Waste and clean water systems in Anatolian Seljuk and Ottoman period hospitals

Baku, Azerbaijan| 169

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of ACADEMIC RESEARCH Vol. 6. No. 3. May, 2014 G. Disli, Z. Ozcan. Waste and clean water systems in Anatolian Seljuk and Ottoman period hospitals. International Journal of

Academic Research Part A; 2014; 6(3), 169-177. DOI: 10.7813/2075-4124.2014/6-3/A.23 Library of Congress Classification: NA1-9428

WASTE AND CLEAN WATER SYSTEMS IN ANATOLIAN

SELJUK AND OTTOMAN PERIOD HOSPITALS

Gulsen Disli1, Zuhal Ozcan2

1Prime Ministry Directorate General of Foundations, Department of Art and Construction Works,

2Atilim University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design & Architecture (TURKEY) E-mails: [email protected], [email protected]

DOI: 10.7813/2075-4124.2014/6-3/A.23

Received: 11 Jan, 2014 Accepted: 22 May, 2014

ABSTRACT Anatolian Seljuk and Ottoman period hospitals represent the continuous experience of treatment methods

and culture in the region. They have maintained their original architectural and building technologies reflecting the achievements of the past in terms of building materials, functional systems, and their design. Considering that water is the most vital natural resource for the survival of nature and humanity, this study reveals various water systems used in Anatolian Seljuk and Ottoman period hospitals. Even though clean water supply and waste water disposal is a certain part of human experience, especially in such spaces as hospitals, where the health and cleanliness conditions play an important role, there is no specific study conducted on historic hospitals in that respect, yet. Therefore, in this study, in total twelve historic hospitals in Anatolia, four from Anatolian Seljuk period and eight from Ottoman period, which are mostly or partly intact today were analyzed. The study shall employ three research methods; literature review focusing on the observations of characteristics noted in previous studies of Anatolian historic buildings, archival research including waqf (a pious endowment) deeds in related institutions, and in-situ site work.

Key words: Historic Hospitals, Anatolia, Seljuk & Ottoman Periods, Waste & Clean Water Systems 1. INTRODUCTION Until recently, very little is known about the general aspects of ancient waste and clean water systems in

historic hospitals. Those systems were inevitable not only for the provision of potable water and disposal of wastewater, but also for the continual maintenance of health conditions in the hospitals, therefore necessitating a profound evaluation. The old, traditional waste and clean water systems that support historic hospitals are different from current practice in terms of material use, installation techniques, and design principles. Ancient building masters developed special techniques for the supply, distribution, and discharge of water from the building in order to control the water and to make the hospitals withstand the requirements of the time and people. Many of those old systems are vulnerable to destruction and damage due to the ageing, environmental and climatic factors, wrong preservation interventions, new settlement patterns, and changes and advent in life practices and environments. Therefore, this study attempts to first, identify the characteristics of various clean and wastewater systems and elements used in historic hospitals of Anatolia, points out their design principles, and finally analyzes the systems in terms of their developments. The study of those ancient systems may also contribute to today’s practices.

2. WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN ANATOLIAN SELJUK AND OTTOMAN PERIOD HOSPITALS Some researchers have made noteworthy contributions to the understanding of waste and clean water

systems used in historic buildings in Anatolia. For instance, thanks to the researches of Kazim Cecen on the water distribution systems in Ottoman period Istanbul, the waterways of the historic hospitals in the city could be identified. From his studies, it is clear that wells, cisterns, and water springs were the primary means of water supply in Byzantine period. After the concurrence of Istanbul by Turks, old and damaged water supply lines of the Roman period were also repaired and new ones were added to supply clean water for historic buildings including hospitals (1). Yegul explained this further by stating that in addition to aqueducts, which were built to transport spring and flood water from distant sources to urban areas; wells, cisterns and roof tanks were the other components of water supply system of Roman baths in Anatolia (2). Yilmaz Onge was another researcher who analyzed historic Turkish baths profoundly in terms of their water systems, in which the water storage room,

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terracotta pipes (kunk) and basins (kurna) were the main elements of the water supply and distribution system. Dissolved snow and rainwater gathered on the roof of the buildings were the other means of water supply (3-4).

