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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 INTRODUCTION

The previous chapter gave the introduction to the core concepts, that is,

the concept of quality of work-life and the socio-psychological determinants of

the quality of work-life. This chapter discusses the origin and development of the

concept of QWL over the years and presents the review of the related studies

conducted in India and abroad in the field of quality of work life and its

correlates. It contains a parsimonious list of empirical research conducted in this

field. Studies have not been segregated into ‘studies conducted in India’ and

‘studies conducted abroad’. They are arranged in chronological order from the

latest to the oldest under year wise subheadings.

2.1 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF QWL

It was in the beginning of twentieth century, Taylor (1911), popularly

known as ‘father of scientific management’ and ‘prophet of efficiency’

developed ‘Principles of Scientific Management’. His brilliant argument on

management as an exact discipline of study similar to natural sciences is still

debated. Even in 21st century, the assumptions underlying the principles of

scientific management form the basis of designing work in most of the

organizations all over the world. The classical approach to job design of

scientific management focused mainly on division of labor or work

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specialization, hierarchy in organization, close monitoring and supervision of

employees, and one best way of doing work (Tripathi, 2003). It is believed that

early acceptance of the principles of scientific management by American firms

gave them a competitive advantage over foreign firms which made the American

manufacturing efficiency an envy of the world , at least for a period of fifty years

or so. Though this approach could bring several benefits to organizations and

society, the disadvantage has been its high human cost. The highly specialized

jobs led the workers to social isolation from their fellow workers, weakened their

community of interest in the whole product, and deskilled them to such an extent

that they lost pride in their job. In a system of hierarchy workers totally depend

on their superior, it is always the superior who initiates actions and controls the

work environment. Close supervision further, accentuates worker’s dependence

on their supervisors (Tripathi, 2003). In such a system, employees lack

opportunity to use their brain to develop new skills and become versatile. The

significance of human resource was not properly recognized and appreciated

because of which employees lost interest in job. This resulted in high turnover

and absenteeism bringing quality decline and worker alienation. The classical

approach to management completely overlooked the fact that human beings are

free willed entities who can act upon their own volition in defiance of scientific

laws governing human behavior.

Feelings of meaninglessness and consequent alienation are likely to be

greater where the jobs and functions of workers are highly standardized and

where the worker has little or no control over his immediate work environment.

Meaninglessness and self-estrangement increase with the degree of automation

and mechanization involved (Blauner, 1964). The best example for impact of

technology on people is the traditional assembly line production process. Study

in a car assembly plant in the United States revealed that in spite of high pay and

job security, people reacted negatively to mass production process (Blauner,

1964). ‘M’ for man was considered as a mere factor of production like the other

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‘Ms’, namely, money, machinery and materials. Employees were treated as

administrative overheads that figured on the left side of the ledger. The situation

was no different in India. Factors such as carrot and stick policy, autocratic

attitude, rigid supervision and control policies, age old motivational techniques

ruled the sky for a painfully long time. The efforts of M.N. Roy, Dange, N.M.

Joshi, V.V. Giri and lately Dutta Samant have gone a long way in improving the

plight of workers in India. Workers in organized industries have become more

vociferous, united and hence strong in their demands for better status, enhanced

wages, and benefits. The establishments of white collar unions have changed the

management of human resources in bureaucratic organizations quite drastically

in recent times. Today the personnel functions have an important bearing on the

success of the organization because it directly affects the bottom line by

enhancing profits and reducing operating and labor costs. Changing

governmental requirements, increasing demand for more skilled and better

motivated work force and intensifying domestic and foreign competition are

some of the very important factors that have contributed to the growing

importance of man management in modern organizations. With the institution of

HRD ministry in the union cabinet, politicians, academicians, governmental

agencies and the general public have now started showing exclusive interest on

the HRM functions all over India. The press and the media have taken up issues

concerning personnel more diligently and enthusiastically. A number of courses

and research projects have designed throughout India in various universities and

academic institutions reflecting the growing interest in the field.

Moreover, as a result of the spread of mass education, employees have

become more educated, affluent, skilled and unionized, bargaining collectively

with the management to protect their interests through unions and associations.

As such, the above dysfunctional consequences of work are unacceptable by the

enlightened employees of the modern era. Jobs can never be designed only from

the point of view of technology forgetting the human factor involved in it. More

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humanized jobs which can satisfy the worker’s higher level needs, employ their

higher level skills and make them better citizens, spouse and parents should be

developed (Tripathi, 2003). Jobs need to be excellent from the point of view of

technology and human needs. Traditional job designs should be replaced with

enriched job designs. This demand for redesigning of jobs has come to be known

as Quality of Work Life (QWL). It enjoins the management to treat the workers

as human resources that are to be developed rather than simply used (Tripathi,

2003). Enhancement of human dignity and all round development of employees

in work place leads to greater efficiency and effectiveness of an organization.

The concept of quality of work-life originated as the part of a movement

that began in the United States in the 1960’s and 1970’s. The purpose was to

initiate dialogue and encourage the theoretical exploration of ways of making the

working environment a more humane situation for workers (Davis and Cherns,

1975; Levine, 1983; Considine and Callus, 2001; Huzzard, 2003). Concerns

about working conditions were triggered by rapid advancements in technology

which saw a greater de-skilling, dehumanization, alienation and objectification of

labor under Taylorist and Fordist influences (Davis and Cherns, 1975; Levine,

1983; Huzzard, 2003; Green, 2005).Slowly, but steadily, there were changes in

management practices in organizations, consequences of which was mobilization

and full use of people in organization’s activities. The companies, instead of

investing directly in products and services, are investing in people who

understand, know how to create, develop and improve those products and

services. (Zanetti, 2002).

The term QWL was first used in the late 1960s, originating with General

Motors and the United Auto Workers, to describe the workers’ level of job

satisfaction. Irving Bluestone coined the term QWL, which began as a variable

expressing the level of worker satisfaction and development into an approach and

series of programs designed ultimately to increase worker productivity (Goode,

1989). Labor-management cooperation guided the development and

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implementation of these early QWL efforts, resulting in workplaces where

employees participated in problem solving and decision-making efforts to

improve their work lives (Schalock and Begab, 1990). In addition, management’s

attitudes became more concerned with the individual’s welfare, stressing positive

inter personal relationships and overall improved working conditions (Bowditch

and Bruno, 1982; Goode, 1989).

In the mid 1970s, QWL was considered in light of specific changes and

methods that could be instituted in companies not only to enhance bottom line

productivity, but also to increase employee identification and a sense of

belonging and pride in their work (Davis and Cherns, 1975; Sashkin and Burke,

1987). Examples of these approaches include work teams, autonomous groups,

job enrichment and socio-technical change (Gadon, 1984, Charland, 1986). No

doubt, such approaches can be very effective, but must not be seen as cure – calls

that can be introduced and implemented in a “connect the dots” fashion. Neither

should it be treated as a device to overcome certain specified problems or

accepted as desirable when clear-cut need is identified. In such an approach,

QWL interventions become an activity with a definite, limited objective; once

implemented, the effort is discontinued. But the widely shared belief among the

industrial psychologists is that work should be morally desirable so that people

enjoy it. The plea is to everybody concerned with the world of work to take more

active and vigorous steps than at present to make work more appealing and

interesting for those who do it. Therefore the task of making work more likeable

has increasingly been discussed within the points of reference supplied by the

phrase, quality of work life (Orpen, 1981). Furthermore, nowadays it is possible

to realize a differentiated approach regarding people’s Quality of Life (QoL),

indicating a valuation in factors inherent to the human being, like satisfaction

level, professional and personal achievement, good relation with society and

access to culture and leisure as real examples of well being (Timossi et al.,

2008).

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Thus, the discourse on QWL is not new to management theorists and

professionals. Lots of research works have been carried out in different parts of

the world on QWL since 1989 and since 1996, research works were extended to

production engineering as well. In general the researches about the QWL have as

purpose, the comprehension regarding individual situations of workers in their

labor environment, including behavioral aspects and individual satisfaction

(França, 2004). Literature on QWL is enriched with different models which are

frequently used by research workers in their studies. Some of them are: Hezberg

(1959), Walton (1975), Hackman and Oldham (1975), Westley (1979), Wether

and Davis (1983), and Fernandez (1996).

It should be remembered that the concept of work and its purpose have

been evolved over time. Work is not a simple instrument or a means of

subsistence anymore; it is now a multifactor process, in which the human being

is placed as a driving centre (Tomossi, et al., 2008). Genesis of the concept of

QWL followed the work evolution, and has its focus centered on the individual

employee. The concern is to provide every worker with good working

environment so that he can use his brain to become versatile and actualize his

potentials with satisfaction and well-being. According to Walton (1975), QWL

is getting importance as a way to rescue human and environmental values that

have been neglected in favor of technological advancement for productivity and

economic growth. He has taken up extensive research in this area and is

considered a major contributor to the concept of quality of work life. He

proposed eight factors by which quality of work-life could be measured. They

are: fair and appropriate compensation, work conditions, use and development of

capacities, chance of growth and security, social integration in the organization,

constitutionalism, work and the total space of life and social relevance of work in

life. To Fernandez (1996), QWL cover the conciliation of the individuals’ and

organizations’ interests, that is to say, at the same time it improves the worker’s

satisfaction, and improves constantly the productivity of the company. Cole et

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al., (2005), states that “the quality of life at work includes broad aspects of the

work environment which affects the collaborator in its health and in its

performance”. With technology available to everyone, companies started

investing on the transformation of the labor environment, trying to make it

suitable to the physical, mental and social needs of its workers, having in mind

that this is a way to impose its differential in face of the market (Timossi et al.,

2008). According to França (2004), “when this vision is consolidated, the

businessman no longer looks at the money he applies in better conditions of life

at work as expenditure, but as an investment, that certainly will bring him in

return a virtuous circle, where the quality of life at work represents the quality of

his products, productivity and consequently higher competitiveness”.

To conclude, it can be said that while technology is no more a differential

for companies, it is the stakeholders who are interested in it promotes the

company’s image and success. Hence the concern for the well being of the

employees who are instrumental in taking the company to higher levels of

efficiency and productivity is justified.

2.2 REVIEW OF VARIOUS STUDIES CONDUCTED IN THE FIELD OF

QWL AND ITS CORRELATES

After discussing the origin and development of the concept of quality of

work-life, the review of related studies conducted in this field is taken up. As

mentioned above, a parsimonious list of the various studies conducted by

different authors and research workers in India and abroad is given below. The

list of studies comprises the various works carried out directly in QWL. It also

included the studies conducted in the area of socio-psychological

components/dimensions of QWL. These components / dimensions are assumed

by the researcher to have an impact on the perception of the employees of BPOs

about their quality of work-life in their respective organization in the city of

Hyderabad.

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Studies conducted in 2012

According to Darafsh (2012), concept of quality of work-life has become

one of the renewed concerns and has an increased importance to the organization

and its human resources both in terms of employee job satisfaction and in terms

of the ultimate performance of the organization. He conducted a comparative

study using samples from Iran and India to examine the relationship between

learning organization and quality of work life. The respondents were selected

from the full-time faculty members in Panjab University and Shiraz University.

Descriptive and co-relational analyses were carried out. The results of the

comparative analysis indicate that faculty members of Panjab University in India

tend to perceive their place of work to be high on the components of learning

organization and quality of work-life as compared to their counterparts from

Shiraz University in Iran. The study also brings to light that there is significant

relationship between application of learning organization components and quality

of work-life.

Cordiality in employee-employer relations and the harmony that exists

among the employees themselves are the major force that binds them together in

the pursuit of the common goals of the organization, says George (2012). He

carried out a study with the objectives of measuring the level of quality of work

life of the employees of Toms Pipes Pvt. Ltd. in Kerala, to study the impact of

quality of work life on employee satisfaction and to find out whether employee

satisfaction is dependent on quality of work life or not. A sample of 100

employees was taken using stratified random sampling technique. Data were

collected through a well-designed questionnaire developed by the researcher.

Regression analysis was done to find out relation between the dependent and

independent variable, that is, employee satisfaction and quality of work-life. The

findings of the study revealed that employee satisfaction emanates from quality

of work-life which the employees have in this organization. It was found that

45% contribution to employee satisfaction comes from quality of work-life

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which the employees experience in the organization. The study also revealed that

the prevailing perception of employees with regard to their quality of work life is

not satisfactory, though they are of the opinion that quality of work life is a major

contributor to employee satisfaction. Significant difference existed between the

perception of married and unmarried employees with regard to the leadership and

work culture dimensions of quality of work-life. Unmarried employees had better

perception on these two dimensions than married employees.

Preoccupation with tight work schedules, offering time bound business

solutions to varied and complex problems within deadlines etc. are typical wok-

life which is characteristic of IT professionals. Enhancing the strength of

individual’s internal resource, especially hardiness personality, is assumed to act

as a shield while encountering stressful events in occupational life. The study

conducted by Gowri and Mariammal (2012), surveyed 378 IT professionals from

the top 10 companies in Chennai. The objective of the study was to find out the

relationship between hardiness personality and stress factors of the IT

professional in Chennai. The study revealed that the IT professionals have

hardiness personality on the dimensions, ‘commitment’, ‘control’ and

‘challenge’. Further, the sources of stress, namely, ‘work demands’, ‘career

concerns’, ‘systems maintenance’, ‘role ambiguity’ and ‘job induced tension’

were significantly related to hardiness personality of IT professionals.

‘Administrative tasks’ and ‘job dissatisfaction’ were negatively correlated to

hardiness personality. ‘Relationship with others’ and ‘intention to quit’ were not

significantly related to hardiness personality.

Employee attrition is of genuine concern in BPO industry because it

disrupts the normal operations and necessitates the costly selection and training

of replacements to regain the lost customer and supplier contacts (Kumar,

2012). He conducted a study to find out the present level of attrition in BPO

industry with special reference to Sutherland Global Services and its reasons,

the problems faced by organization due to attrition and suggest ways and means

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to prevent attrition. The sample of the study comprised 100 employees selected

on the basis of simple random sampling. The reasons for which the employees

leave the organization were ranked as follows: No flexible work schedule, stress

from overwork and work-life imbalances, lack of good working conditions, the

mismatch between the job and the person, monetary factors, organization’s

concern which is more towards business and less towards employees, absence

of supportive colleagues, lack of trust in senior team leaders, too little coaching

and feedback. An effective and affordable recruitment strategy which would

enable the organizations to get the right talent at the right time and at the right

place is very important for the goal attainment of the organization, believes

Vinoth (2012). He studied the effectiveness of recruitment process in a BPO

company in Bangalore to identify and understand the general practices the

organization uses to recruit and select employees, to analyze various factors

which help in assessing the effectiveness of recruitment and to know the

differences in the opinion of the respondents on the recruitment process. The

study comprised 150 employees including the managers. It was found out that

13.5% of the respondents strongly agree, 46.2% neutral, 40.4% agree to the fact

that the satisfactory level of the lower level recruitment is good. 80.8% of the

respondents agree and 19.2% strongly agree to the fact that the productivity of

the new hires inside the organization is good. 44.2% of the respondents strongly

agree, 34.6% agree, 17.3% neutral, 3.8% disagree to the fact that the internal

recruitment is considered initially. 25% of the respondents strongly agree,

34.6% agree, 34.6% neutral, 5.8% disagree to the fact that the cost of the

replacement is mostly high. 11.5% of the respondents strongly agree, 59.6%

agree, 23.1% neutral, 5.8% disagree to the fact that the employees are given a

pay which matches the market.

India has always been well positioned to be a leader in the Human

Resource Outsourcing (HRO) space, says Ishwari (2012). Her study on

effectiveness of existing separation management process in Neeyamo Enterprise

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Solution (P) Ltd., has been undertaken primarily to (a) to study and analyze the

effectiveness of separation management process and (b) to study the reason for

employee exit and (c) to optimize the current process. The study was carried out

among three different categories. They were HR personnel, project managers and

team leaders and employees who have resigned and serving the notice period.

The data was collected through questionnaire method which included Likert type,

dichotomous and open ended. The sample size was 100. The findings of the

study revealed that 73.3% of the employees resigned due to the typical problems

faced in BPO companies like lack of time to spend with family and children,

health issues, lack of growth opportunities, and stress leading to burn out.

Malhotra and Chada (2012) conducted a research on the 300 employees working

in the call centres of the Mohali, Panchkula and Chandigarh. To conduct a survey

non-probability cum convenience sampling techniques is used. The results are

analysed with the help of descriptive, Pearson–correlation method. The result

reveals that salary, job task, colleagues, sense of purpose, career path

opportunity, work environment, autonomy and workload are the major variables

to introduce the stress among the employees. The paper also discusses the

relevance of the stress management programmes.

The term Quality of Work-Life (QWL) was initially introduced in the late

1960’s as a way of focusing on the effects of employment on worker health and

general well being, and a way to enhance the quality of a person’s on-the-job

experience. However, there are generally identified issues related to QWL like

pay and stability of employment, occupational stress, alternative work schedule,

recognition, participative management, grievance procedure etc. These measures

will affect organizational performance in terms of human resource management.

