"

H O

o O o o o o o

HCM HPsJ HCM COCV

OCVJ OO OH HCNJ OCVJ OO HCM O CM H CM O CM

OO HH HCM OCM

rHO OO OCM OH HCM OCM OCM OCM OH OH

rHO OH OH OO OH OCM OO OO OC^J HCM

OO OO OO OO

OO OO OO OO

O OO OO CM CM OH

OCM OO HCM C^CM CMCM OCM OCM CMCNJ OO OCM

OO OCM OO HCM HCM OH OH O HH OO

OH OO HH OO OCM OH OO

O O O O

HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HtV HCM HCM

1/5

CO

-pO CM 00 CN

On

00

OO OO rH CM O rH O

O (M O O rH C\J

H CV rH rsj

<M OrH OiOJ OrH Or-

O (M O

O O rH

O rH Csl OO OO O (V O Cvi OO O

OO OO OO OrH OO O

OH CM CJ OrH OH OO O

68

OH HCM rHH CMCM CM CM H CV2 O H CM H H CM

OO OO OO OO OCM CMH O CM OO H CV2 OH

OO OO OO OH OOOO OO HH OO OO OO OO OO OH OO

H CM HCM HCM HCM H CM H CM OO

H CM O O

CM CM O OH OCM OH HCM CMH O r-

CM CMCM OO HCM HCM CM CV C\2 CM CMCM

H H CM O O

OH OH OO OO

OO OO OO OO OO OH OO OH OH OO

OO OH OCM OO HO OO OO HCV OH OO

HCM OO HCM OCM CMCM OCNJ CMCM HCV CMCM OCM

OH CMCM OCM HCM CMCM OCM HCM HCV HCM OH

CM O O O CM O

OO OO OH OO OO OO OO OO HH OO

H jmC3 O•H OH HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCV HC\! HCM HCM

CO

to

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69

0^

rH

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ON

CO

VO

C^JCM CMCM CM O CM CM cM CM O CM CM CM CM CM

OCM OCM HCM OO OrH O CM O CM H CM CM CM

OCM OCM O.H OO OO OH H CM OrH rH CM OCM

OCM HCM OH OO OO OCM OCM OO OO OCM

C^iCM OH CMCM HO HCM HCM HCM CMM HCM CMOJ

CM

H CMCMCM OCM CNJCM Of^ HCM CMCM OCM HO) CM<N2

OH HCM HCM HO HCM HCvJ OCM HCN) OCM HCM

HCM CMCM OO HCM CMCM CMCM HC^] CMC\? HCM

HCM CMC-J HH OO OCM OH OO HM CMCM CMCM

OH OCM OO OO OO OO OO OH OH OCM

OO OO HCM OO OCM OO OO OO OCM HCM

OH OH OO OH OH OCM OCM HM OCM OH

CM P4 H CM CM H CM OH OH <M ^; H C^J CM CM CM CVJ

CMCM CMCM HH OO OCM HCM HCM OH CMCM CMCM

CM H HCM CMCM OO OO HCM OCM OCM HCM HCM

OO HCM OH OO OH OH OO OO OO OCM

H ^CO o.H OU H H CM H CM H CM CM CM HCM HCVJ Htv? HCM HCM

CO

•PO0)