Field observations, in-progress and previous restoration works and excavations, as well as historical and archival documents similarly show that the potable water for patients and workers of the Anatolian historic hospitals came from wells, taps, aqueducts, distribution chambers, and from nearby natural sources as creek, stream, lake and river (5-6). Those sources supplied fresh water not only for daily demands but also for a system of private baths of hospitals for the use of patients. In addition, by means of those sources it is certain that water was distributed to the related spaces as baths, pools, water storage rooms, and taps of hospitals mostly by means of cylindrical terracotta pipes, which could be identified to some extent. Another important detail in historical hospitals related with the water supply system is the pools inside the hospitals. The pools in the courtyards of historical hospitals are used both for the treatment of patients with the sounds of water and for the auxiliary branches of rainwater collecting units to be captured in water reservoirs or wells (7). Waterwheels were the other means of distribution of water and supply of power encountered in Anatolia and used both for the water raising and for irrigation. For instance, in Edirne II. Bayezid Hospital the use of waterwheels for the distribution of water was obvious, since, in its waqf deed, waterwheels on the Tunca River were counted among the properties of the Mosque complex [6]. In addition, in Amasya it was quite common to use waterwheels located on Yesilirmak River. Old gravures of the city also prove the usage of this tradition in the region (8).

Both in Seljuk and Ottoman period, the delivery of water to the urban areas were mostly supported by waqfs, with more developed system in Ottoman period. There was a detailed staffing in waqf system providing duties nearly for every service. Maintainers of water conduits (su yolcu) were among the primary water officials appointed to assure the repair and maintenance of waterways and canalization system bringing water to the city and from there to the baths, kitchens, fountains, and pools of the buildings. The existence of such an occupation in Ottoman period has been known to begin during the reign of Emperor Murad II. (1421-1451). They were paid either from the emperor treasury, waqf revenues, or were waived from certain taxes (9). In addition, lead worker and apprentice assisted to su yolcu during their services. For instance, the water supply of Bekir Cavus Hamam, which was detected as a result of the excavation studies on the west side of the Divrigi Complex, was provided by Ahmed Sah waqf water distributed to other units of the complex including the hospital (3, 10).

Historic hospitals needed potable water that was pure and clean, easily cooled down in hot weather and warmed up quickly in the cold weather. Spring water of the mountains was used as the natural water supply sources because of their above-mentioned quality (11). Rainwater and snow water were also important water supply sources. In Divrigi Melike Turan Hospital, the rainwater collected inside the pool of the inner courtyard with the help of the roof opening above the pool is distributed with terracotta pipelines to the wells in the courtyard, which are closed today. In this hospital, during the excavations in 2011 on the east side of the complex, two-rows of terracotta pipelines lying towards the hospital were detected (Fig. 1.).

Fig. 1. Terracotta pipelines distributing water to the pool of Divrigi Melike Turan Hospital in two rows (2011) (12)

Among other Seljuk period hospitals, in Kayseri Gevher Nesibe Hospital and Medicine Madrasah, Amasya

Anber Bin Abdullah Hospital, and Sivas I. Izzeddin Keykavus Hospital, water distribution and discharge pipes could be detected during previous restoration and excavation studies. In Kayseri Gevher Nesibe Hospital and Medicine Madrasah during the survey excavation on the northern part of the building in 1980, many spiral terracotta pipes were detected around the heptagon base found in previous restoration interventions (13). Hence, the function of the heptagon base was proved to be a water level grounded to the main city network and distributed water with the terracotta pipes connected to the pools and taps of the building. Hulusi Koker made the drawing of terracotta pipeline distribution in the hospital and madrasah during those excavations, as well as provided with their old photos including the cubic storm drain detected on the northeast corner of the madrasah section, which was used to increase the water level and clean the water from its residues coming from main city network. In Kayseri, even during the Roman period, there was a city network tied up with terracotta pipes, and in time, with the addition of new water supply branches, they were connected to the district fountains of the city and to the houses of leading people (14). In his Traveler Book Evliya Celebi, who was a Turkish traveler lived in the 17th century, mentioned that Ayn-i Kines spring water was the primary source of water supply for all the public


INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of ACADEMIC RESEARCH Vol. 6. No. 3. May, 2014 fountains, wells, imarets, and public buildings in Kayseri, as well as gardens and cultivated areas were irrigated

with this water. According to his remarks, in the 17th century, each house had at least one or two wells in its courtyard and there were three thousand wells and many fountains all around the city (15). According to city court registers of 1960s, forty percent of the houses in Kayseri had their own wells in the courtyards supplying water for cleaning of the body and ablution, housekeeping, cleaning of the courtyards, toilets and for washing the clothes and dishes (14). Imamoglu further explains that in traditional historic Kayseri houses, in addition to private ones, district fountains or the wells connected to the city network were the other sources of potable water carried with large copper pitchers and used by pouring with copper ewers or similar containers (14).

In Amasya Anber Bin Abdullah Hospital from Seljuk period, the water distribution was provided with terracotta pipes, which were noticed during the previous restoration interventions and excavations (13). In addition, during the field observation in 2011, a stone junction (distribution) box (block) with terracotta pipes were detected in the courtyard of the hospital (Fig. 2).

In Sivas I. Izzeddin Keykavus Hospital, water supply and distribution system has also been observable. During its restoration work in 1986, in tomb section of the hospital under the stone floor covering, two galleries were detected; the first one was with 2.20 m depth and the other with the dimensions of 1.40 m height and 0.60 m width. They were lying towards the north wall of the tomb by turning to the west. The gallery following the west wall narrowed in size and ended with a terracotta pipe and the one in the north end continued towards the east side of the tomb, and then left the room [16]. Furthermore, during the field survey in 2011, when the hospital was under restoration, many terracotta pipes together with the stone pipe-connecting units were observed between the Cifte Minareli Madrasah and the hospital (Fig. 2.).

Fig. 2. Stone junction box (block) in the courtyard of Amasya Amber Bin Abdullah Hospital (left) and terracotta pipes and stone junction (distribution)

box (block) observed during the 2011 in-progress restorations of Sivas I. Izzettin Keykavus Hospital (right) (5). In Ottoman period hospitals, the water supply and distribution systems could also be detected to some

extent. For instance, in Bursa Yildirim Bayezid Hospital the water was supplied with the Kirkpinarlar water coming from the outskirts of Mount Uludag and with Akcaglayan spring distributing water to Molla Arap water depot (17-18). The Kirkpinarlar water was distributed to the units of the complex including mosque, kitchen, and hospital with the aqueducts and bridges constructed by the order of Sultan Yildirim Bayezid and terracotta pipelines lying towards the hospital were found during the previous restorations (17-20).

Similarly, in Haseki Hospital the terracotta pipelines distributing water to the hospital was observed during the field observations in 2011, when the Haseki Mosque Complex was under restoration. On the wall surface of kitchen section, two-rows of terracotta pipelines were detected and on the outer wall surface of the hospital, which is thought to be the separate bath of the hospital, one row of pipeline was noticed. In addition, from Ulgen’s explanation, who was an architect-conservationist, researcher, and specialist restorer of Seljuk and Ottoman period cultural heritage in Turkey, it is know that in previous restorations, water channels were found inside the courtyard of the hospital. Topkapi Palace archives also reveal that the complex including the hospital underwent a comprehensive restoration in 1728 during which the water channels of the hospital were repaired (21).

In Suleymaniye Hospital also the terracotta pipes carrying water to the taps on the wall surface of the bakery were observed during its restoration in 2011. The dimensions of terracotta pipes were measured to be 15 cm as the radius of the top part and 10 cm as the radius of the bottom (Fig. 3.). Those terracotta pipes were produced in a way that, one edge was greater than the other, in that they could be intertwined with each other and were located inside the canals opened in stone walls with a special kind of lime mortar, as in the Turkish baths (3).