Organizations are expected to maintain high QWL in order to maintain high level

organizational performance. This study by Sabarirajan, et al., (2011) is an

attempt to investigate the extent to which the QWL among the employees of

Public and Private Banks in Dindigul influences the performance of Banks.

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Employee attitudes are important to management because they determine

the behavior of workers in the organization. The commonly held opinion is that

“A satisfied worker is a productive worker”. A satisfied work force will create a

pleasant atmosphere within the organization to perform well. Hence job

satisfaction has become a major topic for research studies. The specific problem

addressed in this study by Pushpakumari (2008) is to examine the impact of job

satisfaction on performance. It considered which rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic)

determine job satisfaction of an employee. It also considered influence of age,

sex and experience of employees on level of job satisfaction. In addition it

investigated in most satisfying event of an employee in the job, why employees

stay and leave the organization. Data were collected through a field survey using

a questionnaire from three employee groups, namely Professionals, Managers

and Non-managers from twenty private sector organizations covering five

industries. The analysis data revealed that there existed positive correlation

between job satisfaction and performance of employees.

The study by Deshpande et al., (2012) revealed the relationship between

employee satisfaction levels and the performance of the employees on the basis

of their satisfaction levels. Employee satisfaction was measured on parameters

like financial benefits, work environment, role clarity, employee relations,

employee welfare and work stress. The sample size taken was 105 across all the

departments in a leading of the hospitality sector. A 4 point Likert Scale

questionnaire was used for collecting the data. The data analysis showed that the

satisfaction level of the employees in the organization was very high which

resulted in the smooth running of the organization

Self-concept refers to the totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic

system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true

about his or her personal existence. Self-concepts represent knowledge structures

that consist of beliefs about the self, including one’s attributes, social roles, and

goals. The main factors determining the formation of the self-concept of an

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individual are the environment as well as people with whom the individual lives.

Notion of self-concept is developing around people’s work and organizational

experiences. The individual, relational, and collective self-concepts refer to

whether the self is viewed as separate from others, linked to others through

relationships, or included in large groups, respectively. Researchers have

established that individuals differ in their orientations toward the three levels of

the self-concept. Also, self-concept in organizations could affect on social work

behaviors, organization-based role-set in workplace, career satisfaction, and

achievement. When managers have favorable attitudes toward themselves, they

are in a much better position to build positive and realistic self concept in their

employers. However, promoting high self-concept is important. Beheshtifar and

Rahimi Nezhad (2012) finally suggested that positive self concept was

considered and reinforced among employees.

Several Research Studies in the world have measured the Quality of Work

Life (QWL) of Employees in Industries, Universities, Schools, Government and

Non Government Organizations. This research study by Reena and Jayan (2012)

highlights the quality of work-life of engineering college teachers under various

dimensions. New Challenges can be faced with employees’ satisfaction,

commitment and involvement in achieving personal effectiveness. This study

helps the engineering college teachers to know the role of QWL on Job attitude

and Personal Effectiveness. Quality of Work-Life (QWL) is a philosophy, a set

of principles, which holds that people are the most important resource in an

organization, that they are trustworthy, responsible and capable of making

valuable contributions and that they should be treated with dignity and respect.

The Quality of Work-Life facilitates the employees’ job satisfaction,

performance and personal effectiveness. A better Quality of Work-Life improves

the well-being of the employees as well as the organization’s growth. The sample

consisted of 457 engineering college teachers in Kerala State, who completed

Quality of Work life Questionnaire (Jayan, Reena, Susan & Rekha, 2010) and

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Job Attitude Scale (Jayan, 2004) and Personal Effectiveness Inventory (Andros,

1999). The collected data after being coded were analyzed using Statistical

Package for Social sciences Research (SPSS) and Bivariate correlation and One-

way Anova were used.

Aryeetey and Sanda (2012) explore employees’ perceptions of the

availability and functionality of work life indicators in organizations in Ghana.

The purpose is to identify “quality of work-life” indicators that enhance

employees’ performances and organizational productivity, based on the premise

that the attainment of competitive advantage by an organization is linked to the

attitudinal characteristics of employees shaped by their organizational

experiences. Using a survey approach, data was collected using self-

administering questionnaires from 150 employees sampled from both public and

private organizations in the finance, education, health, and communication

industries. Finally, 128 of the returned questionnaires with all sections fully

scored were used for the analysis. The results show that employees have insights

of available and non-available, as well as functional and non-functional work-

life indicators that could be incorporated in the organizational design to support

the creation of positive organizational values to enhance employee-management

relationship in Ghanaian organizations. It is concluded that organizations could

use such employee insight and knowledge to identify quality of work-life

indicators whose incorporation in the functional organization system could

support the creation of positive organizational values, not only to enhance

employees’ commitment, job satisfaction and productivity, but also to create

good employee-management relationship towards increased organizational

performances. The relevance of such insight to organization is that it allows for

the identification of employees’ thinking about the quality of their organizational

life and well-beings, which issues has been important research topics in both the

fields of human resource and organizational design.

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The purpose of the research by Paracha et al., (2012) is to determine

whether leadership styles, that is transformational leadership style and

transactional leadership style, have an impact on employee performance. Also

the researchers wished to see if job satisfaction has a mediating effect or not. For

this purpose data were collected from 6 schools working in Rawalpindi and

Islamabad. Result shows that transactional and transformational both are

significantly positive associated with employee performance, however,

transactional leadership was more significant than transformational. Another

important discovery made was there was no mediating role of job satisfaction

between transactional leadership. But it mediates with transformation leadership

and employee performance.

The goal of this research by Ghasemizad et al., (2012) was to investigate

relationship between spiritual leadership, quality of work-life, job satisfaction

and productivity in Kerman high schools’ principals and teachers. The population

of this research contained over 420 principals and teachers of Kerman high

schools in Iran. The considered sample size 220 was obtained by using krejcie

and Morgan’s (1970) table and 270 individuals were selected by using simple

random sampling. Four questionnaires of spiritual leadership, quality of work-

life, job satisfaction and productivity were used for gathering information.

Cronbach’s alpha was used for reliability; item analyses and experts' consensus

for validity. Findings show that there is a significant relationship between

spiritual leadership and job satisfaction (R=.40). There is a significant

relationship between spiritual leadership and productivity (R=.32); significant

relationship between spiritual leadership and quality of work-life (R=.41);

significant relationship between job satisfaction and productivity (R=.34). A

significant relationship is observed between job satisfaction and quality of work-

life with (R=.54). A significant relationship is observed between quality of work-

life and productivity (R=.68) all of these relationships were significant on the

level of P<0.01. Multiple regression showed that among the variables of spiritual

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leadership, quality of work life and job satisfaction, quality of work-life with

β=0.60 has more portion in productivity.

The aim of the study by Taneja and Kumari (2012) is to find out the bank

employees’ perception towards their quality of work-life and demographic

variables. Survey was conducted and data were analyzed on the basis of

responses provided by 250 respondents. A well-structured questionnaire was

formulated, which was subjected to pilot testing and re-drafted. Data were

analyzed using factor analysis, descriptive statistics, t-test and (one way)

ANOVA. The Karl Pearson correlation was used to understand the relationship

between QWL and job satisfaction. The analysis showed that there is a

significant gap among the bank employees with demographic variables with

respect to various factors of QWL. The test indicated that there is positive and

direct relationship between QWL and job satisfaction. The results of this study

may have some practical significance for Human Resource Managers, of

especially of banks, in designing their retention policies.

Rajagopalan and Noyaline (2012) in their study aimed at exploring

various strategies adopted by the BPO personnel to overcome the stress, based on

their perception. Stress management warrants much attention nowadays,

particularly in the corporate sector, more so in the IT sector. While a minimum

level of stress is harmless, even necessary to bring out the best in human beings

at work, too much of stress will wear the employees out, upset his work life

balance and simply damage him totally. The study was based on primary data

collected by using pre-structured questionnaire. To evaluate the stress managing

strategies, t- test and F-test were used. First, reliability of the items in the scale

measuring the stress management was evaluated using Reliability/Item analysis

with Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient. Next, Principal Component Method of

Factor Analysis, with Varimax Rotation, was used to identify the major

characteristics underlying the stress management.

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Srivastava and Misra (2012) in their study proposed to explore the role of

career salience as a moderator for the relationship between job burnout and

organizational commitment. Two hundred and fifty middle level managers,

belonging to private sector organizations, were studied for the present work. The

variables were assessed through three validated instruments. The data were

analyzed through Descriptive Statistics, Pearson Product Moment Correlation,

Factor Analysis and Hierarchical Regression Analysis. It was inferred from the

results that job burnout was negatively related to organizational commitment and

career salience moderated the relationship between job burnout and

organizational commitment. By understanding the relationship between these

variables, organizations should try to provide a congenial environment and

conduct training programmes to actively manage their human capital which is

one of the strongest pillars for any organization.

A high quality of work-life is essential for organizations to continue to

attract and retain employees. QWL is a process in which organizations recognize

their responsibility to develop job and working conditions that are excellent for

the employee and organization. An effective leader influences the followers in a

desired manner to achieve goals. It is evident from the literature that different

leadership styles may affect organization effectiveness and performance. The

interventions of QWL will effectively utilize the employee potentials by ensuring

great participation and involvement of workers. This paper by

Nanjundeswaraswamy and Swamy (2012) focuses and analyses the literature

findings which involves QWL and Leadership styles.

Krishna and Prasad (2012) conducted a study which reviews various

changes taking place in the organizational structure, work environment, work

culture and quality of work-life in Indian Information Technology (IT) and IT

Enabled Services industry. It highlights the need and importance of training and

development, availability of various training and development methods. Also, it

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focuses on transformational leadership theory as a method for identifying,

analyzing, training and development of leadership in the organization.

The purpose of the study conducted by Singh and Srivastav (2012) is to

understand and develop the concept of QWL in organization and to identify

factors especially in the internal environment of an organization that leads to

QWL. A qualitative approach was used to develop a conceptual model, depicting

the difference in the total perceived level of QWL amongst employees and

employers in organizations. SERVQUAL model was adapted in assess the QWL

Level, in terms of its adequacy and superiority.

Studies conducted in 2011

Outsourcing is the strategic use of outside resources to perform activities

that a firm can usually handle through internal staff and own resources, says

Jyothi and Arora (2011). Their study sought to examine the impact of

outsourcing on employee attitudes. The data was collected from 100 employees

working in different manufacturing firms operating in the industrial estate of

Jammu region. One outsourcing construct and five employee attitude constructs

were used to ascertain the impact of outsourcing on employee attitudes. The data

was analyzed with the help of uni-variate and bi-variate techniques. Reliability

and validity of the scales were also checked. The study revealed that most of the

non-core, non-critical activities and non-core, critical activities were outsourced

and companies did not outsource core critical activities. Furthermore,

outsourcing had a positive effect on morale and job security and a negative effect

on job satisfaction and intention to leave.

Chavan and Potdar (2011) analysed the impact of the outsourcing industry

on the society and the individuals in India. Both positive and negative impacts

have been analyzed. They focused on the following few major aspects during this

study: health issues, societal issues, personal issues, benefits offered, strategies

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for work and work ethics. Based on a field survey, views of few employees and

employers of this industry have been captured and analyzed. Various health

issues that came to light are stress, sleeplessness, and headache, fatigue, sense of

exhaustion and lack of concentration. It was also found that a number of factors

like hindrance in personal life, physically tiring nature of work, for better salary,

lack of growth opportunity, non-conducive policies and procedures could be

some of the reasons for employees to leave the industry/company. Majority of

employees complained of headache and digestive disorders. Almost everyone

stressed on having provision for power naps of 10-15 minutes. Employees

accepted that they enjoy various facilities and benefits provided by the company

like Provident Fund, Gratuity, Personal Accidental Insurance; Company leased

accommodation, Recreational (like Cafeteria) and other facilities (like ATM,

Gym etc), Corporate credit card, Educational Benefits, Performance based

incentives, Regular get-together and other cultural programs, Employee Referral

Schemes and Maternity leave. Employees also accepted that their spending has

increased and much of the money is spent in lifestyle products, recreational

activities and to support the family. Employees dismissed the aspect of increased

professionalism being unique to the BPO industry and said professionalism is

pervasive in all sectors.

In the present day scenario, IT and BPO companies’ jobs are termed as

more competitive and stressful, says Lakshminarayana (2011). His study brought

out the general broad outline of causes of occupational stress at individual

employee level and at the corporate level. Also the study suggested some urgent

strategic planning needed to combat the alarming rise of disorder in the health of

the employee and the organization as a whole, in the present Indian context and

scenario. Given the Indian scenario of competitive market, over population and

scarcity of good jobs, run on the theory of “Survival of the Fittest”, no profession

is stress free. The degree and depth may vary from one another. Both employer

and employee must understand that work should be valued and not excessive.

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Work should not compromise on health and family life; rather offer happiness,

peace of mind, certainty, variety and flexibility. As a general rule, actions to

reduce job stress should be given top priority in the process of organizational

change to improve working conditions and to avert the situation of brain drain.

But even the most conscientious efforts to improve working conditions are

unlikely to eliminate stress completely for all workers.

The study conducted by Shahzad et al., (2011) examined the relationship

of the work life policies and job stress to the turnover intentions of customer

service representatives (CSRs) in Pakistan. Data was collected from 118

customer service representatives (CSRs) working in call centres to test the

relationship among variables. Results of the study showed negative relationship

of turnover intention with work life policies and positive relationship with job

stress. Results indicate that organizations need to develop and implement such

strategies which can reduce stress and create balance in work family life so as to

have better quality of work-life for this category of employees.

Khattak et al., (2011) in their study examined the occupational stress and

professional burnout in the banking sector of Pakistan. A total of 237 bank

employees (74.3% male and 25.7% female) from different commercial banks

participated in the survey. In order to collect data on stress and burnout, a self-

reported questionnaire was administered to bank employees. Descriptive,

correlation and regression statistical tools were used to analyze data. The results

identified that workload, working hours, technological problem at work,

inadequate salary, time for family and job worries at home are the significant

sources of stress in the banking sector. The significant symptoms of burnout as

revealed by the results are back pain, extreme tiredness, headache and sleep

disturbance. All stressors (organization, job, relationship at work, work

environment and family work interface) were significantly correlated to all

burnouts (physical, psychological and organizational). All the stress elements

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significantly predicted burnout in the banking sector of Pakistan. The changing

work pattern is creating stress for the bank employees and these stressors are

leading to burnout. These results are consistent with the emergent evidence of the

impact of stress on the burnout.

Many organizations in the hotel industry face difficulties in retaining

employees since they are unable to identify the factors that contribute to both

employee satisfaction and loyalty. The study conducted by Abdullah (2011)

covered thirteen satisfaction variables. This study sought to identify factors

which could lead to increased tenure, in addition, any linkage between employee

satisfaction and teamwork was further investigated. In order to do that, a business

model, called the Service Profit Chain was used and applied in hotels in the

Klang Valley area in Malaysia. A portion of the model that measures employee

satisfaction and loyalty was adopted for this study. The findings indicated the

existence of correlation between employee satisfaction and teamwork. Four of

the thirteen satisfaction variables, namely, relationship with supervisor,

recognition and rewards, working conditions, teamwork and cooperation showed

the strongest correlation with the three loyalty variables afore mentioned.

Despite an increasing number of studies on salary satisfaction, no unifying

work was focused on the measurement of degree of difference in salary

satisfaction in a public sector organization and a private sector organization in

Indian context. Salary dissatisfaction decreases job satisfaction, motivation,

performance, and increases absenteeism, turnover intensions, which are

indicators of quality of work life. Sharma and Bajpai (2011) hypothesized that

there is significant difference in the degree of salary satisfaction in public sector

and private sector organization. Data were collected from 250 employees

consisting of managerial and non-managerial staff from both public sector and

private sector organizations. The results showed that employees in public sector

organization have greater degree of salary satisfaction in comparison to private

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sector employees. In addition to this, job satisfaction increases or decreases with

increase or decrease in salary satisfaction. The purpose of this study was to

invoke salary satisfaction in private sector organization. Obtained results were in

the line of the hypotheses. In terms of salary satisfaction, a significant difference

was noticed between public sector and private sector organization. As expected,

public sector employees exhibited higher degree of salary satisfaction as

compared to private sector employees. Most importantly, salary satisfaction is

being proven as the catalyst for enhancing job satisfaction level of employees.

The Information Technology (IT) sector has been instrumental in driving

the Indian economy onto the rapid growth curve, observe George and Alex

(2011). They carried out a study among the IT professionals in Kerala to

understand the importance of Internal Career Anchors (ICA) and External Career

Opportunities (ECO) while determining employee Intention to Quit (ITQ) from

an organization. The respondents were IT professional working the state of

Kerala. The analysis revealed negative relationship between the degree of ECO

and ITQ (-0.49) and positive relationship between ICA and ITQ (0.16). Only two

ICAs namely, job security and technical-functional competence were negative

and significant. No demographic variable except years of experience in the

organization, showed significant effect on ITQ. The results indicate that the IT

companies in Kerala should try and give special emphasis to ICA dimensions of

the individuals and offer ECO in line with employee characteristics to curb

employee turnover.