CM CO 00 CJv O

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fv2 CVJ rH

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OO rH CM OO OH OO OO OO OO

70

OO rHCVJ OrH OO OO OO OO O CVi OO OOHO OO rHO OO OO OO OO OO OO OH

O CVJ

OO OO OO OO OCM OO OO OO OO OO

OOJ CViCNJ HCM OO oca OW OCVJ rHCVi OCM OCVJ

HCM fXJJM CMCM OO OC\J M CM OH OH OO OCM

OH CMCM OCM HCM OCM OO OCM OCM OO CM CM

H H CSJ OH CM CM

CM OH OH OO OH OO OO OO OCM

H O O

OH OCM OH OO OO OO OO OH OO OO

O O O

OCM CMCM OMH OO OO HCM HCM OH OH OCM

OH OCM OH HH OH OCM OO OO OO HH

OO HCM OH OO CMCM OH OO OO OO

OO OO OO OH OO OO OO OO OO OCM

HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM

CM C^ vr\ MD CO crs

71

o o o OO OrH OO OrH r^ CVJ CM C\2 OO

OO r-\Oi O OO OO OO O O O CM O O O

rHCVJ CMCNi OO CMCVJ OrH CM CM OO rH OO OO

OO OO OrH OO OO OCM OO OO OO OO

OCM rHCM CMrH OCM rHCM CMCM rHCM CMCM CM CM OCM

CM rHCM rHCM OCM OCM rH CM CMCM rHCM OCM OCM

HrH OO rHCM rHCM rHCM rHCM OrH rHCM O ,H rHCM

OO rHCM OCM OH OO OO OrH CMCM OrH OCM

OCM OrH OO OrH OO OCM OCM OrH OrH OH

CMCM H CM OO OO OO OO OH OO OO H CM

HO OO OO OO HH OO OO OO OO OO

OO OO OCM H CM OH OO OO OO OO OO

<V CM H CM H CM OH OO CM O OCM OCM H CM CMCM

H CM OCM OCM H CM OO OH OO OCM H CM CMCM

OO OCM OO OH OCM OH OCM OCM OCM OCM

OO OO OH OO OO OH OO OO CMO OO

H CM H CM HCM H CM H CM H (M H CM H CM H CM CM

CM C^ 00 <3N

H OO OO rHCVJ M CVi O rH rH CVJ O CVJ O C\J

OO OOJ OrH OrH OO OO O

O O O CvJ O rH

O O rH

O O rH

r-t O O

<N OO OrH OrH OO

OO OO OO OC\} rHOJ OO OH OO O rH O O

OrH CM CM pH C\J <M CM CM CM

H CM rH

OCM CMCM rHCM CMrH

O CM OrH OO OvJ <M CMCM pH O H CM rH CvJ

CM

OH CMCM CMCM OCM OH H CM CMCM 0^ CM

CM CMCM HCM CMCM OH OO O CvJ CM CvJ H CM OH

CM

OO OCM OO HCM OCM HCM OO OCM OO OCM

OH OO OO CMH OO OO OO HH OO OH

O OO OH OH OO OO OO OO OO

OH HO OO HH OCM OO OO CM CM OO CMO

CM HCM HCM CslCM G HCM CMCM OH OJH OCM

OCM OCM OO CMCM HCM OH OCM CMCM CMH HCM

OO OO HCM CMCM OCM OO OCM OCM OH O

OO OO OCM OCM OO OO OO OH OH O

CM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM H HCM HCM

Cvi C^ CO o

C\JC>J OH iHCV Orvj rACsl OCV rHCM rHCM rHCvI

73

rHfvi OO CMCM HCN2 HCM CMOJ CvJCM OCM CVJCVJ HCM

OCVi OH rHCNi OCsJ 0(M OC\ rH C\i O O rH O C\}

rH O C\J

HCV OO OCM OO HCM OO H CV O CVJ O

<NC\J OH HCg OO OH OO OH O (NJ OO OH

HCM CMC\} CNJCM CMCV HCVJ CMCM HCM H<M CVJCV

HOJ HCM CMCM OC^i HCM CMCM CMCM HCM CJCM HCM

HCM CMCM CM CM OCM CMCM CJCM HCM CMCM CMCM CMCM

CMCM HOJ CMCM OO O Cv) CMCM HCM HCM OH Cvi CM

CM CM

HCM OO OCM OO OH OO OH OH OO OCM

OH OO OCM OH OO OH CMCM OCM HH OCM

OH HO OH OCM OH HCM OCM OCM

CMCM HCM CM OJ HCM CMCM CMCM CMCM HCM CMCM H CJ

CMCM HH CMCM HCM HCM CMCM CMCM OCM OO CMCM

HCM OCM OCM OH OH OCM CMCM CMCM OCM CMCM

CMCM OO HH OO OO OO HCM OCM OO OCM

CM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCO HCM HCM

CM 0^ 00 o oH

7^

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oo oo oo oo H cv (M OO oo OJCNJ O

oo OO OO ocvj OO oo ooj OH ocj oo

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CM H OJ OH H CM H CM H Cvl O CM CM CM H H O Oi

HCM CMCM HCM CMCM OCM OCM OO OCV OH HCM

OO OO OO Cvi CM CM CM HCM HCM CMCM OH HCM

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CM H OO OH OO HH OO OO HO OO OCM

OO CMCM HCM OCM OH HCM OO OCM HCM O

OO HH HCM HO HCM CMCM OCM OO OO HCM

OO OCM OO OH OCM OCM OO OH OH CMCM

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HCM ^^CM HCM HCM HCM HCM HCM HC^i HCM CM

CM C^ 00 ON oH

75

NO

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C\J

iH

iHiH

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ON

00

rH CV O O tH <>J OCV OC\J OCVi 0<M rMOsl rH O

rHCM O rH OrH O rH rH Csl O rH

OrH OrH OCM OrH

OO OO CM C\} OO OO OO OO

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110

Appendix B

Instructions

This is an experiment in learning nonsense syllables andnot a psychological test. We are interested in certain com-plex relationships of the learning process common to allpeople, and are not concerned with your personal reactions.

When the task begins a shutter viill drop covering theright half of this vjindow. At the same time you will see anonsense syllable in the left half of the window. After ashort period, the shutter will go up presentin,<^ a second non-sense syllable. The two syllables together represent a pairwith the first or left-hand syllable as the stimulus and thesecond or right-hand syllable as the response. You are tolearn to associate the two syllables so that when the stimuluappears you can spell the response as quickly as possible be-fore the syllable for that response is exposed. There areseveral pairs of syllables. These pairs do not follow eachother in any regular order. The two syllables which make upeach pair, however, are always paired together.

An example is the nonsense syllable XYZ which first ap-pears alone for a short time, after which its paired responsePxiR, is exposed. Your task is to spell ?'-^R as soon as pos-sible after seeing XYZ and before the shutter goes up to ex-pose PQ,R. Try to say each letter as distinctly as possible.

Occasionally, there will be a trial on which only thefirst or left-hand stimuli appear. On such trials, keep re-sponding as before by spelling out the response to each ofthose stimuli as quickly as possible. No responses willappear.

l^hen you see each stimulus, if you think you know whatthe response should be, but are not sure, goiess because itwill not hurt your score any more than to say nothing and ifyou are correct it will be counted a success. If you don'tguess, or if you guess wrong, correct youriself by spellingthe correct response out loud as soon as it appears.

Please do not make up fanciful connections between thetwo syllat^les of a pair to assist your learning. Do not tryto use any special system in your learning; simply learn to

spell the response of each pair as soon as you can afterseeing the stimulus. Do you have any questions?

Seraember, as each stimulus appears, spell the response

to that stimulus as quickly as possible. If you are wrong,

Ill

correct yourself by spelling the response aloud as soon asthe response appears on the right.

Prior to each recall trial:

Now, only the stimuli will appear on the far right sideor the window. Respond as before by spelling the response toeach stimulus aloud as quickly as you can. You will see noresponses.

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