In Ottoman period, Halkali waters supplied the water of Suleymaniye, Sultan I. Ahmed, Fatih and Haseki hospitals and the Uskudar waters (1) supplied the water of Atik Valide Hospital. Halkali waters, one of the most important water supply systems in Istanbul, were developed between the years 1453-1755 and provided water to the city from sixteen different branches (1, 22). Suleymaniye water supply system as one of the branches of Halkali waters was constructed by Sultan Suleyman Waqf between the years 1550-1557. The water of this system came from Aypah and Cinar water sources. Then the water collected in the reservoirs distributed to the Suleymaniye Complex passing from the courtyard of Fatih Mosque and Bozdogan aqueduct (22). Even though



Suleymaniye water supply system was still active until 1905 (1), today, it is nearly impossible to detect the historical pipelines carrying water to the complex because of the new constructions and roads on those pipelines.

Fig. 3 The terracotta pipes in Suleymaniye Hospital distributing water to the taps of the fountain located on the wall of bakery unit (5).

Halkali water supply system was connected to the city network with the help of ≈20 cm radius terracotta

pipes with a ≈1/1000 slope. It is also known that Fatih water supply system supplied water to the city in forty-eight different branches, and before 1925 its daily flow rate in August and September months was 208 m3 /32 masura per day (a unit of measurement used in Ottoman period, to measure the flow rate of the water, 1 masura is ≈6.48 m3) (1). Sultan I. Ahmed water supply system, another branch of Halkali waters, was running until 1930’s with 1.500 m gallery and 200 m terracotta pipe length. Atik Valide water supply system, on the hand, was first constructed in 1582-83 as the part of Uskudar waters. In 1930’s its length was 19.000 m excluding inner city distribution network (1). In this system, the water, which was provided from the spring water at the skirts of Camlica hill, was first distributed to the buildings and fountains with the galleries carved inside the rocks and from there it was distributed to the city network with the help of the terracotta pile lines (22).

3. WASTE WATER DISCHARGE SYSTEM IN ANATOLIAN SELJUK AND OTTOMAN PERIOD HOSPITALS The information on the wastewater drainage systems in historical hospitals in Anatolia is rather rare.

Hence, the information hereunder is mostly based on the field surveys of the authors and data obtained from pervious restoration interventions. In historical hospitals, surface, subsurface, and roof drainage were the three main ways for the removal of waste and rainwater from the building. Drains and sewers were carefully constructed to facilitate the removal of wastewater. Open wastewater channels, floor drains, latrines, baths, and terracotta pipes and surface slope have been the primary means used in surface drainage in Anatolian Seljuk and Ottoman period hospitals. Wastewater was discharged from the floor surface of the building by the help of sloping surface towards the drains located on the open wastewater collection channels, and from there those drains were connected to the wastewater collection pipes tied to the main city network/channel or a river. The ground floor on which the open channels for wastewater are located was generally constructed lower than the main floor to prevent the splash of the wastewater. In hospitals those open channels are either located around the pools or at the edges of the courtyards, and in the hospitals having a separate bath section, the open channels were located just beneath the bathing platforms.

In Anatolian Seljuk period, nothing remains of the latrines in historic hospitals. Yet, their existence in the buildings connected to city canalization network is obvious, since city sewage lines were detected during the previous restorations as in Kayseri Gevher Nesibe Hospital (13). From the observations of Yavas, it is understood that in Anatolian Seljuk madrasah and caravansaries, all the latrines reached today were located along the entrance axis; the corner space was used as either the latrines separated with wooden or masonry partition walls or interior of corner abutments was used for this service (23). Similarly, Yavuz informs that most caravansaries had original water systems with drainage and sewerage inside the building proper. She further claims that some spaces in caravansaries, which are first thought to be the rooms, were then proved the original latrines or baths. In addition, in some cases latrines were grouped together at one corner of the building, located in the courtyard or near the stable and divided by means of wooden partitions or even with curtains (24). For instance in Diyarbakir, Hz. Suleyman Mosque Complex the latrines with many interventions are still observable. They are separated with stone partition walls with running water from the waterspouts located inside the space. As for hospitals, in Seljuk period, considering their inevitable part in human life, either the latrines must have been in the open courtyard or one of the spaces, most probably near to entrance part of the hospital, was certainly used for that function. Similarly, in Ottoman period hospitals, there is still little information on the existence and exact location of latrines. For instance, the latrines were located on the basement floor in Suleymaniye Hospital and at the corner of entrance axis in Bursa Yildirim Bayezid Hospital. In Edirne II. Bayezid Hospital they are situated between the


INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of ACADEMIC RESEARCH Vol. 6. No. 3. May, 2014 madrasah and hospital section and in Haseki Hospital they are placed inside the bath. Similarly, in Atik Valide

Mosque Complex the original latrines could be detected. In bath section of the hospital the latrine is still existent and the original latrine of the caravansary section was dismantled. Yet, at least its stone covering has still been preserved in the courtyard (Fig. 4.). In all the observable ones the latrines were provided within the hospital proper, directly connected to horizontal holes/drains and then to vertical chutes and flushed after use by emptying a large jar of water into it. In Atik Valide Mosque Complex, also a stone wastewater drainage channel was encountered during its in-progress restoration in early 2014. It was detected in one of the rooms at the imaret section underneath the floor level. One end of the channel was lying towards the courtyard and the other end was connecting to the city sewage line (Fig. 5.).

Fig. 4. Toilet in caravanserai section (left) of Atik Valide Mosque Complex and the latrine of bath section located in the hospital part (right) (5).

Fig. 5. Stone wastewater channel underneath the floor covering in imaret of Atik Valide Mosque Complex (5).

Open wastewater channels and floor drains as the other means of surface drainage could still be detected

today in some of the Seljuk period hospitals together with the bath section. Kayseri Gevher Nesibe Hospital and Sivas I. Izzeddin Keykavus Hospital are the two examples having a separate bath section inside the building. In Kayseri Gevher Nesibe Hospital and Medical Madrasah, the original wastewater channels of the bath section could be identified during the restoration works in 1980s (13). During the restoration it was also detected that the pools inside the courtyards of both hospital and madrasah units were connected to the Seljuk period sewage system which was 2-3 m beneath the city sewage level. Sewage and drainage was a huge problem in Kayseri because of its location on a flat plain. In traditional Kayseri houses, a hole dug inside the courtyard was generally used as a cesspool and it was emptied periodically in certain intervals. In addition, the rain water and snow water on the streets were collected in the hole dugs, at the connection points of the streets, or in the city squares, and their top part was covered with earth again. Thus, in time the earth sucked the wastewater (14).

In Divrigi Melike Turan Hospital curved channel system was used for the drainage of flushing water from the interior pool, connected to the open wastewater collection channels. In addition, on the floor surface of the hospital, stone floor drains were located at the same axis towards the outside of the building. Similar to Seljuk period, in Ottoman period, the surface and subsurface wastewater drainage was provided with floor drains, city sewage connection drainage canals, open wastewater collection channels, latrines, and underneath drainage tunnels. Open wastewater collection channels are observable in most of the Ottoman period hospitals, especially in the bath section and in the courtyard around the pool. For instance, in Edirne II. Bayezid Hospital, the water coming to the pool flushes through the fountain located at the center of the main treatment space and collected in the open wastewater channels circumscribing the pool, and then flows towards the wastewater canals located underneath the ground floor surface by means of the floor drains. Inside the building, the wastewater flows from the elevated platforms to the lower levels, and then, by means of cross-falls, it is directed towards the open



wastewater collection channels located around the central courtyard and pool. The discharge components of the wastewater collection and discharge system were the open channels and floor drains. Finally, the wastewater was discharged to the nearby Tunca River flowing just near the building with the help of underneath drainage canal, which is still observable even today. Dimensions of open wastewater channels located both around the main interior courtyard and around the pool were observed to vary in the range of 10.5-14.5 cm and 4-8.5 cm in width and depth, respectively. It was observed that both the width and depth of the open wastewater channels increase towards the drains. Similarly, in Haseki Hospital wastewater disposal channels could be observed during the 2011 in-progress restoration works. Water storage depot located at the back courtyard supplied water for the bath and latrines. Traces of terracotta pipes were observable on the wall surface of the bath section. In addition, city sewage connection channel of the building was located at the very bottom part of this section (Fig. 6.).