Employees face numerous problems in their personal as well as work life,

which tend to lower their morale. The work-life stress hampers employees’

capabilities and lowers their productivity. Being service-oriented human

organization banks need a workforce which is capable, efficient and happy for

their smooth working. In the study conducted by Kumari (2011), entry level and

middle level officers of public sector and private sector banks in Uttarakhand

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were surveyed to measure the level of their organizational stress. The impact of

stress on their morale was also assessed. Through statistical analysis of stress and

morale scores obtained from the respondents, the study sought to ascertain the

difference in the level of stress of entry level and middle level officers of public

and private sector banks and to examine the impact of the stress on their morale.

The study revealed that significant differences existing among the bank officers

of different levels.

Choudhury and Gupta (2011) contributed insight into the relationship

between pay satisfaction and turnover intention as well as between job

satisfaction and turnover intention among young Indian professionals by

segregating the respondents into two groups based on the median age. Data were

collected from 230 working Indian executives, having median age of 25, from

various industries such as information technology, public sector units, pharmacy,

and fast moving consumer goods where they expressed their views on turnover

intentions, job satisfaction, and pay satisfaction in their respective organizations.

The results revealed the negative relationship between turnover intention and job

satisfaction and also between turnover intention and pay satisfaction. However,

when age was introduced as a variable having a moderating effect on the above

relationships, it was noticed that pay satisfaction is more significant than job

satisfaction, when it comes to intention to quit a job for employees less than the

median age, turnover intention is driven more by job satisfaction than pay

satisfaction. Findings from this study offer important implications for theory and

research in turnover intention driven by factors like pay satisfaction and job

satisfaction with the moderating effect of age of employees

The growth in the IT sector in India has contributed to its image as a

global hub of excellence. Today, India is undisputedly a software and services

powerhouse, propelled by the rich talent pool available in the country

(Ramkumar and Soumya, 2011). Their study was an attempt to assess the levels

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of engagement in an IT firm which claims to be one among the organizations that

has initiated engagement programs in a scientific and comprehensive way. Using

simple random sampling technique, a sample of 100 software engineers were

selected from a company in Kerala. The study revealed that only 56% of the

employees belonged to engaged category in this organization. It is interesting to

note that only male employees belonged to the disengaged category. The study

also revealed the employees belonging to the age group of 20-25 are the more

engaged compared to those in the higher age groups.

The study conducted by Shanawaz and Jaffry (2011) was designed to

investigate the influence of organizational culture and human resource practices

on the development of psychological contract as such and two dimensions of it,

transactional and relational. Data was collected from 95 full-time working

employees based on convenience and snowball sampling from information

technology/information technology enabled services (IT/ITES) companies

situated in two metros in India. The results indicated that only HR practices,

taken collectively, influence the psychological contract of IT/ITES professionals.

The results further indicated that only maintenance and retention dimensions of

HR practices impacts relational contract and no dimension of culture has any

influence on it. However, three dimensions each of culture and HR practices

influence transactional contract. This suggests that HR managers need to ensure

that the HR policies, practices and culture are all well in place to reap the

positive benefits of a balanced psychological contract.

The study conducted by Suri and Prasad (2011) added to the increasing

body of knowledge in the sphere of transformational leadership. Their study

empirically established the relationship between self-awareness and

transformational leadership in IT industry in Hyderabad. A sample of 130

managers was drawn from software product development organizations. The

analysis revealed that increase in self-awareness help increase transformational

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leadership. The increase in self-awareness increases the capability to monitor

leader’s behaviour and leaders can then adapt to and effectively lead with a wider

range of business challenges. The study also supported Metcalfe and Metcalfe

model of transformational leadership (due to strong correlations within

components of the transformational leadership). Self-awareness also has a

positive correlation between transformational leadership components.

Work-life balance can be defined as the perfect integration between work

and life, both not interfering with each other (Priscilla, 2011). In her article

“work-life balance, the HR perspective”, she emphasized the need for

maintaining wok-life balance of employees for the good of the employees as well

as the organizations. With the advent of globalization, the demands of workplace

are ever-increasing and have become highly dynamic. BPO companies are not an

exception to this. Employees spend more time at the work place rather than at

home which negatively contribute to their quality of work-life. Although

businesses are witnessing new heights, the work-life balance of employees is no

longer in control. Growing number of suicides, divorces, disturbed families and

relationships, outrage or conflicts in the organizations etc. are some reflections of

disturbed work-life balance of the employees. The author concludes her article

saying that it his high time employers must draw out strategies or plans to cope

with the problem and help the employees to enjoy their work and live life to the

fullest.

The article written by Mishra and Mohanty (2011) on “career planning

and development in IT companies”, offers a contemporary perspective on the

themes of career planning, career development and career pathing by

highlighting the practices of an IT company. According to them, an

organization’s productivity is not only measured in terms of profit, growth, new

products and customer satisfaction, but also in terms of employee satisfaction

through effective career planning and development initiative. HR managers face

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numerous challenges on a continuous basis when it comes to improving career

planning and development initiatives for an organization’s survival. The idea that

individuals go through distinct but interrelated career stages is widely recognized

and accepted. The authors have developed a simple version of the concept which

includes five stages, namely, pre-work stage, establishment stage, advancement

stage, maintenance stage and retirement stage.

Attitudes do not, usually, exist in isolation. It is likely, for example, that

one’s attitude toward where one works is linked with one’s attitudes toward the

work itself, co-workers, the location of the workplace and so forth, says Raina

and Shahnawaz 2011). Their study explored how satisfied managers are with

their organization and also how they perceive HR practices such as scope for

advancement, objectivity, and rationality, wages and benefits, job characteristics

and leadership. The sample consisted of 51 executives from the BPO industry

having offices in Delhi and National Capital Region (NCR). Data were collected

using an attitudinal survey scale and the results were analyzed with the help of

SPSS package using mean score, standard deviation, correlation and regression.

It was found that scope for advancement, wages and benefits are the most

important factors as predictors of company satisfaction. It has also been proved

that job attributes like redesign of work, job enrichment, job enlargement,

autonomy, restructuring work around teams and feedback enhance satisfaction at

the workplace, which in turn results in higher performance.

The study done by Pradeep and Prabhu (2011) is a comparison between

selected public and private sector enterprises and the data comprises of 43 middle

level managers and 156 subordinates. The paper looks first at various factors that

add to the effectiveness of leadership through Garrett scores. It then discusses

whether there is any differences in the leadership choice between the public and

private sector enterprises. Finally, the relationship between transformational,

transactional, laissez-faire leaderships and employee performance is explored

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through correlation and regression analysis. The results are likely to suggest that

leaders must have the ability to attract/influence their subordinates, be able to set

clear standards of performance to their peers and act as a best role model to the

subordinates. The subordinates expect that their achievements must be

recognized and rewarded either with monetary or with nonmonetary terms. The

Garrett’s score that gives the preferences of the Middle level managers and the

subordinates from among various leadership styles recommended the

transformational leadership style in both the public and in the private sector

enterprises. The results of correlation and regression analysis suggest that the

transformational leadership style has significant relationships with performance

outcomes; the study thus adds some additional knowledge for a better

understanding of the preferred leadership approach and appropriate style for use

with subordinates in various professional levels.

Teamwork is the ability to work together toward a common vision. And a

leader is a person who guides and has the ability to direct individual

accomplishments toward organizational objectives. It is the fuel that allows

common people to attain uncommon results. With this in mind the role of a

leader is indispensable in the team. This article by Nirmala and Sharon (2011)

deals with the conduct of leaders and team members in the aspect of People and

Task Management Skills.

Human resource plays an important role in the success of any

organization, because most of the problems in organizations are human and

social rather than physical or technical. A good quality of work-life not only

attracts new talent but also retain the existing talent. Quality of work-life has

been defined as "the quality of relationship between employees and the total

working environment". This study by Jeyarathnam and Malarvizhi (2011)

attempts to evaluate the quality of work-life of sugar mill employees and analyze

the relationship between the productivity and quality of work-life. Data were

collected through questionnaire from a sample of 190 employees from sugar

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mills in Erode district in Tamilnadu. The results of the study showed the intensity

of working conditions and the behavioral aspects of the employees in the study

area. It concludes that the basic strategy for improving the quality of work life is

to identify employee’s important needs and to satisfy those needs. The study also

indicated that dissatisfaction might happen due to lack of recognition, tedious

work, unhealthy peer relations, poor working conditions, low self-esteem,

occupational stress, heavy work load, monotony, fatigue, time pressures, job

insecurity, instability of job.

Studies conducted in 2010

The study conducted by Kheradmand, Mohammadreza and Lotfi (2010),

contributes to the literature on QWL by testing the relationship between QWL

and job performance. A questionnaire was used to survey a sample of 35

employees in Dadevarz Jooya Company in Iran. The results indicated a

significant positive relationship between QWL and job performance. A two

factor model with correlated factors was postulated and supported. Analysis

showed that the two constructs are highly correlated.

Singh (2010), in her study on the perception of work-life balance policies

among software professionals, tried to find out their perceptions on work-life

balance policies. The sample size for this study was 133 respondents from two

organizations. The study provided the management an approach to assess the

awareness of WLB policies and to measure their perceived importance which

was a major contribution by the researcher.

Garg (2010) conducted a study to find out the relationship between

distress and quality of life. The study was conducted among the private sector

bank employees in Chandigarh city. The researcher found that there is significant

negative relationship between distress and quality of life. But after introducing

stress management techniques, the quality of life increased and distress level

significantly decreased as per the researcher’s findings.

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Ravindran and Vijayalakshmi (2010) conducted a study in Nokia Siemens

Networks, Bangalore, to identify the factors influencing stress among employees.

The study used descriptive research design as it reveals the existing facts. The

sample size was 100 out of 250 employees. The type of sampling used was

convenience sampling and a structured questionnaire was used to collect the

primary data and the secondary data were collected through company records,

journals etc. The study revealed that lengthy working hours, ambitious targets set

by the employer and working at night are the major factors influencing stress

among the employees in the company.

The dynamic work environment and high pressures have created lot of

stress among women. Shikari (2010) in her article “Juggling work and life”

shares the experiences of different women executives in dealing with work stress

and handling family life simultaneously in order to create and maintain work life

balance.

Ay and Avsaroglu (2010), in their research on accountants’ professional

burnout, job and life satisfaction examined whether the burnout and job

satisfaction of accountants differed according to some variables. The ‘Maslach

burnout inventory’ and ‘Job satisfaction scale’ were used to collect data. The

research population consisted of the accountants in Turkey. Sample of the

research consisted of 1,494 randomly chosen participants from this group. Data

collection was initiated by sending the data collection tools to the accountants via

mail and e-mail in September, 2008 and required data was obtained in June,

2009. According to the results of the study, it was determined those in terms of

gender, male accountants experienced more emotional burn out and female

accountants experienced more job satisfaction. The significant differences in

terms of gender, age group, workplace, working area, working style, workplace

type, level of income variables, burnout and job satisfaction were determined in

this research. Concurrently, it was discovered that there was negative correlation

between burnout and job satisfaction.

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Much attention has been given to the explosion in business process

outsourcing (BPO) operations in India. Little concern, however, has been paid to

the performance of Indian service workers in these fast-paced and sometimes

turbulent environments. Using a sample of 160 service workers from a privately

held BPO firm in India, Combs, Clapp-Smith and Nadkarni (2010) examined the

relationship between Indian service workers’ hope and their performance

outcomes. Regression and structural equation model analyses indicated a

significant positive relationship between Indian service workers’ levels of hope

and their performance. These promising results highlight the importance of

measuring and managing employee hope to maximize employee productivity and

performance. By effectively developing and managing levels of employee hope,

Indian BPO firms can combat employee problems such as attrition, stress, and

burnout that have plagued the BPO industry. Hope may also help mitigate the

influence of aspects of Indian culture on human resource management practices

in Indian BPOs.

In this globalized world, parents are searching for equitable life between

their family and work roles, says Abrar and Ghouri (2010). Their study explored

the insight aspects and difficulties of dual earner’s family and work-life. Two

thousand two hundred (2,200) questionnaires were distributed in organizations of

Karachi, Pakistan. The key findings of this study exposed the individual’s family

and work role identity and explained that value principles are the cause of role

tenancy choices and decisions made by dual-earner parents. Gender based

parental role identities evenly account a work role identity or salient parental role

identity. Dual earners experience the concerns and rewards of work and family

role accumulation. Family role participation rewards and conflicts arose for

mothers and fathers with their family related life. Balancing work and family,

their related issues and concerns are important for dual earners, regardless of

their occupational field. Dual-earner parents also experience the inter-role

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conflict and overload, which hurt their work or family domain. It makes intricacy

to fulfill one’s role in response to fulfilling other role successfully.

Oladele and Mabe (2010) carried out a study to understand the job burnout

and coping strategies among extension officers in North West province, South

Africa. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 40 extension

officers to examine the incidence of job burnout and coping strategies. Data were

collected with a structured questionnaire and analyzed using frequency counts,

percentages and multiple regression analysis. The results showed that majority of

the extension officers were male (52.5%) with the mean age of 42.5 years,

married (72.5%) and 82.5% were Christians. Eighty-five percent of the extension

officers had diploma as their educational qualification and a mean of 14 years as

working experience. The result revealed that extension officers experienced 29

out of the listed 44 job burnout symptoms, which include cynicism/negativism

(1.87) agitation (1.85) accident proneness (1.75) and loss of patience (1.72). The

most prominent coping strategy as indicated by extension officers were

maintaining an active personal social life outside of work (2.50), maintaining

healthy relationship with co-workers (2.47), development of structural and

personal support system (2.45) and maintaining healthy relationship with

superior officers (2.47). Significant determinants of job burnout were gender (t =

2.46), educational level (t = -3.02), studying for higher degree (t = -2.30) and

number of farmers covered (t = -2.20). The study recommended that extension

officers should be exposed to training and techniques to cope with job burnout.

Katsuro et al., (2010) in their study sought to assess the impact of

occupational health and safety (OHS) on productivity in the commercial food

industry. The objective of the study was to explore occupational health and safety

(OHS) problems of different work areas and their impact on productivity. The

research targeted production supervisors, shop floor employees and industrial

clinic nurses. Questionnaires, interviews and observations were used as research

instruments to collect data. The study found out that OHS related problems

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negatively affect workers’ productive capacity in the food industry resulting in

reduced worker output. Workers developed a negative attitude and low morale

towards work. High incidents of accidents at work also occurred. The study

recommended that food industry factories should upgrade their OHS through

training programs and use up-to-date equipment.

The study carried out by Rehman et al., (2010) explored the relationship

between work rewards and job satisfaction with moderating effect of age

differences. It was an empirical study and a sample of eighty four full time

employees of FESCO (Faisalabad Electric Supply Company, Pakistan) was

taken. The results of this study revealed that job rewards are proved to be strong

determinant of job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was more related to extrinsic

rewards for employees than intrinsic rewards. The age differences were found to

have moderating effect on job satisfaction as it increases with rise in age.

The study of Okereke and Daniel (2010) examined staff welfare and

organization’s productivity, using Patani Local Government Council in Delta

State, Nigeria as a reference. The methodology was primarily qualitative and

involved use of In-Depth Interviews (IDIs) and Focus Group Discussion (FGDs)

to secure information from employees at the Council. Motivational models and

conflict theory of Dahrendorf were used as the theoretical framework. The theory

presupposes social changes as an inevitable outcome of activities of societal

elements, typified in the contrasting positions of the management and employees

that could retard motivation and employee performance. Data revealed general

awareness about staff welfare among the employees and ability to identify the

elements of welfare. There was absence of staff welfare in the council. The

working environment was poor, in terms of office accommodation and furniture,

paucity of working materials, scarcely available monetary incentives and

unreliable health and safety facilities, which altogether reduced morale (job

satisfaction) and efficiency in job performance. The authors recommended

pragmatic efforts to enhance employee’s job capabilities through training; to

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improve working conditions of the employees and their general welfare in order

to elicit job satisfaction and motivation for increased productivity.

The drivers of outsourcing emanate from organizational initiatives,

improvement focus, financial and cost objectives or growth objectives. Despite

the increasing practical significance of this phenomenon, the academic literature

is limited to a handful of studies concerned with the delegation of accounting

functions. There are different drives and phases in the process of outsourcing but

little is known on what drives accounting outsourcing and its process. Based on

an in-depth case study, Hamzah et al., (2010) tried to understand the drivers and

processes in accounting outsourcing. This study examined the mechanisms and

practices adopted in accounting outsourcing in a Malaysian company. Interviews

were conducted with vendor and client of the company studied. The findings

revealed that there is no firm basis used by the company studied for evaluating its

outsourcing decision.

Afzal et al., (2010) explored the experiences of mid-career professional

working mothers exercising integration among work, family and selves in the

context of the city of Faisalabad, Pakistan. It has been examined that the family

systems, joint and nuclear, affected them and their careers. The sample included

22 professional working mid-career mothers, ranging from 33 to 48 years of age,

having at least one independent child, living either in nuclear or joint family

system. The researchers used the interview technique for collecting the data.

Qualitative in-depth interviews were audio-taped. An interview inventory was

prepared beforehand and its validity was checked in consultation with the

research supervisor and other experts in the university. The study showed that the

professional working mothers were responsible in performing their domestic and

professional roles, besides self-care. The proper incorporation of both roles was

plausible with the stipulation of flexibility from both, work and family system,

joint or nuclear. All women had intense feelings of motherhood; their career was

also of high importance for them as they found it purposeful and satisfying. They

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felt they were now better able to balance their family, work and individual self as

compared to the start of their careers.

The aim of the study conducted by Arandelović et al., (2010) was (1) to

test the possibilities of standardized questionnaires for burnout, quality of life,

and work ability in Serbia by investigating interactions of these phenomena in

food manufacturing workers in Serbia; and (2) to determine possible preventive

measures. The study enrolled 489 food manufacturing workers in the region of

Nis (Serbia) during the period from January 2008 to February 2009. Authors

included three standardized questionnaires: for burnout (CBI), quality of life

(ComQoL-A5), and the work ability index (WAI) in the Serbian language. The

results of the study indicated high scores in personal (60.0) and work burnout

(67.9), lower scores for objective (66.2%SM) and subjective quality of life in

enrolled subjects (69.2%SM), and an excellent work ability index in most

workers (65.8%). The questionnaires tested are reliable instruments in the

Serbian region. Burnout, quality of life, and work ability are significantly

interrelated categories in food manufacturing workers. There was a high degree

of work burnout that has not yet been accompanied with significant impairment

of quality of living and work ability in exposed workers. That is why a

salutogenic approach in the prevention of this phenomenon, by health-promotion

programs in the workplace, would be the method of choice for burnout

improvement.

In recent years, workaholism has become prevalent throughout

organizations and has captured the attention of organizational leaders as well as

the academic and scientific community, believes Adkins et al., (2010). Most

research in this area has focused on the negative consequences of work-holism,

specifically work-life imbalance. One area of research that has largely been

ignored is the potential influence of demographic variables on the relationship

between workaholism and work-life imbalance. Therefore, the current study

focused on how cultural origin might influence the intensity of this relationship.

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Based on relative deprivation theory and previous empirical work, it was

expected that cultural origin would moderate the relationship between

workaholism and work-life imbalance. Specifically, it was predicted that

Caucasian participants would score higher on levels of workaholism than black

participants, and that the relationship between work-holism and work-life

imbalance would be stronger for Caucasians than for blacks. The results revealed

that high levels of workaholism were significantly correlated with high levels of

work-life imbalance. However, results also indicated that cultural origin did not

moderate the relationship between workaholism and work-life imbalance, and

there was no significant mean difference between Caucasian and Black

participants on measure of work-holism. These findings are important in that it is

essential for employers to be aware of workaholic tendencies so they can better

handle the negative consequences that result for the organization, and also help

them promote the well-being of their employees.

Budhwar, Luthar and Bhatnagar (2010) highlighted the context within

which business process outsourcing (BPO) has rapidly grown in India and the

critical need to investigate the dynamics of human resource management (HRM)

practices and systems in this sector. Using a mixed method approach involving

both in depth interviews and self-completing questionnaires, they analyzed the

nature of HRM systems in BPO organizations operating in India. The analysis

was based on a sample of fifty one (51) BPO companies, a majority of which are

located near the capital of New Delhi. The results focused on the nature and

structure of work and organization of Indian BPOs, as well as the strategic role

played by HRM in such organizations. Furthermore, the findings highlighted the

way specific HRM practices such as recruitment, performance appraisal, training

and development, and compensations are implemented. The study suggested the

existence of formal, structured, and rationalized HRM systems in Indian BPOs.

A number of insights related to HRM policies and practices were shared by the

HR managers interviewed, shedding more light on the inner workings of the

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Indian BPO companies and their challenges. The analysis provides original and

useful information to both academicians and practitioners and opens avenues for

future research on the nature of HRM systems and practices in the Indian BPO

industry.

The purpose of the exploratory research conducted by Burke et al.,

(2010) was to examine the relationship of a measure of work intensity with

potential antecedents and consequences. A questionnaire was developed and pre-

tested. It included a new 15-item measure of work intensity. Data were collected

from 106 respondents enrolled in three university business courses using

anonymously completed questionnaires. Regression and factor analyses were

used in developing the measure and testing the relationships. The 15-item

measure of work intensity was found to have high internal consistency and

reliability. Work intensity was significantly related to respondents' organizational

level and work status. In addition, respondents indicating higher levels of work

intensity also reported working more hours, a higher workload, and greater job

stress. Work intensity was unrelated to organizational values supporting work-

personal life imbalance, three workaholism components, or to indicators of work

engagement. Factor analysis of the work intensity measured produced three

factors: emotional demands, job demands, and time demands; the first two were

fairly consistently related to other study variables, whereas time demands were

not. The study developed a work intensity measure and examined its properties

and correlates, something that is lacking in the literature.

Much attention has been given to the explosion in business process

outsourcing (BPO) operations in India. Little concern, however, has been paid to

the performance of Indian service workers in these fast-paced and sometimes

turbulent environments. Using a sample of 160 service workers from a privately

held BPO firm in India, Combs et al., (2010) examined the relationship between

Indian service workers' hope and their performance outcomes. Regression and

structural equation model analyses indicated a significant positive relationship

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between Indian service workers' levels of hope and their performance. These

promising results highlight the importance of measuring and managing employee

hope to maximize employee productivity and performance. By effectively

developing and managing levels of employee hope, Indian BPO firms can

effectively combat employee problems such as attrition, stress, and burnout that

have plagued the BPO industry.

Cross-national comparisons generally show large differences in life

satisfaction of individuals within and between European countries. The work

done by Drobnic et al., (2010) addresses the question of whether and how job

quality and working conditions contribute to the quality of life of employed

populations in nine strategically selected EU countries: Finland, Sweden, the UK,

the Netherlands, Germany, Portugal, Spain, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Using data

from the European Quality of Life Survey 2003, they examined relationships

between working conditions and satisfaction with life, as well as whether

spillover or segmentation mechanisms better explain the link between work

domain and overall life satisfaction. Results showed that the level of life

satisfaction varies significantly across countries, with higher quality of life in

more affluent societies. However, the impact of working conditions on life

satisfaction is stronger in Southern and Eastern European countries. The study

suggested that the issue of security, such as security of employment and pay

which provides economic security, is the key element that in a straightforward

manner affects people’s quality of life. Other working conditions, such as

autonomy at work, good career prospects and an interesting job seem to translate

into high job satisfaction, which in turn increases life satisfaction indirectly. In

general, bad-quality jobs tend to be more effective in worsening workers

perception of their life conditions than good jobs are in improving their quality of

life. The authors discussed the differences in job-related determinants of life

satisfaction between the countries and considered theoretical and practical

implications of these findings.

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Javornik and Jana (2010) analyzed the determinants of global life

satisfaction in two countries (the Netherlands and the U.S.), by using both self-

reports and responses to a battery of vignette questions. They found global life

satisfaction of happiness is well-described by four domains: job or daily

activities, social contacts and family, health, and income. Among the four

domains, social contacts and family had the highest impact on global life

satisfaction, followed by job and daily activities and health. Income had the

lowest impact. It was also found that American response styles differed from the

Dutch in that Americans were more likely to use the extremes of the scale (either

very satisfied or very dissatisfied) than the Dutch, who were more inclined to

stay in the middle of the scale. Although for both Americans and the Dutch,

income was the least important determinant of global life satisfaction, it was

more important in the U.S. than in the Netherlands. Indeed life satisfaction varied

substantially more with income in the U.S. than in the Netherlands.

The main purpose of the study initiated by Sidin et al., (2010) was to link

work-family conflict, quality of work and non-work lives, quality of life and

social support (supervisor and spouse supports). Specifically, it sought to address

three different roles of social support that have theoretical and empirical support

and the mediating roles of quality of work life and quality of non-work. The

SEM-based approach has been used to study supervisor and spouse supports as

moderators between work-family conflict and quality of life; independent

variables of work-family conflict; independent variables of quality of life. The

main findings were: work-family conflict had relationship with quality of life;

quality of work life and non-work life are ``partial'' mediators between work-

family conflict and quality of life; and, among the various roles of social support,

its role as an independent variable of quality of life gives the best results. The

research was based on a cross-sectional study conducted in Malaysia and

addressed only the spouse and supervisor supports as components of social

support. The research has developed a comprehensive model linking work-family

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conflict, quality of work and non-work lives, and quality of life and has studied

the role of social support.

India is known as the Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) capital of the

world, hence safeguarding health of millions of youngsters employed in this new

growing economy is an occupational health challenge, says Mishra et al., (2010).

The study conducted by them was with the objectives of assessing the prevalence

of tobacco use and for an understanding of the factors responsible for initiating

and continuing its use. The main aim, however, was to assess the effect of

different tobacco cessation intervention strategies, thus identifying effective

methods to assist these employees to quit tobacco. The study was a 4-arm

cluster randomized trial of 18 months duration among 646 BPO employees,

working in four different BPO units. The employees were invited to participate in

interviews following which tobacco users of each BPO were offered specific

tobacco cessation interventions to assist them to quit tobacco use. The study

revealed that the prevalence of tobacco dependence is 41%, mainly cigarette

smoking. The tobacco quit rate is similar (nearly 20%) in the 3 intervention arms.

Significantly higher reduction in tobacco consumption of 45% was seen in Arm 4

with the use of pharmacotherapy. BPO employees change jobs frequently, hence

follow-up remains a major challenge. Inaccessibility of pharmacotherapy in the

developing countries should not deter tobacco cessation efforts as good tobacco

quit rates can be achieved with health education and behavioral therapy. Tobacco

cessation should be an integral activity in all BPOs, so that the employees receive

this service continuously and millions of India’s youths are protected from the

hazards of tobacco.

The business process outsourcing (BPO) industry in India is evolving

rapidly, and one of the key characteristics of this industry is the emergence of

high-end services offered by knowledge processing outsourcing (KPO)

organizations. These organizations are set to grow at a tremendous pace. Given

the people-intensive nature of this industry, efficient employee management is

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bound to play a critical role. The literature lacks studies offering insights into the

HR challenges involved and the ways in which they are addressed by KPOs. In

this context, the purpose of the study conducted by Raman et al., (2010) was to

attempt to fill this gap by presenting findings from an in-depth case study of a

KPO organization. To achieve the research objective the authors adopted an in-

depth case study approach. The research setting was that of a KPO organization

in India, which specializes in offering complex analytics, accounting and support

services to the real estate and financial services industries. The results of this

study highlighted the differences in the nature of work characteristics in such

organizations as compared to call centers. The study also highlighted some of the

key people management challenges that these organizations face like attracting

and retaining talent. The case company adopted formal, structured, transparent

and innovative human resource practices. The findings indicated that such

enlightened human resource practices stand on the foundations laid by an open

work environment and facilitative leadership.

The current generation of workers places greater attention on work-life

balance than the prior generation. The employee recruiting process in

professional services firms will have to take this into consideration if they are to

effectively compete in the marketplace for employees. The study of Smith and

Katherine (2010) examined research questions regarding work-life balance

perspectives of millennial job candidates. Results of the study indicated that

millennial regard work-life balance as important to a person's quality of work,

job performance, ethical decision-making, and long-term job satisfaction.

The issue of the quality of work-life has risen in popularity due to

concerns about the economic and social sustainability of European societies.

Throughout the continent, global competition, technological change and the

intensification of work are common developments which are seen to affect the

well-being of the workforce. Nevertheless, European countries differ

substantially in terms of job quality. According to earlier research, employees in

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Sweden and Denmark (and to lesser extent in Finland) report a higher quality of

work tasks than elsewhere in Europe. The aim of the work done by Hartikainen

et al., (2010) was to investigate, in a cross-national context using multivariate

techniques, whether job quality in Finland really is divergent from that of other

Nordic countries and rest of the Europe. Empirical analyses were based on the

fourth wave of the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) collected in

2005. In this study the authors used data from the 25 member states of the

European Union and Norway (n=21,196 interviews). The results supported

earlier findings that Finland lags behind other Nordic countries in terms of work

discretion and the perceptions of being well paid. Instead, Finnish employees

were less worried about health issues. When comparing Finland to Scandinavia,

authors did not find major differences in the amount of highly skilled jobs,

insecurity nor the quantity of jobs requiring great effort. They also examined the

associations of the dimensions of job quality to job satisfaction. The results

indicated that the subjective aspects of job quality were more important

determinants of job satisfaction, and that there were only modest differences in

the determinants of job satisfaction between country clusters.

Studies conducted in 2009

Rajagopal and Abraham (2009) conducted an empirical research in the IT

sector to assess the prominence of higher order needs among eighty information

technology professionals in Bangalore. The respondents did not give much

importance to physiological and “belonging” needs but the higher order needs

were given much prominence as per the empirical evidences. The two major

hypotheses developed for the study were: (1) the need for ‘physiological and

belongingness’ is low among the IT professionals and (2) the need for ‘safety,

self-esteem and self actualization’ is high among IT professionals. The

hypotheses were supported and contradicted Maslow’s principles on need

hierarchy.

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Charpe (2009) in her study on reducing back pain and improving

performance among software professionals, concluded that employers with

personnel who are required to sit for long periods of time to perform their job

duties should take preventive measures that may reduce the risk of back pain.

The findings of the study revealed that fitness program helps to reduce the

symptoms of back pain in software professionals and increase the performance.

Hence she suggested that interventions like ergonomics and fitness programs can

prove to be beneficial in reducing the problem and increase the performance of

the workers. Thus a comprehensive fitness program was designed for the

workforce to ensure that both worker’s efficiency and productivity could be

sustained.

Many BPO employees acknowledged high levels of stress associated with

their jobs. Hence, BPOs need to consider measures that would alleviate some of

this stress. Ambitious performance targets, strict deadlines and close monitoring

may not be sustainable in the long-run and BPOs must review current practices

and build in measures to counter employee burnout. Several youth had indicated

recreational facilities as one of the best features of their BPOs and employees

need to be provided opportunities to use these facilities. This was revealed in the

study conducted by Vaid (2009) among unmarried young people working in the

BPO sector in Gurgaon. All the study participants had college education, most

were living away from their families, many reported that their families held non-

traditional attitudes and that communication within the family was open. Of

course, all were earning well. In these respects, the sample of young people in

this study, particularly young women, is very different from youth in India more

in general.

The 10th National Economic and Social Developmental Plan of the

Government of Thailand considered quality of human beings. Quality of human

life is affected by quality of working life (QWL). Professional nurses had

responsibility for patients’ quality of life. Thus, professional nurses should have a

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quality of working life more effectively before they could help patients. Personal

factors have relationships with the quality of working life. Thus, the study

conducted by Boonrod (2009) was to describe the level of the QWL, to examine

the relationships between job characteristics, organizational climate,

organizational commitment, and job satisfaction with the QWL and to predict the

QWL among professional nurses at Phramongkutklao Hospital, Bangkok. Two

hundred and thirty-one professional nurses, who had worked for at least 3 years,

were selected by stratified random sampling from 12 departments at

Phramongkutklao Hospital. The questionnaires were developed, consisting of

personal factors, job characteristics, organizational climate and commitment, job

satisfaction and QWL. Content validity was examined by nine experts.

Reliability was obtained at 0.97 by means of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. The

overall mean score of the level of quality of working life among professional

nurses was at a moderate level (mean = 3.412, SD = 0.459). Personal factors like

age, marital status, education, position, experience, salary and wards had no

relationships with the QWL. Job satisfaction was positive and related at a high

level, while organizational commitment, organizational climate, and job

characteristics were positive and related at a moderate level to the QWL

significantly at 0.001 level (r = 0.724, 0.694, 0.640, and 0.334). Multiple

regression analysis factors affecting QWL indicated that professional nurses

associated negative factors with job characteristics and positive factors with job

satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational climate at 62.10

percent (R2 = 0.621). (QWL = 0.762 + 0.336 Job satisfaction + 0.265

Organizational climate + 0.250 Organizational commitment - 0.118 Job

characteristics). In order to develop the QWL among professional nurses at

Phramongkutklao hospital, it was suggested that nursing administrators should

promote their job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational

climate, and job characteristics. Professional nurses who have better QWL, are

more likely to stay in their positions and provide better nursing care.