Fig. 6. Terracotta pipes observed at the possible bath part of

Haseki Hospital in 2011 in-progress restoration (5).

Water was also a serious threat for the historic buildings, especially for the foundations and walls. Being aware of the hazardous effects of humidity caused by water movements, ancient builders, first constructed channels/ galleries connecting with wells or cisterns. Thus removed the underground water out of the building before the construction of foundations until the 19th century, especially for important buildings (25). In Byzantine period, the underground water was discharged by means of those tunnels and collected in the cisterns built underneath the buildings. In Ottoman period, in general, instead of cisterns, water was collected at the wells and distributed to the taps of the fountains. In some cases, the galleries were constructed within the foundation level, thus serving a twofold function; ventilating the building and preventing the moisture development at one hand and keeping the building warm in winters and cold in summers at the other (25). For instance, in Seyh Suleyman Masjid a cistern was detected beneath the main floor with the help of jeoradar scanning during its restoration in 2013-2014. In Suleymaniye Mosque similarly, underfloor galleries were found during its latest restoration in 2011 and in Atik Valide Mosque Complex, two galleries were identified perpendicular to each other lying under the ground level of the complex in 2014 (Fig. 7.). One of those galleries is still working, used for the discharge of wastewater connected to city sewage at one hand and lying just beneath the latrines at the other. Those galleries were big enough for a man to walk inside and constructed generally with a vaulted cover at the top and an inclined surface at the bottom, in which the water flowed by the force of gravity.

Fig. 7. Underfloor galleries in Atik Valide Mosque Complex (left &middle) and in Suleymaniye Mosque (right) (5).


INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of ACADEMIC RESEARCH Vol. 6. No. 3. May, 2014 4. EVALUATION OF THE RESULTS

In both periods, public water supply and sewage systems were developed as a part of increasing urban

amenities. A noticeable characteristic of those systems in Anatolian Seljuk and Ottoman period hospitals, which has been noted repeatedly, is that they are constructed mostly underground. The clean water was distributed to the pools, taps, and water storage rooms of the hospitals by means of terracotta pipes and similarly wastewater was removed from the buildings with those pipes, tunnels, and drains to be connected to the city sewage network. The primary reasons for this might have been to avoid exposing drinking water to the open air, to keep the clean water cooler, to obviate as much as possible the evil odors, and to prevent pollution and epidemics caused by the wastewater.

Considering water supply and distribution systems in Seljuk and Ottoman period hospitals, the major difference was the construction of new water supply branches to feed the city fountains and mosque complexes including the ones having hospitals as a separate part. Clean water terracotta pipes have been observable in both periods carrying water to the pools, baths, and fountains of the hospitals. In all of the Seljuk period hospitals there are pools in the middle of the open or semi-open courtyards. This tradition continues in Ottoman period hospitals, but diminishing in number, in that all the Ottoman period hospitals do not have a pool. Yet, nearly all of the Ottoman period hospitals have one or more wells located in the courtyard. The drilled wells connected to those pools, thus capturing both rainwater and utilizing water, which flowed underground the city, served urban settlements including hospitals. In Seljuk period, only in Divrigi Melike Turan Hospital, is the existence of a well known from the archival documents.

In historical hospitals, having a separate bath section, it is obvious that there must have been water storage depot for the provision of water to the taps of the fountains and basins in the baths. Among the Ottoman period hospitals in Istanbul having a separate bath section the location of water storage depot is observable. Yet, in Seljuk period hospitals with a separate bath, in Kayseri (Gevher Nesibe Hospital) and Sivas (I. Izzeddin Keykavus Hospital) the water storage depot of the bath could not be determined, though there must have been such a space for the provision of water for the bath.

In both periods, the clean water supply and existence of taps inside the latrines are not clear. Therefore, it is assumed that in those spaces, the water supplied from the pool of the hospital or from the well in the courtyard of it, was carried by means of ewers or with such kind of devices, as a supplementary means of water supply, which was a common tradition in Anatolia. As a matter of fact, in a foundation deed belonging to Sarisolak Mehmet Aga dated January 12, 1643; it was written that a person known as Kovacidede would be responsible for the drawing of water from the well in the courtyard of the mosque to the toilets, and one dirham (a currency unit used in Ottoman Empire) would be paid for that duty per day (26). The usage of aqueducts and water wheels were the other common features in both periods.