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Since the 1980s there have been major changes in workplace organization

resulting from the application of new information and communications

technologies (ICTs). The study conducted by Hector et al., (2009) used a sample

of the working population to estimate the extent to which new technology has

affected the quality of working life in New Zealand. The study addressed a range

of questions relating to workplace satisfaction, from gains in the autonomy of

workers and job variety to the extent to which workers now feel more closely

monitored. It also addressed the relationship of new workplace structures

resulting from technology adoption to more flexible working arrangements such

as telecommuting. The findings of this survey largely disabused the extremists,

with no finding that overall workplace satisfaction is significantly higher or

lower as a result of new ICT. Those who hoped that new technology would give

workers greatly enhanced autonomy, and make work more challenging, fulfilling

and meaningful will find little support here. Neither is there any evidence of

significant telecommuting, though flexibility in working hours does appear to

have increased. Self-managing teams may have replaced line supervisors to some

extent. But teams have their own dynamics and impose very real expectations on

their members, so there is no incompatibility here with the apparent sense that

pressure is higher in the more technologized workplaces.

Azahan et al., (2009) opine that a city’s quality of life is often linked with

its environment and the infrastructures provided in the city. There is an argument

that if a city has good quality of life, it is because of its environment and the

infrastructures are good, and of high standard. This study examined the quality of

life status of Seremban, one of the intermediate cities in Malaysia based on three

components i.e. urban dwellers’ readiness, urban environment and urban

accessibility. However, rather than assessment made through physical

perspective, this research used urban dwellers perspective to justify the quality of

life status. 550 respondents from various socioeconomic backgrounds

participated in this research. The results showed that all the three components are

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significantly contributed to the Seremban’s quality of life status. However, the

score for urban dwellers readiness component is higher than urban environment

component (64.2%) and urban accessibility component (60.0%) that is 68.7%. It

was also found that the quality of life of Seremban’s urban dwellers is quite

homogeneous, although they are from various socioeconomic backgrounds. The

findings show that Seremban has a potential to be one of the better cities to live

and to be developed in the future, as it is pertinent with its function and status as

an intermediate city.

Fursman (2009) reports the findings from a multi-method study on long

working hours and their impact on family life. It draws on data from the New

Zealand 2006 Census, a review of literature, and a small qualitative study

involving in-depth interviews with seventeen families with dependent children in

which at least one partner was working long hours. The study found that parents’

working hours were driven by the requirements of their jobs, income, and the

cultures of their workplaces, as well as the satisfaction work provided. Many

parents felt unable to reduce their hours, despite believing that their hours had a

variety of negative impacts on family life. A number of factors mediated the

impact of long hours of work, including the availability of extended family for

childcare and support; having flexible work arrangements and control over hours

of work including both the number of hours and when hours were worked; and

how satisfied spouses were with both the number of hours of paid work and the

impact of these hours on the availability of the long-hours worker to spend time

with children and to do a share of the household chores. The article concludes by

noting that long hours are just one factor among many that affect family

functioning and wellbeing.

Increasing turnover of frontline staff in call centers is detrimental to the

delivery of quality service to customers, says Budhwar et al., (2009). Their study

aimed to present the context for the rapid growth of the business process

outsourcing (BPO) sector in India, and to address a critical issue faced by call

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centre organizations in this sector - the high employee turnover. Following a

triangulation approach, two separate empirical investigations were conducted to

examine various aspects of high labor turnover rates in the call centre sector in

India. Study one examined the research issue via fifty one (51) in-depth

interviews in as many units. Study two reported results from a questionnaire

survey with 204 frontline agents across eleven (11) call centers regarding

employee turnover. The study revealed a range of reasons - from monotonous

work, stressful work environment, adverse working conditions, and lack of career

development opportunities; to better job opportunities elsewhere, which emerged

as the key causes of increasing attrition rates in the Indian call centre industry.

Cheung et al., (2009) adopted the conservation of resources model (COR,

Hobfoll Am Psychol 44:513524, Hobfoll in Stress, culture, and community: the

psychology and philosophy of stress, Plenum, New York) to examine the

associations among emotional labor, work family interference, and quality of

work life. Cross-sectional, self-reported data were obtained from 442 Hong Kong

Chinese service employees. Correlation and hierarchical regression analyses

showed that surface acting was a salient correlate of work-to-family interference,

even when organizational display rules and employees demographic information

were controlled. Furthermore, quality of work life had partially mediated the

relationship between surface acting and work-to-family interference. However,

deep acting and expression of naturally felt emotion did not relate to work-to-

family interference. Finally, the researchers found that family-to-work

interference was a salient correlate of the use of surface acting in workplace. This

study provided useful information of how adopting different emotional labor

strategies related to work family interference. Based on the results, the use of

deep acting should be promoted in workplace because it related positively to

quality of work life and it did not amplify the work-to-family interference. While

past studies often explored the role of emotional labor as the precursor of work

family interference, this study is among the first attempt to examine family-to-

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work interference as the antecedent of emotional labor. Additionally, they had

also confirmed the role of quality of work life as an important mediator between

emotional labor-work-to-family interference.

The study of Cook et al., (2009) examined the quality of life of single

mothers making the mandatory transition from welfare to work. The Australian

government purported that the benefits of making this transition would include

higher incomes, better social participation, and improved wellbeing. It is

currently unknown, however, how single mothers engaged in welfare to work

programs evaluate their quality of life. Quality of life scores for 334 single

mothers engaged in welfare to work in Australia were compared with normative

data. Participants reported significantly lower quality of life scores than the

general population for all quality of life domains, highlighting the need to

carefully examine welfare to work policies to ensure they promote participants'

quality of life.

Previous research suggests that higher education employees experience

comparatively high levels of job stress. A range of instruments, both generic and

job-specific, has been used to measure stressors and strains in this occupational

context. The Work-related Quality of Life (WRQoL) scale is a measure designed

to capture perceptions of the working environment and employees’ responses to

them. The study conducted by Edwards et al., (2009) explored the factor

structure of the WRQoL scale for higher education employees. Survey data were

collected from workers in four higher education institutions in the UK (n =

2136). Confirmatory factor analysis methods were used to investigate the

explanatory power of the scale using a six-factor model (job and career

satisfaction, general well being, home work interface, stress at work, control at

work and working conditions). A first-order confirmatory factor analysis model

fitted the data well, whilst a second-order model produced an acceptable fit.

Levels of WRQoL for each factor are consistent with those found in other studies

of academic employees. Overall, higher education employees in the sample were

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dissatisfied with their jobs and careers, were generally dissatisfied with working

conditions and control at work and reported that they are stressed at work.

Results provide evidence to support the use of the WRQoL psychometric

instrument as both a multi-dimensional and uni-dimensional measure to assess

the quality of working life of employees in higher education.

Fernandez, Rocha and Maria Da (2009) investigated the impact of

psychosocial aspects on the quality of life of teachers from municipal schools in

Natal, Brazil. In this descriptive study with a cross-sectional design, a sample of

242 elementary school teachers was included. The authors used the World Health

Organization Quality of Life (WHOQOL-brief) to assess the quality of life as

well as questions about the level of control and the psychological demand of

work from the Job Content Questionnaire. The overall evaluation of quality of

life showed that the physical and environmental domains had the lowest mean

scores. According to the psycho-social aspects, most of the subjects (67

individuals = 32.1%) were characterized as having active work (high demand and

control), followed by 54 teachers (25.8%) with demanding work (high demand

and little control). These two groups have shown to be more affected in the

assessment of physical (p < 0.001), psychological (p < 0.001), and environment

(p < 0.001) domains of quality of life. Teachers who had tasks characterized as

active and demanding were more affected in the quality of life domain. This

finding suggested the need for greater investment in health-promotion policies

among teachers.

The study carried out by Hunter, Banning and James (2009) examined

open-ended responses from 295 college students to questions regarding how they

define the construct of calling, how having a calling influences their career

development, and the extent to which the term "calling" may apply to areas of

life other than work. Results indicated that students perceived a calling as

originating from guiding forces, co-occurring with unique fit and well-being,

having altruistic features, and extending to multiple life roles. These results

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largely support recent conceptualizations of calling in the career development

literature, and suggest themes to explore in counseling with clients who desire to

approach work as a calling.

Hammig and George (2009) investigated the prevalence and mental health

effects of an unequal work-life balance including potential gender differences. A

cross-sectional study based on a representative sample of the Swiss employed

population aged 20 to 64 (women: n = 1661; men: n = 1591). Based on a single-

item measure, more than every seventh employee in Switzerland indicated major

difficulties combining work and private life. In certain socio-demographic

categories, up to 30% showed such work-life conflict (WLC). For both genders,

work-life imbalance turned out to be a risk factor affecting mental health.

Employees with self-reported WLC presented a significantly higher relative risk

for poor self-rated health (women: aOR = 2.6/men: aOR = 2.0), negative

emotions and depression (aOR = 3.0/3.1), low energy and optimism (aOR =

2.1/1.6), fatigue (aOR = 2.4/2.6), and sleep disorders (aOR = 1.8/1.5) compared

to employees with no WLC. In Switzerland, work-life imbalance is not a

marginal phenomenon among the workforce and needs to be addressed as a

notable public and mental health issue.

Mc Graw, Heidtman and Daniella (2009) surveyed legal firms in the state

of New South Wales and assessed the provision of Work/Life Balance options

and the factors that predict their uptake. The four research questions were: does a

greater range of WLB options offered by a firm lead to a higher take up rate by

employees?; how important is top management support for WLB in influencing

employee uptake?; how important is top management support for equal reward

and promotion of employees using WLB options in predicting its use?; how does

the level of support in an employees' personal life affect their perception of the

value of WLB options. Top management support for WLB and the equal

treatment of employees who use WLB options were found to be positively

correlated in line with findings from earlier studies. However, the range of WLB

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options on offer and perceptions of personal support outside of work were not

found to be positively correlated.

The aim of the study conducted by Merecz and Wojciech (2009) was to

indicate psycho-social stressors at work that significantly affect sickness absence

workers. Study subjects included a group of 233 randomly selected women

employed as post-office clerks. Sickness absence data covered the period of

2004-2006. The psycho-social factors were assessed by means of the Subjective

Work Characteristics Questionnaire. The hazard ratio (HR) of sickness absence

was analyzed using the Cox regression model, separately for short- (1-9 days)

medium- (10-29 days) and long-term (30 days and above) sickness absence. The

short term sickness absence risk was significantly related with the post-office

size-in the offices employing 8-12 workers, the risk was by 50% lower compared

to those employing a smaller number of workers (HR = 0.49; 95% CI: 0.27-0.90)

and unpleasant working conditions (dirt), which contributed to the increased risk

(HR = 1.30; 95% CI: 1.12-1.50). In the case of a 10-29-day absence, the risk was

slightly elevated by the demand of long-term vigilance, financial responsibility,

and strictly determined breaks at work. In the model of long-term sickness

absence, a significantly higher risk was noted when the number of employees

was 16-25 compared to a smaller number of employees (HR = 2.92; 95% CI:

1.09-7.82), non-occupational, self-assessed workload was high (HR = 2.97; 95%

CI: 1.34-6.62) or moderate (HR = 2.22; 95% CI: 1.11-4.44) compared to self-

assessed low workload, and the work space was limited (HR = 1.21; 95% CI:

1.00-1.47). The analysis showed a significant effect of stressogenic work

conditions on the patterns of sickness absence. The findings may help in

developing programs intended to reduce “sickness absence” through limiting the

prevalence of unfavorable conditions at workplaces.

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Increasing evidence from the empirical economic and psychological

literature suggests that positive and negative well-being are more than opposite

ends of the same phenomenon. Two separate measures of the dependent variable

may therefore be needed when analyzing the determinants of subjective well-

being. Boes et al., (2009) investigated asymmetries in the effect of income on

subjective well-being with a single-item measure of general life satisfaction.

Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel 1984-2004, and a flexible

multiple-index ordered profit panel data model with varying thresholds, they

found that income has only a minor effect on high satisfaction but significantly

reduces dissatisfaction.

The purpose of the research conducted by Wickramasinghe, Kumara and

Saman (2009) was to identify competency requirements that discriminate

between knowledge process outsourcing (KPO) and IT-enabled business process

outsourcing (ITES-BPO) industries. There are 25 firms operating in Sri Lanka

that fall into the category of ITES-BPO/KPO. HR managers of the 25 firms and a

random sample of 117 employees from those 25 firms responded to the survey.

In addition to descriptive statistics, independent sample t-test and logistic

regression were used in the data analysis. The findings revealed that there are

differences in competency requirements for KPO and BPO services. Further,

demographic variables, namely, age, level of education, and total years of

industry experience shape competency requirements. Despite greater volume of

theoretical foundations and empirical evidence for people management in

BPO/KPO services, specific literature investigating and comparing competency

requirements, recruitment, selection and training of ITES-BPO and KPO

employees is scarce. Therefore, a research addressing those in a South Asian

country that is considered as active and promising destination for ITES-

BPO/KPO services could provide practitioners with key information that could

enable them to make informed managerial decisions.

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The study conducted by Frain and Malachy (2009) did an initial analysis

of variables generally associated with empowerment towards perceived beliefs

concerning quality of work life domains for individuals with disabilities. The

model examined the domains of importance, satisfaction, control and degree of

interference of disability that an individual feels towards work. The internet

based study used results from 70 individuals with disabilities in varying aspects

of work. The variables composing empowerment that correlated strongly with the

work domains include: self-advocacy, self-efficacy, perceived stigma, and family

resiliency as measured through coping. Quality of Life concerning work was

measured through the DSC-C a domain specific QOL instrument.

The study of Lee, Singhapakdi and Sirgy (2009) further validates a need-

based measure of quality of work life (QWL) developed by Sirgy et al. (Soc

Indic Res 55:4656, 2001). They conceptualized the QWL construct in terms of

employee satisfaction with two sets of major needs: lower- and higher-order

needs. Lower-order needs comprise health/safety needs and economic/family

needs. Higher-order needs involve social needs, esteem needs, self-actualization

needs, knowledge needs, and aesthetic needs. The results from a survey of

marketing professionals largely supported the construct validity and predictive

validity of the QWL measure. As expected, QWL has positive influence on esprit

de corps, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment among marketing

managers.

Studies conducted in 2008

Many factors determine the meaning of quality of work-life (QWL), one

of which is work environment. A group of workforces that is greatly affected in

QWL as a result of dynamic changes in work environment is information

technology (IT) professionals. The study conducted by Rethinam and Ismail

(2008) reviews the meaning of QWL, analyses constructs of QWL based on

models and past research from the perspective of IT professionals in many

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countries and in Malaysia. The constructs of QWL discussed were: health and

well-being, job security, job satisfaction, competency development, work and

non-work life balance. The study concludes that QWL from the perspective of IT

professionals is challenging both to the individuals and organizations.

The purpose of the research carried out by Dolan et al., (2008) was to

test a theoretically driven model of the relationship between job demands,

employees’ motivation and resources, and supervisory support on employees’

quality of work lives and their general health. The study used large survey data

that were collected in the years 1995, 2002, and 2003 respectively, drawn from

the public health care employees sector in Catalonia (Spain). Albeit cross-

sectional methodology, the study embraces an additional retrospective and

longitudinal design. The 2002 cross-sectional study (n ¼ 2,926) supported the

assertion made by stress researchers regarding the extent to which both job

demands and lack of supervisory support predict low QWL and negative health

outcomes: perceived motivation, resources and capabilities also appear as

determinants but to a lesser extent. The stability of the results obtained was tested

retrospectively by cross-legging the model for the 1995 survey (n ¼ 2,901). In

addition, a follow-up study (i.e. longitudinal) was conducted in 2003 (n ¼

10,003) to see whether the model still holds. By and large, the three-level design

showed the stability of the prediction in the same direction.

The purpose of the study by Ramstad (2008) was to answer the question:

how can organizations be developed in a way that it improves simultaneously

performance and the quality of working life (QWL)? The focus was particularly

on diverse organizational and management practices and the nature of

development process. The empirical data consisted of self-assessments of

development projects implemented at workplaces as a part of the Finnish

Workplace Development Programme (1996-2005). The self-assessments have

been gathered separately from management, staff and experts used in the project.

The data are based on a sample of 1,113 responses from 409 development

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projects. The research approach was solution-oriented, seeking factors that can

promote concurrent improvements in both performance and the QWL.

Concerning the work, management and organizational practices, the findings

showed that comprehensive development of organization, i.e. implementation of

practices is associated with simultaneous improvement in performance and the

QWL. Second, concerning the nature of development method, the study showed

that employee participation in planning and implementation phase, close

collaboration during the process, the methods used by the experts and external

networking were related to simultaneous outcomes at workplaces.

Ongori and Evans (2008) conducted a study among the employees

working in public sector organizations in Botswana. They found that the stress at

work affects the employees in many ways leading to poor quality of work life

which was the main reason for employee turnover in most of the organisations.

The researchers suggested that managers should develop the appropriate

measures to minimize occupational stress.

Sen Gupta and Adhikari (2008) made a study on civil hospital nurses in

West Bengal on role stress among nurses. They measured ten types of role

stressors on 89 civil hospital nurses using a modified version of ORS scale

translated into their local language, Bengali. The prominent role stressors were

identified (role expectation conflict, inter-role distance and role overload) along

with their consequences and also recommendations were made to cope up with

the stress.

A survey was carried out by Bhuyar et al., (2008), in Pune and Mumbai to

find out the mental, physical and social health problems of call centre workers. In

their study they found majority of the workers facing sleep disturbances

associated with mental stress and anxiety, circadian rhythm disturbances due to

night shifts, physical problems like muscular-skeletal disorders, obesity, eye and

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hearing problems and psychosocial problems like family life disruption, use of

tobacco and alcohol and faulty eating habits.

Gupta (2008) in her study on stress among BPO employees discussed and

stated that because of immense pressure in dealing with their clients day and

night, the BPO employees could not balance their professional and personal

lives. She also found out that since employees are becoming aware of their

health, are adopting alternatives to lead a normal healthy life. The corporate and

in-house clinics are also working together to help the employees to combat stress

in the workplace.

The major objective of the study conducted by Saad et al., (2008) was to

find out the employee’s perception of their work-life quality in a private

university. Previous studies indicated that employees’ perception on work life

quality significantly influenced their job satisfaction. 251 employees in the

university participated in this study. Ten variables to measure Quality Work Life

(QWL) were examined namely support from organization, work-family conflict,

relationship with peers, self competence, impact on job, meaningfulness of job,

optimism on organizational change, autonomy, access to resources and time

control. All these variables were tested for their relationship with job satisfaction.

The test indicated that each of the QWL variables on its own is a salient predictor

of job satisfaction. However, 7 QWL variables are no longer significant

predictors for job satisfaction when all the 10 QWL variables were entered into

the regression equation. Using multiple linear regressions, only 3 QWL variables

(meaningfulness of job, optimism on organizational change and autonomy) were

found to be significantly related to job satisfaction. However, they only explained

28.8% of the variance in job satisfaction, F (10, 240) = 11.134, p<.05.

Noah (2008) carried out an investigation of the existing level of worker

participation in management decision making within Nigerian work environment.

The study involved a survey in which a total of two hundred and twenty seven

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(217) non management employees drawn from two work organizations in Lagos

(Flour Mills Nigeria Plc and Niger Insurance Plc) were used as subjects.

Interview schedule and in-depth interview were the main research techniques

adopted for data collection while percentage distribution and chi-square

statistical techniques were used to analyze the data collected for the study.

Results showed that employees in both organizations demonstrated high interest

in participation in the decision making process within their respective work

places. However, the actual level of involvement in management decision

making demonstrated by the employees was found to be relatively low. There

was significant relationship between education and employees’ involvement in

decision making at Flour Mills Nigeria Plc. In Niger Insurance Plc, there was

significant relationship between age and employees’ involvement in decision

making as well as between frequency of employees’ consultation and

organizational commitment. The study revealed a growing desire of non-

management employees in the Nigerian work environment to exercise greater

involvement in the decision making process of their enterprises.

Thavannoor and Rajagopal (2008) conducted a study to identify and

analyze the factors which contribute to work life imbalances among the middle

level executives of IT sector in Bangalore city. The study was conducted on 72

executives selected randomly. A well-designed questionnaire was used to collect

the desired information from the subjects. The study revealed that less time for

self and family, regularly doing office work at home, work delegating difficulty,

work more than 55 hours per week and week-end work were found to be

contributing to the work-life imbalance experienced by the employees. The

empirical evidences on the various factors related to work life imbalance

highlighted the magnitude of the problem faced by the IT professionals,

especially at the middle level, irrespective of gender, at the early stages of life.

The mobilization and full use of people in their activities have

consequently occurred by the changes in management practices that occurred in

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organizations, says Timossi et al., (2008). They conducted a study with the

objective of proposing an adaptation from the model of Walton (1975). The

criteria were transcribed in the interrogative form and the scale of answers was

converted into a Likert scale with five alternatives. The verification of the inner

consistency of the instrument was achieved from the Cronbach’s alpha

coefficient (0.96). Such result guarantees a very high consistency to the

instrument adopted. It can be concluded that the adaptation from the Model of

Walton, proposed in their study, allows, through more clarified questions and a

more objective scale of answers, its application to people with low schooling

level, guarantying the obtaining of reliable results without changing criteria and

objectives of the original instrument.

According to Kalliath and Brough (2008), although the term work–family

balance is widely employed, an agreed definition of this term has proved elusive.

After reviewing the current, somewhat confusing, array of definitions commonly

expressed within the literature, they opined that the current definitions of work–

family balance are of limited value for both the theoretical advancement of the

construct and for practical human resource interventions. They reviewed six

conceptualizations of work–family balance found in the literature: (1) multiple

roles; (2) equity across multiple roles; (3) satisfaction between multiple roles; (4)

fulfillment of role salience between multiple roles; (5) relationship between

conflict and facilitation; and (6) perceived control between multiple roles. Based

on this review they distilled the core meaning of work–family balance as it has

evolved in the literature and proposed a new definition of work–family balance.

Also they encourage further research to consider this new definition, specifically

in terms of the development and validation of a measure that taps the new

definition of work–family balance.

In order to examine the antecedents of success of business process

outsourcing relationships, Daityari, Saini, and Gupta (2008) conducted an

empirical study of 124 business process outsourcing relationships in some of

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India’s most established BPO vendors. The hypothesis stated that the degree of

control and partnership quality would have a positive interactive association with

outsourcing success. This was tested using Hierarchical Regression Analysis and

Median Split Analysis. Results of both analysis indicated that while degree of

control does not have significant positive relationship with outsourcing success,

partnership quality nor its interaction with degree of control enjoyed any

relationship of significance with outsourcing success.

Approximately one fifth of workers are engaged in some kind of shift

work. The harmful effects of shift work on the health and work-life balance of

employees are well known. A range of organizational interventions has been

suggested to address these negative effects by. Whitehead et al., (2008)

undertook a systematic review of experimental and quasi-experimental studies,

from any country, in any language, that evaluated the effects on health and work-

life balance of organizational-level interventions that redesign shift work

schedules. Twenty-seven electronic databases (medical, social science,

economic) were searched. Data extraction and quality appraisal were carried out

by two independent reviewers. Narrative synthesis was performed. The review

was conducted between October 2005 and November 2006. Twenty-six studies

were found relating to a variety of organizational interventions. No one type of

intervention was found to be consistently harmful to workers. However, three

types were found to have beneficial effects on health and work-life balance: (1)

switching from slow to fast rotation, (2) changing from backward to forward

rotation and (3) self-scheduling of shifts. Improvements were usually at little or

no direct organizational cost. However, there were concerns about the

generalizability of the evidence, and no studies reported on impacts on health

inequalities. This review reinforces the findings of epidemiologic and laboratory-

based research by suggesting that certain organizational-level interventions can

improve the health of shift workers, their work-life balance, or both. This

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evidence could be useful when designing interventions to improve the experience

of shift work.

The research carried out by Danford et al., (2008) measures the effects of

workplace partnership and selected high performance work practices on four

different dimensions of employee experience. Whilst the partnership-high

performance work systems nexus seems to have little impact on employee’s job

satisfaction or sense of attachment, it does, however, have a negative impact on

both workplace stress and employee evaluations of union performance. The

analysis thus questions common assumptions about the inevitability of mutual

gain and the necessity of employer/union partnership.

Organizations wield great power over the structure of contemporary life.

Using the rhetorical method of cluster analysis, Hoffman, Cowan and Renee

(2008) investigated the construction of work/life issues on web sites of

companies on Fortune's 2004 list of 100 best companies to work for. By

identifying key terms and the terms that clustered around them, they uncovered a

corporate ideology of work/life: 1) work is the most important element of life; 2)

life means family; 3) individuals are responsible for balance; and 4)

organizations control work/life programs. Authors concluded that organizational

work/life programs may increase, rather than decrease, the amount of control

organizations exercise over personal life. They also explored the implications of

this finding as well as directions for future research.

Studies conducted in 2007

Axtell et al., (2007) proposed that an important prerequisite for helping

customers is the capacity to take the customer's perspective. If this is the case,

then it is also important to consider the factors that might facilitate perspective

taking. To investigate this, 347 customer service agents in a UK call centre were

surveyed on the antecedents and outcomes of customer-oriented perspective

taking. Managers also supplied ratings of helping behavior for 141 of the service

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agents. Structural equation modeling showed positive relationship between

perspective taking and self-reported helping, and this relationship was partially

mediated by empathy. Perspective taking was also positively related to managers'

ratings of helping but this relationship was not mediated by empathy. In turn,

service agents' perspective taking was predicted by the perceived reciprocity of

customers and by having a positive customer role orientation (which was itself

predicted by job enrichment). Predictors of helping customers included

perspective taking, empathy, and having an integrated understanding of the call

centre's services. Enhancing employees' perspective taking and their integrated

understanding of the organization's services might thus be hitherto neglected

avenues for enhancing the quality of customer service.

Ballou et al., (2007) examined the concept of work life quality for

corporate employees. The increased complexity of modern business in the era of

global competition has led to increased stress for all participants. Their study

revealed that corporations which focus on creating a more satisfied and loyal

work force can be shown to improve their financial performance by all

accounting metrics.

With talent management becoming an area of growing concern in the

literature, the purpose of the study conducted by Bhatnagar (2007) was to

investigate talent management and its relationship to levels of employee

engagement using a mixed method research design. The first phase was a survey

on a sample of 272 BPO/ITES employees, using Gallup q12 or Gallup

Workplace Audit. Focus group interview discussion was based on reasons for

attrition and the unique problems of employee engagement. In the second phase,

one of the BPO organizations from the phase I sample was chosen at random and

exit interview data was analyzed using factor analysis and content analysis. The

results were in the expected direction and fulfilled the research aims of the

current study. In the first phase low factor loadings indicated low engagement

scores at the beginning of the career and at completion of 16 months with the

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organization. High factor loadings at intermediate stages of employment were

indicative of high engagement levels, but the interview data reflected that this

may mean high loyalty, but only for a limited time. In the second phase factor

loadings indicated three distinct factors of organizational culture, career planning

along with incentives and organizational support. The first two were indicative of

high attrition.

Voice disorders are common among teachers, with adverse consequences

for their work and quality of life. The study of Jardim et al., (2007) focused on

factors associated with voice-related quality of life among female teachers in the

municipal school system in Belo Horizonte, Southeast Brazil. A cross-sectional

study with 2,133 female teachers was conducted, using the Voice-Related

Quality of Life (VRQL) questionnaire, which has two domains: socio-emotional

and physical. Teachers were grouped into quartiles based on the distribution of

the final score in each domain. Those in the lowest quartile were then compared

with all the others for a number of factors, using multiple logistic regression

analysis. Less creativity at work and poor relationship with pupils were

associated with worse voice-related quality of life in both domains. Mental

disorders (GHQ12 > 4) were associated with worse voice-related quality of life

in the socio-emotional domain, and intra-class noise with worse voice-related

quality of life in the physical domain. Improvements in working conditions are

key factors for achieving better voice-related quality of life among teachers.

A literature review of 105 studies on the effects of extended daily working

hours was conducted by Peter (2007). Potential negative effects of extended

working hours are discussed by the author: more accidents on the job; more

accidents off the job; reduced duration and quality of sleep due to moonlighting;

sleepiness; reduced alertness; fatigue; adverse effects on performance; prolonged

toxic exposure; adverse effects on health; increased absenteeism; problems

communicating with managers and problems while driving home. Potential

positive effects of extended working hours are discussed: Less travel time and

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costs; more time for the family, social life, and domestic duties; increased

satisfaction with working hours; fewer handovers; and less overtime. No firm

conclusions can be drawn because of the partly contradictory results and the

methodological problems of many studies. However, caution is advised when

considering the introduction of extended work shifts, particularly where public

safety is at stake. A checklist is provided (concerning work load, breaks, staffing

level, systematic assessments of health and safety factors) to support decisions

for or against the use of extended work shifts.

The quality of work-life has been focused and defined by the European

Commission (EC). In the study conducted by Royuela et al., (2007) the authors

compared the EC definition with the academic one and tried to see how close

they are. They also analyzed the possibility of applying the institutional

definition to the Spanish case through the development of specific indicators.

The main conclusions were that QWL is increasingly important for policy

makers. In addition, it is essential to have objective indicators and to conduct

surveys in order to reliably measure QWL.

Quality of work-life (QWL) has been gaining increasing attention in

health care settings, says Sale et al (2007). According to them, no QWL data for

cancer centers have been published. A participatory approach was used to

develop a QWL survey that was administered to staff in Year 1 (Y1) and Year 2

(Y2) in a Canadian ambulatory cancer center. The findings revealed that overall

staff QWL scores were moderate in Y1 and Y2; however, there was considerable

variation among four main employee groups (physicians, nurses, physicists,

radiation therapists). The survey data provided a benchmark against which other

cancer centers could be compared.

The study carried out by Tamagawa et al., (2007) aimed to explore the

criteria for shift work tolerance and to investigate the relationships between

personality traits and states and shift work tolerance. Eighty-nine policemen and

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police women completed a questionnaire, once during consecutive night shifts

and again during rotating shifts, and their responses were used to assess anxiety,

emotional control, positive and negative effect, health complaints, sleep quality,

difficulties in social and domestic life, and perceptions about shift work. Both the

criteria for tolerance and the relationship between tolerance and personality

varied according to shift type. Night shift tolerance involved four factors-somatic

health, flexibility, sleep and sleep need-while rotating shift tolerance involved

three factors-somatic health, flexibility and fatigue. Tolerance of shift work was

associated with anxiety, repressive emotional style and mood. During night

shifts, anxiety was the most influential personality factor for the somatic health

and sleep dimensions of shift tolerance. During rotating shifts, positive and

negative moods, rather than trait personality factors, were important predictors of

the somatic health and fatigue shift tolerance dimensions. These results suggest a

mechanism for more effective matching of workers to suitable shift schedules.

Vanlaar et al., (2007) developed and tested the psychometric properties of

the Work-Related Quality of Life scale (WRQL) for healthcare workers. As

problems associated with stress and job satisfaction are evident for healthcare

workers and nurses, a reliable tool to assess employees' quality of working life is

required. However, previous research has produced inconsistent factor structures

and inadequate psychometric properties for a range of quality of working life

measures. This new scale expanded the concept of quality of working life by

incorporating a broad six-factor structure derived from a theoretical review of the

field. Authors used data from a 2003 survey of 953 healthcare workers. Eighty-

six per cent of the sample was female and 36% had been employed by the

organization for 1-5 years. Approximately 50% of workers were employed full-

time. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis using split-half data sets

produced a good fit and a reliable 23-item, six-factor measurement model of

Work-Related Quality of Life. The factors generated were labeled: Job and

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Career Satisfaction, General Well-Being, Home-Work Interface, Stress at Work,

Control at Work and Working Conditions.

The research by Wright et al., (2007) provides further clarification to the

age-old quest to better understand the happy/productive worker thesis. Using data

from 109 managers employed by a large (over 5000 employees) customer

services organization on the West Coast of the United States, both job

satisfaction (r=.36, p<.01, 95% CI=.18 to .52) and psychological well-being

(PWB; r=.43, p<.01, 95% CI=.26 to .58) were associated with supervisory

performance ratings. Using Fredrickson's (2001) broaden-and-build model as the

theoretical base, the authors found that PWB moderates the relation between job

satisfaction and job performance. Consistent with Fredrickson's model,

performance was highest when employees reported high scores on both PWB and

job satisfaction. This moderating effect of PWB may account for some of the

inconsistent results of previous studies.

The study conducted in Cochin International Airport Pvt. Ltd. by

Chirayath (2007) attempted to highlight the occupational stress factors and

discussed the impact of stress on the employees’ performance. In her study it was

revealed that out of 75 employees surveyed, 40 employees underwent

occupational stress which in turn affected their quality of work life as per

empirical findings.

Chimanikire et al., (2007) studied the factors affecting job satisfaction

among academic professionals in tertiary institutions of Zimbabwe against the

backdrop of high brain drain in the sector. A total of eighty respondents were

selected randomly from departmental lists and interviewed using structured

questionnaires. Key informants such as administration personnel were also

interviewed using semi-structured schedules. The results of the study showed that

a greater proportion of the academic staff was not satisfied with their jobs.

Reasons for dissatisfaction include high volume of work, inadequate salaries,

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allowances, loans to facilities purchase of housing stands and cars. The study

highlighted the need to craft a responsive incentive package that addresses the

concerns of academic staff on issues related to job satisfaction and thus save

from international migration to other countries.

Quality of work-life includes some objective and subjective factors which

may condition operations and other inner aspects concerning the quality of

relationships and methods of management, says Argentero et al., (2007). They

conducted a study to analyze the quality of work-life indicators in a cohort of

Italian health workers. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, to assess the

quality of work life through the identification of the most important indicators

and to evaluate the degree of satisfaction and the importance of each indicator.