There seems to be no major differences in wastewater discharge systems in both periods; similar techniques were used with minor developments in Ottoman period. In bath sections of the hospitals, around the pools and courtyards the wastewater was collected into open wastewater collection channels and discharged by means of surface drains located at certain points of those channels. Since there were no raised bathing platforms for cleaning and for the location of basin in the 12th and 13th century baths, footstools were used to prevent the splash of the wastewater from the body and the wastewater was collected with open wastewater channels lying through the floor surfaces and discharged from surface drains located on these channels. Then it was carried to the outskirts of the city by means of closed wastewater tunnels (3). For instance in Kayseri Gevher Nesibe Hospital, having separate bath section in it, it is known from the previous restoration works that, there were open channels for the collection of wastewater. Regarding other hospitals with baths, it is not detected whether they had the same wastewater collection system or not because of either badly deteriorated floor surfaces or their complete destruction. Another space in which open wastewater collection channels are observable is the courtyard and pools of the hospitals. From all these observations it can be assessed that, wastewater collection channels and floor drains were the two main elements of water discharge from the building floor surfaces in both periods.

Regarding latrines, there is no specific example observable today in Seljuk period hospitals. Therefore, the information on the latrines of Seljuk period hospitals could only be deduced from the similar period and comparable building types in Anatolia, such as caravanserais and khans. In Ottoman period, on the other hand, there are evident traces about the forms and locations of the latrines. For instance, in Suleymaniye Hospital exact location and form of the toilets are obvious. They are located at the basement floor of the main treatment part. Similarly, in Atik Valide Hospital toilet of the bath section is still observable, as well as the exact location and form of the latrine in caravanserai part. In addition to latrines, chamber pots are the other possible portable devices of excrement removal that could be used especially for the patients confined to bed in the hospitals. Yet, there is no specific example or trace for the usage of it.

5. CONCLUSION

Cleanliness and hygiene were rooted in culture that is a blend of beliefs, values, and behaviors and in both

Anatolian Seljuk and Ottoman periods; they were two important factors in human life. Ancient building masters were able to design efficient water supply, distribution, and discharge systems either by means of trial and error methods or by the help of the knowledge gained from the previous cultures and practices observed in the region. The study of the waste and clean water systems in Anatolian Seljuk and Ottoman period hospitals has shown that this is an architecture born out of the interrelation of the technology of the time, climate, and environmental



conditions of the region. This powerful association is attested both in architecture in single building scale and urban planning and all these systems are the evidences of the high level of technological knowledge of the time. To be able to clean themselves, foods, and the spaces, the mosque complexes including the hospitals were constructed as parts of the whole city planning connected with each other by means of substructures and superstructures consisting of city sewage lines, waste and clean water tunnels, open waste water collection channels, water levels, water distribution chambers, terracotta pipelines, aqueducts, wells, pools, fountains, drains, baths, and the like. In terms of the technological development of these systems in Seljuk and Ottoman period hospitals, not a considerable development was observed, the only difference between the two periods being the addition of new, developed water branches and aqueducts in Ottoman period for the provision of more water as a result of the increasing number of population.

In Anatolian Seljuk and Ottoman period hospitals, climate and local materials were incorporated with basic technological solutions in terms of water systems, which were highly compatible with the natural environment. During their intervention it should be taken into account that those historic hospitals have their own, distinct engineering and functional systems different from current practices, yet disappearing gradually. Hence, the best recommendation for the provision of historic integrity is the preservation of those that remain, which need constant maintenance and special care during their preservation. Such an effort is vital not only for the integrity of the building fabric itself but also for documentary reasons, in that preserving the traces of those ancient systems thus putting them into service of the researchers helps to develop consciousness towards their preservation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors would like to thank to Prof. Dr. Gediz Z. Urak, Prof. Dr. Can M. Hersek, and Assist. Prof. Dr.

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