112 health operators were interviewed. All workers belonged to the same local

health service in North West Italy. The results of the study pointed out some

macro areas which are relevant to define work life quality of the analyzed

sample: relationships with colleagues, work organization, taking care of patients,

professional ability and professional growth. The weekly number of patients

seemed to be important to determine the differences among the workers in the

quality perceived in their work life. The collected data contribute to define which

indicators must be taken into consideration in order to complete an evaluation of

the quality of health organizations; this includes also the subjective variables

connected to the quality of the work-life.

Cleveland et al., (2007) opine that smaller, more efficient workforce hotel

organizations are competing to retain highly valued managers. According to

them, work stress and burnout are often cited as precursors to work and family

stress, and together these factors influence employee intentions to leave an

organization. However, work and family issues have received little attention in

the hospitality and tourism literature. Using focus groups and semi-structured

interviews with three groups of participants (new entrants into the hotel industry,

hotel managers, and their spouses), the authors explored the connections among

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work characteristics, work stress, and the work–family interface. Results of the

multisource qualitative research suggested that long, unpredictable hours created

individual and family-related stress. Furthermore, there was agreement among

the three sources regarding the stressors and benefits associated with working in

the hotel industry.

Studies conducted in 2006

Tsigilis, Zachopoulou and Grammatikopoulos (2006) examined the

perceived levels of burnout and job satisfaction of Greek early educators, across

public and private sector. One hundred and seventy eight childhood educators

participated in the study. 108 were working in the public sector, 67 in private

sector, whereas three did not respond. Participants were administered the

Employees Satisfaction Inventory (ESI, Koustelios and Bagiatis, 1997) and the

emotional exhaustion subscale of the Maslach’s Burnout Inventory (MBI,

Maslach and Jackson, 1986). Results showed that early educators experienced

moderate levels of emotional exhaustion. Public sector early educators were

more satisfied from the job itself than their counterparts in the private sector.

Regression analysis showed that job satisfaction facets which contributed to early

educators’ burnout varied as a function of their workplace. In particular,

satisfaction from the nature of the job and working conditions negatively

contributed to the prediction of public sector early educators’ emotional

exhaustion levels. On the other hand, increased levels of satisfaction from the

nature of the job and immediate supervisor were associated with reduced private

sector early educators’ emotional exhaustion levels.

Though work-life balance is a European Union policy priority, within

Europe there are considerable variations in the nature & extent of supports that

national governments have offered to dual-earner families. In general, the Nordic

welfare states offer the highest level of supports, although other countries, such

as France, have historically offered extensive childcare supports to working

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mothers. Crompton (2006) examined national variations in reported levels of

work-life conflict, drawing upon questions fielded in the 2002 Family module

International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) surveys for Britain, France,

Finland, Norway & Portugal. They found evidence of a 'societal effect' in the

cases of Finland & Norway, in that significantly lower levels of work-life

conflict are reported in these countries even after a range of factors have been

controlled for. However, support for childcare in France does not appear to have

had a similar impact. Further explorations of the data revealed that the domestic

division of labor is relatively traditional in France and that this is associated with

higher levels of work-life conflict.

The study of Ginevicius et al., (2006) revealed multidimensional nature of

organizational culture. When investigating its influence on success, only

performance influencing dimensions must be under consideration as per finding

of their study. The authors suggest the ways for reducing their number: content

analysis and hierarchical structuring method. The system (list) of dimensions was

formed by using the mentioned methods. Questionnaire was made. Relationship

between dimensions and their influence on performance was tested.

Hsu and George (2006) carried out a study describing the quality of

working life of nurses in Taiwan. The purpose of the study was to gather data on

which to base a questionnaire to be used in further research. Nurses often

complain of overwork and underpay. Problems persist with nurses' job

satisfaction, stress, organizational commitment and intent to leave. 'Quality of

working life' is a system of analyzing how people experience work: it relates to

job satisfaction, intent to leave, turnover rate, personality and work stress.

However, reliable information on hospital nurses' quality of working life is

limited. A descriptive study was carried out with a convenience sample. A total

of 16 focus groups in one medical centre and five regional hospitals informed a

quality of working life framework. Each group had three to five participants who

were registered nurses in medical or surgical wards with at least two years'

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nursing experience, and who held a position below assistant nurse manager. The

data were collected in 2000. A total of 56 nurses' quality of working life

categories were identified and fitted into six dimensions: socio-economic

relevance, demography, organizational aspects, work aspects, human relation

aspects and self-actualization. The authors focused on issues emphasized by

focus group participants. These were managing shift work within the demands of

family life; accommodation; support resources; and nurses' clinical ladder system

and salary system.

The relative lack of research on employees' reactions to performance

appraisal feedback is the primary impetus for the study of Jawahar (2006) which

advances this important, but neglected, research area by investigating potential

predictors and consequences of satisfaction with appraisal feedback. Survey

responses from 112 employees were matched with their performance ratings

from two different appraisal periods to test specific hypotheses. Results indicate

that satisfaction with rater and previous performance ratings influence

employees' satisfaction with appraisal feedback. Satisfaction with appraisal

feedback was positively related to job satisfaction and organizational

commitment and negatively related to turnover intentions. Supervisory status

moderated the relationship between satisfaction with appraisal feedback and

subsequent performance such that the relationship existed only for supervisory

employees who, in addition to receiving feedback about their own performance,

also provided feedback to their subordinates.

Occupational mental health research has been focusing on the relationship

between work stress and depression. However, the impacts of work stress on

anxiety disorders and of imbalance between work and family life on workers'

mental health have not been well studied. The study of Wang and Li (2006)

investigated the association between levels of perceived work stress and of

imbalance between work and family/personal lives and current mood/anxiety

disorders. It was a cross-sectional study using data from the Canadian

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Community Health Survey-Mental Health and Well-being (CCHS-1.2)

(n=36,984). Mood and anxiety disorders were measured using the World Mental

Health-Composite International Diagnostic Interview. The one-month prevalence

of mood and anxiety disorders among those with a work stress score at the 75th

percentile value and above was 3.6% and 4.0%. Among those who reported that

their work and family/personal lives never balanced in the past month, the 1-

month prevalence of mood and anxiety disorders was 21.2% and 17.9%. In

multivariate analyses, work stress and imbalance between work and

family/personal lives were independently associated with mood and anxiety

disorders. There was no evidence that perceived work stress interacted with

imbalance between work and family/personal lives to increase the likelihood of

having mental disorders. Gender was associated with anxiety disorders, but not

with major depressive disorder and mood disorders.

A mathematical model was developed by Whitt and Ward (2006) to help

analyze the benefit in contact-center performance obtained from increasing

employee (agent) retention, which is in turn obtained by increasing agent job

satisfaction. The contact-center performance may be restricted to a traditional

productivity measure such as the number of calls answered per hour, or it may

include a broader measure of the quality of service, e.g., revenue earned per hour

or the number of problems successfully resolved per hour. The analysis was

based on an idealized model of a contact center in which the number of

employed agents is constant over time, assuming that a new agent is immediately

hired to replace each departing agent. The agent employment periods are

assumed to be independent and identically distributed random variables with a

general agent-retention probability distribution, which depends on management

policy and actions. The steady-state staff-experience distribution is obtained from

the agent-retention distribution by applying renewal theory. An increasing real-

valued function specifies the average performance as a function of agent

experience. Convenient closed-form expressions for the overall performance as a

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function of model elements are derived when either the agent-retention

distribution or the performance function has exponential structure. Management

actions may cause the agent-retention distribution to change. The model

described the consequences of such changes on the long-run average staff

experience and the long-run average performance.

Chirayath (2006), made an attempt to determine the relationship between

personality types and stress management/stress resistance ability and ways to

cope with stressful situations. The study was conducted among both the

executives and nonexecutive employees of BHEL in the department of Projects

and Maintenance. The study investigated various sources of stress, stress coping

strategies and remedial measures in order to create a stress-free environment

which leads to better quality of working life of employees.

Chirayath (2006) conducted a study among female cashew workers in

Kollam district of Kerala to identify the sources of stress and coping mechanisms

adopted by the workers so as to enhance the quality of their working life. The

study also intended to identify the groups necessary for counseling. A sample of

155 female cashew workers from 39 cashew factories was selected for the study.

The psychological variables identified for the study were job stress, family-

induced stress, job satisfaction, and ways of coping, personality components and

manifestation of stress in terms of symptoms. The findings of the study showed

that the women workers have both job stress and family-induced stress, majority

of respondents reacted in a passive way to the stress coping mechanisms. Hindu

Chetty caste in particular was more active in coping with stress.

A high quality of work-life (QWL) is essential for organizations to attract

and retain employees, says Saraji and Dargahi (2006). Their research aimed to

provide insights into the positive and negative attitudes of Tehran University of

Medical Sciences (TUMS) Hospital employees from their quality of life. A

cross- sectional, descriptive and analytical study was conducted among 908

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TUMS hospital employees by questionnaire at 15 studied hospitals. A stratified

random sampling technique was used to select respondents as nursing, supportive

and paramedical groups. The results showed that the majority of employees were

dissatisfied with occupational health and safety, intermediate and senior

managers , their income, balance between the time they spent working and with

family and also indicated that their work was not interesting and satisfying.

TUMS hospital employees responding to this survey have a poor quality of work

life. The authors suggested more training and education for TU MS hospital

managers on QWL.

The demand for work-life-balance solutions by employees and managers

is expanding at an unprecedented rate, says Bird (2006). As a result, work-life

balance is an increasingly hot topic in boardrooms and government halls today.

Further, he asserts that over the coming decade it will be one of the most

important issues that executives and human resource professionals will be

expected to manage. Executives now recognize that organizational objectives and

individual work-life objectives are not “either/or” choices, he continues. It is not

“Do we get the most out of our people? Or do they have lives?” Instead it is,

“The way we get the most out of our people is by encouraging each of them to

have a life.” It is the job of the senior management team and specifically HR to

make this happen in ways that are consistent with the organization’s business and

customer-service objectives. Unfortunately, even as the demand for work-life

solutions has skyrocketed, many work-life efforts have fallen short of their

promise and potential to deliver the desired results for the individual and the

organization. Positive new trends in the field, however, show that results can live

up to expectations, the conclusion authors have arrived at.

The number of call centers has increased rapidly over the last decade as

technological advancements have increased the geographical reach and potential

applicability of call centre operations to a wide variety of industries and business

functions (Hannif, 2006). These developments have been followed closely by an

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influx of research on various aspects of call centre operations. Issues associated

with job quality have arisen from various call centre studies; often incidentally as

researchers examine other facets of call centers and their functioning. However,

there is yet to be a study that deliberately and systematically examines job quality

in this context, despite its being widely accepted that job quality is an issue of

increasing significance in this sector. His study on the job quality in call centers

took the first step towards addressing this deficit by conducting a review of the

extant call centre literature, and collecting and reporting on the findings that

emerge which can be associated with the concept of job quality. A job

characteristics approach was used to evaluate this evidence in relation to specific

themes and categories derived through the job quality literature. Important links

between the job quality and call centre literatures were highlighted; major issues

associated with the quality of call centre work are discussed, and key gaps in the

research are revealed. Finally, some direction for future research also was

proposed, particularly, the need for investigation into the key determinants of job

quality in the call centre context; an examination of how job quality may be

improved; and the impact of key job quality factors on employees and

organizations.

Werner (2006) studied about the work dysfunctions and their

consequences as experienced by call center agents using a focus group

methodology. The sample comprised of four different groups of randomly

selected call center agents with a total of twenty seven participants. The findings

of the study revealed that stress is the primary harbinger of other dysfunctions,

many exacerbated by the stressful nature of the shift work and the resultant work-

life imbalance. Stress encountered due to ineffective systems and poor training

process. Work space ergonomic considerations were thought not to add to call

center dysfunction.

Research findings from several countries suggest that academic work has

become comparatively stressful, with potentially serious consequences for the

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workforce and the quality of higher education. Kinman, Jones and Fiona (2006)

examined work demands, work-life balance and well-being in UK academic

staff. Job demands and levels of psychological distress were high and working

during evenings and weekends was commonplace. Most academics surveyed,

however, were at least moderately satisfied with their jobs. Work-life balance

was generally poor and most respondents wished for more separation between

their work and home lives. Academics that reported more work-life conflict and

perceived a greater discrepancy between their present and ideal levels of work-

life integration tended to be less healthy, less satisfied with their jobs, and more

likely to have seriously considered leaving academia. On the whole, academics

that perceived more control over their work, more schedule flexibility and more

support from their institutions had a better work-life balance. These factors,

however, failed to moderate the relationship between work demands and

perceptions of conflict between work and home.

The Brazilian army is worrying about the quality total in an increasing

form, observes Campos and Souza (2006). They conducted a study to determine

the preponderant variables in quality of working life by means of multivariate

analysis using Walton’s (1973) criteria. A sample of 150 army personnel was

selected as the respondents from South Brazil. A 26 polar affirmation

questionnaire was developed using Walton’s criteria. Data was analyzed using

factor analysis and cluster analysis. The multivariate analysis concluded that 26

variables can be reduced into an acceptable five factor model.

The human factor plays an important and crucial role in the development

of any country, says Jayamma and Naik (2006). They conducted a study among

the employees of Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) of Kadapa division

in Andhra Pradesh. The objectives of this study were to examine the quality of

work life of employees in terms of economic and social aspects, to evaluate the

practices of quality of work life in LIC of India and to suggest measures to

improve the quality of working life of employees. The study revealed that most

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of the employees were satisfied in terms of salary and other benefits. Social and

affiliation needs were partially satisfied. The study suggested placing the right

person in the right job to utilize his/her abilities optimally and to improve the

working conditions and ambience of the work place.

Studies conducted in 2005

An issue of relationship between exposure to psycho-social factors and

health status of employees was presented by Dudek and Bodan (2005) in a

review of literature. It is difficult to find hard evidence that could reliably

confirm this relationship. Methodological difficulties encountered in measuring

psycho-social factors and health effects and designing research procedures are

responsible for equivocal study results, according to them. However, a huge

number of articles presenting the results of numerous studies made them

convinced that many human organs are targets of dangerous impact of stress

evoked by job conditions. Bearing in mind that work processes and working

conditions become more and more stressogenic, one can expect that in the near

future psycho-social factors will form a group of the most dangerous health

hazards. Therefore, it is an urgent challenge facing the occupational health

service (OHS) to adapt its system of prevention to the specificity of threats, and

thus better protect employees against harmful impact of the psycho-social

factors.

In recent years prominent companies have migrated call centre services to

India provoking much-publicized fears for the future of UK employment. The

study of Taylor and Bain (2005) challenges the widely-held assumption that off-

shoring voice services is a seamless undertaking, principally through an

investigation of the Indian call centre labor process. This enquiry is informed

initially by an analysis of the political-economic factors driving off-shoring and

shaping the forms of work organization to have emerged in India. A critical

review of literature on call centre work organization provided a conceptual

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framework, through which Indian developments are analyzed. Data comes from

fieldwork conducted in India and a complete audit of the Scottish industry,

through which UK trends can be evaluated. The authors concluded that the

Indian industry reproduces in exaggerated and culturally-distinctive forms, a

labor process that has proved problematical for employers and employees alike in

the UK and elsewhere.

The aim of the study of Li et al (2005) was to test the reliability and

validity of the Chinese version of the 23-item effort-reward imbalance (ERI)

questionnaire and to analyze its association with job dissatisfaction in a sample

of Chinese healthcare workers. A self-reported survey was conducted, in

university hospitals of China, among 192 male and 608 female healthcare

workers. Appropriate internal consistencies of the three scales: effort, reward,

and over commitment, were obtained. Exploratory factor analysis replicated the

theoretically assumed structure of the ERI construct in men and women.

Evidence of criterion validity was obtained from cross-correlations of the scales

and from their correlations with gender, education and job dissatisfaction.

Finally, all three scales were associated with an elevated odds ratio of job

dissatisfaction, and the effect was strongest for the ERI ratio as predicted by

theory. Based on the results of this study the Chinese version of the ERI

questionnaire is considered a reliable and valid instrument for measuring psycho-

social stress at work. It is applicable to Chinese working populations and, in

particular, to the healthcare sector.

The work of Munozdebustillollorente et al., (2005), examined the relation

between the characteristics of the job performed and the level of subjective

satisfaction of workers. In other words: whether job satisfaction reflects the

characteristics of jobs, and therefore, can be used as an indicator of job quality.

Two different approaches were followed. First, using the International Social

Survey Program of 1997, authors explored whether differences between

countries in job satisfaction can be explained by variables usually considered to

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be related to job quality, such as working hours, wages, etc. Second, they studied

the relationship between certain objective measures of job quality and job

satisfaction in a given country, using Spain as a case study. In both cases the

results did not support the use of job satisfaction as a measure of job quality.

Quality-of-work-life includes broad aspects of the work environment that

affect employee learning and health. Canadian Health Care Organizations

(HCO’s) are being encouraged to monitor QWL, expanding existing

occupational health surveillance capacities. In this context, Cole et al (2005)

conducted a study to investigate into the understanding, collection, diffusion and

use of QWL indicators in Canadian HCOs. Towards this purpose, they obtained

cooperation from six diverse public HCOs managing forty one (41) sites. They

reviewed documentation relevant to QWL and conducted fifty eight (58) focus

groups/team interviews with strategic, support and programme teams. Group

interviews were taped, reviewed and analyzed for themes using qualitative data

techniques. Indicators were classified by purpose and HCO level. Results

indicated that QWL indicators, as such, were relatively new to most HCO’s, yet

the data managed by human resource and occupational health and safety support

teams were highly relevant to monitoring of employee wellbeing (119 of 209

mentioned indicators), e.g. sickness absence. Monitoring of working conditions

(62/209) was also important, e.g. indicators of employee workload. Uncommon

were indicators of bio-mechanical and psycho-social hazards at work, despite

their being important causes of morbidity among HCO employees. Although

imprecision in the definition of QWL indicators limited links with other HCO

performance measures and inadequate HCO resources for implementation were

common, most HCO’s cited ways in which QWL indicators had influenced

planning and evaluation of prevention efforts. The suggestions included increase

in targeted HCO resources, inclusion of other QWL indicators and greater

integration with HCO management systems which could improve HCO decision-

makers’ access to information relevant to employee health.

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Soft-skills training pertain to social and customer handling skills in

addition to cultural sensitization of Indians to other cultures. Soft-skills are very

important for the success of BPO firms, yet there is not much in the literature that

addresses soft-skills training of BPO workers. The research carried out by

Subramanian (2005) attempted to bridge the gap. He studied about the soft-skills

training at a large business process outsourcing firm located in Bangalore, India.

It adopted a qualitative approach using a combination of methods such as the

long interview, secondary sources research and actual observation. The results

are used to develop a framework for future studies in this area. The results

showed that the BPO industry is likely to be a long-term phenomenon in an

increasingly global world. Countries such as India are currently emerging as

major BPO players. It is a young industry that provides the vast potential of

globalization to millions of educated young people in emerging economies. It is

also an industry that has the potential to displace several million white-collar

workers in the US, UK and other developed countries. This may cause political

actions from those countries or private actions such as the verbal abuse issues

from disgruntled elements. Because of the tedium and the long and abnormal

hours of work involved in BPO firms in India, health problems for BPO workers

are likely to continue and be a source of concern to the management and the

government. This may continue to result in job attrition, according to the authors.

Naveen (2005) attempted to identify the physical and psychological health

problems faced by the call handlers and also to know the existing working

practices in these call centers. An eight part questionnaire covering topics like

general information, working conditions, workstation, health aspects,

psychological factors, consumed items was used in the three call centers situated

in Bangalore, which had agreed to be a part of the study. In all, 176 call handlers

participated in the study. Majority of the respondents were in the age group of

21-30 yrs and were males. 119 (67.6%) had less than a year of experience

working in the call centers. 94 (54.3%) respondents had rotation shift duties and

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144 (81.8%) worked on an average for 8-12 hrs per day. 157 (89.2%) of the

respondents knew to adjust their work station. Hot-desking was not a popular

practice among the call handlers and 127 (72.2) of them had permanent

workstation. The respondents either got three or four breaks per shift of 30 to 45

minutes, which also included a meal break. Voice is an important tool of the call

handlers and more than 50% of the respondents had some problems related to

their vocal health. The call handlers use display screen equipment for 12 to 18

hours per day to aid them in their activities in the call centre and the most

common complaint was headache. More than 50% of the call handlers had no

personal headsets and 22 (12.5%) complained of problems related to their ears.

126 (71.6) of the respondents had musculoskeletal pain and the commonest

region being the neck and the back. 81 (47.36%) had their body mass index

(BMI) in the normal range. The symptoms related to gastrointestinal symptoms

include, gastritis 29 (16.5%) and change in the quality and quantity of food

noticed by more than 50% of the respondents. Respiratory symptoms like

common cold, dry cough or productive cough was less among the call handlers.

Call centre work had interfered with the call handlers’ interaction with family

members and social life. Unmarried respondents were found to be significantly

more under stress when compared to married respondents. There was significant

association between work experience and short temperedness, muscular- skeletal

disorders and sleep disturbance.

Studies conducted in 2004

Research carried out by Evandrou (2004) on family, work and quality of

life, explored changes in economic and social roles across four birth cohorts

passing through mid-life in Britain. The relationship between multiple role

responsibilities and a range of indicators of quality of life, including material

resources, health and engagement in social activities were investigated. The

research was based upon secondary analysis of four different surveys: the 2000

British Household Panel Study, the 199495 Family and Working Lives Survey,

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the 1985, 1990, 1995, and 2000 General Household Surveys, and the

Longitudinal Retirement Survey (1988/89 and 1994). A particularly interesting

finding was that being caught in the middle, in terms of having simultaneous

care-giving responsibilities to dependent children and frail parents whilst in paid

work, has been atypical. Only one-in-nine British women, and one-in-ten British

men, aged 45-49 years (born in 1941-45) occupy all three roles concurrently, but

multiple role occupancy is increasing across cohorts, particularly the

combination of caring and paid work. Role occupancy significantly affects the

accumulation of pension entitlements (particularly second-tier pensions), with the

effect that many women who have fulfilled the important social roles of career

and parent will face a low income in old age. Where adverse health outcomes

were found, parental role in mid-life was most frequently associated with such

poor health, suggesting that continued parental demands in mid-life may have

negative health consequences.

The study of Lee et al., (2004) provides a meta-analysis on the

relationships between organizational tenure and three broad classes of job

behaviors: core-task behaviors, citizenship behaviors, and counterproductive

behaviors. Across 350 empirical studies with a cumulative sample size of

249,841, the authors found that longer tenured employees generally have greater

in-role performance and citizenship performance. It is interesting that

organizational tenure was also positively related to some counterproductive

behavior (e.g., aggressive behavior and non sickness absence). Most of these

relationships remain statistically significant even after controlling for the effects

of chronological age. The authors also observed that the tenure performance

relationship was stronger for younger workers, for women, for non-Caucasians,

and for college-educated workers. Finally, the authors found evidence of a

curvilinear relationship between organizational tenure and job performance.

Although the relationship of organizational tenure with job performance was

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positive in general, the strength of the association decreases as organizational

tenure increases.

The empirical investigation made by Zin (2004) was aimed to determine

the pattern of the relationships between the perceived presence of quality of work

life (QWL) factors and organizational commitment using samples from

professional engineers in Malaysia. Engineers in private sector were selected to

participate in this study. A total of 250 sets of questionnaires were sent to the

selected organizations, and 152 useable questionnaires representing a response

rate of 60.8% were used for statistical analysis. A QWL measure consisting of

seven factors: growth and development, participation, physical environment,

supervision, pay and benefit, social relevance, and workplace integration was

developed based on Walton's (1975) conception. The three-component model

and measure of organizational commitment developed by Allen and Meyer

(1990) was adopted in this study. Results of regression analysis indicated that

only two QWL factors, growth and development and pay and benefit, were

significant in explaining organizational commitment were also discussed.

America's work force has undergone a transformation over the past forty

years. The Census Bureau reported that in 1997 only 17% of all families

conformed to the 1950s model of a wage-earning dad, a stay-at-home mom, and

one or more children. Since the late 1950s, growing attention has focused on

families in which both partners work; these relationships are called dual-earner

marriages. Societal changes such as the number of women entering the

workforce and the economic need for two incomes to support a family have

impacted the American labor force. Married coupled families in which husband

and wife both work accounted for 53.2% of the workforce in 2000. These

workers face problems in balancing work responsibilities with home

commitment. Literature supports that work-life conflict poses problems to both

employees and business. Organizations look to their employees for productivity

and efficiency, which is compromised by work-life conflict in the form of

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absenteeism, decreased employee satisfaction, and poor job performance.

Employees look to their employers for personnel practices to help alleviate the

stress they experience in balancing home and work responsibilities. Fourteen

organizations in northern-lower Michigan participated in the study conducted by

Littlefield (2004) with employees representative of healthcare, education,

banking, insurance, tourism, and the manufacturing industries. A Likert-type

scale was used to assess the perception of 278 members of dual-career families

on how helpful eighteen personnel practices were in alleviating work-life

conflict. The rankings of the personnel practices were examined and implications

to business and industry were made.

Studies conducted in 2003

Women are largely under-represented in the Information Technology (IT)

workforce. The research of Carayon, Marchand and Schwarz (2003) examined

the factors related to the work environment that may contribute to the high

turnover of women in the IT workforce. There is substantial research providing

support for the relationship between job and organizational factors, on one hand,

and quality of working life (QWL) (e.g. low job satisfaction and high job strain),

on the other hand. They conducted secondary data analysis of questionnaire

survey collected from a sample of 1,278 employees of a single organization.

Authors examined the impact of gender and job type (i.e. IT job versus non-IT

job) on various indicators of quality of working life, as well as on the relationship

between job and organizational factors (i.e. feedback, autonomy, skill variety,

task significance, task identity and work pressure) and QWL. Results showed

that IT workers reported higher job satisfaction and lower job strain than non-IT

workers. Gender had no impact on QWL. Feedback and autonomy were

consistently related to job satisfaction, and work pressure was consistently

related to job strain, irrespective of gender and type of job. On the other hand,

women IT workers’ job satisfaction was affected by work pressure, and women

IT workers’ job strain was affected by task significance. Women IT workers’ job

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strain was not affected by autonomy, whereas job strain experienced by non-IT

workers was affected by autonomy.

A Finnish participatory action research (PAR) case study was conducted

by Kalliola (2003) among home care workers for the elderly. The staff planned

and carried out an organizational change from hierarchy to semi-autonomous

group organization. The PAR process, following the ideas of socio-technical

thinking, provided the staff with space for learning by doing and for creating

organization cohesiveness. The case was part of a programmatic development of

municipal services, aimed at improving simultaneously the productivity of these

services and the quality of working life of the agency staff, thus addressing

current problems of the public sector from the viewpoint of organizational

assessment. According to the quality of working life performance measurements

used, the case was successful. The study provides evidence for the usefulness of

team-based service delivery and shows some significant aspects of the PAR

process from the viewpoints of the participants and the researcher.

The investigation carried out by Lund (2003) examined the relationship of

information adequacy to job satisfaction and organizational culture in a

healthcare organization with both office and field personnel. Information

adequacy was assessed in four areas: personal performance, organizational

policies, organizational performance, and organizational objectives. Comparisons

of field and office personnel indicated that they did not differ on information

adequacy or job satisfaction; they did, however, differ on several dimensions of

organizational culture. Also, the relationship of information inadequacy to job

satisfaction and organizational culture differed for employees depending on

whether they worked primarily in the field or primarily in the office. Implications

of the findings were drawn for organizations with a dispersed-network structure.

Call centers have been one of the few booming branches in recent years.

The main task of call centre operators is to interact with customers by telephone,

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usually supported by computer systems. It has been argued that call centre work

is a modern form of Taylorism, because it is characterized by routine tasks and

low level of control for the employees. Moreover, it has been suggested that there

is a high level of stress at work, both with regard to the work tasks and to the

interactions with customers. In the study conducted by Zapf et al (2003) a

sample of 375 call centre employees from eight different call centers was

compared with a sample of noncall centre workers (N=405) in terms of job

characteristics, job stressors, and emotional labor (emotion work). The results

showed that call centre workers had worse job characteristics, but were better off

with regard to most job stressors compared to representative comparison groups

of no-service workers, service workers, and workers in human services

respectively. Moreover, compared to the other groups, customer service

representatives (CSRs) had to express less negative emotions, but were most

frequently exposed to states of emotional dissonance. A comparison of the

working conditions of the eight call centers revealed that in most call centers the

working conditions could be substantially improved. In addition, various call

centre parameters such as inbound vs. outbound, or in-house vs. external service

centers were examined. The strongest effects were found for the percentage of

time spent on the telephone. With some exceptions, the results support the view

that the majority of call centers have been established to organize mass service

for customers that the work in the call centers is characterized by routine work

and low task control, and that call centre employees are required to suggest a

friendly smile when they are on the phone.

In the 1990s workers in Australia were increasingly subjected to negative

work pressures. Irregular work patterns, work intensification, and the

transformation of the notion of career, often in the name of ‘flexibility’, were

increasingly common. This period was also characterized by scant regard for the

quality of working life of young people in entry-level employment, which is

often portrayed as a transition stage prior to their admission into the full-time

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core workforce. The study by Roan and Diamond (2003) explored the

experiences of twenty-two young people at the beginning of their careers, in the

hospitality and retail industries, with reference to three quality of working life

(QWL) elements: hour’s flexibility, work-life balance and career potential.

Qualitative evidence revealed a variety of experiences but, on balance, suggested

a negative quality of working life and limited commitment to their current

industry. In conclusion, the research suggested that these industries must pay

more attention to QWL issues in order to attract and retain quality staff.

The rapid rise of the service sector, and in particular the call centre

industry has made the study of emotional labor increasingly important within the

area of occupational stress research. Lewig and Dollard (2003) examined the

emotional demands (emotional labor) of call centre work and their relationship to

the job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion in a sample of South Australian call

centre workers (N=98) within the theoretical frameworks of the job demand –

control model, the effort – reward imbalance model, and the job demands –

resources model. Qualitatively the research confirmed the central role of

emotional labor variables in the experience of emotional exhaustion and

satisfaction at work. Specifically the research confirmed the pre-eminence of

emotional dissonance compared to a range of emotional demand variables in its

potency to account for variance in emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction.

Specifically, emotional dissonance mediated the effect of emotional labor

(positive emotions) on emotional exhaustion. Furthermore emotional dissonance

was found to be equal in its capacity to explain variance in the outcomes

compared to the most frequently researched demand measure in the work stress

literature (psycho-social demands). Finally, emotional dissonance was found to

exacerbate the level of emotional exhaustion at high levels of psycho-social

demands, indicating jobs combining high levels of both kinds of demands, are

much more risky.

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Studies conducted in 2002

Cinamon, Rich and Yisrael (2002) explored between-and within-gender

differences in the importance of life roles and their implications for work family

conflict. In the earlier research (Cinamon & Rich, 2002), they found three

profiles of workers who differ in attributions of importance to work and family

roles: persons who assigned high importance to both the work role and the family

role (Dual profile); participants who ascribed high importance to the work role

and low importance to the family role (work profile); and participants who

attributed high importance to the family role and low importance to the work role

(family profile). Authors used these profiles to clarify the relationship between

gender and work-family conflict. Participants were 126 married men and 87

married women who were employed in computer or law firms. Significant

between- and within-gender differences were found in the distribution of

participants to profiles. Men were equally distributed throughout the profiles,

whereas women were underrepresented in the Work category. More women than

men fit the Family profile, and more men than women fit the Work profile. No

gender differences were found for the Dual profile. Women reported higher

parenting and work values than men did. Between-gender differences in work-

family conflict were apparent, as were within-gender differences across profiles.

Results demonstrated the value of examining both between- and within-gender

variation in studies of gender and work-family conflict.

Turnover rates for hospital nurses have been increasing in recent years,

which is partially a result of increasing pressure on nurses from higher

productivity expectations in a managed care environment. Improving nurse

retention is a difficult challenge to managers since the bureaucratic cultural norm

of hospitals, with its hierarchical structures, rules, and regulations, and heavy

emphasis on measurement of outcomes and costs, may not be the culture most

conducive to enhancing nurses' job satisfaction and commitment. Accordingly,

the study conducted by Gifford et al., (2002) investigated the relationships

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between unit organizational culture and several important job-related variables

for nurse retention in the labor and delivery units of seven hospitals. Data

analysis showed that unit organizational culture does affect nurses' quality of

work life factors and that human relation cultural values are positively related to

organizational commitment, job involvement, empowerment, and job

satisfaction, and negatively related to intent to turnover. These findings suggest

that although increasing recruitment of nurses and improved compensation and

benefits strategies may offset hospital nurse shortages in the short term,

improving quality of work life may be a more practical and long-term approach

to improving hospital nurse retention.

Stress and burnout for health care professionals have received increasing

attention in the literature. Significant administrative, societal and political

changes have impacted on the role of workers and the responsibilities they are

expected to assume. Most writers suggest that social work is a highly stressful

occupation, with stress deriving in particular from role conflict between client

advocacies and meeting agency needs. The article written by Lloyd and

Chenoweth (2002) reviewed the social work literature with two questions in

mind: Are social workers subject to greater stress than other health professionals?

What factors contribute to stress and burnout among social workers? Authors

found that most of the literature was either anecdotal or compared social worker

stress with general population norms rather than with stress levels of workers in

comparable professions. Such empirical research as is available suggests that

social workers may experience higher levels of stress and resulting burnout than

comparable occupational groups. Factors identified as contributing to stress and

burnout included the nature of social work practice, especially tension between

philosophy and work demands and the organization of the work environment.

There was some evidence that supervision and team support are protective

factors.

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Quality of work has been frequently defined in terms of work conditions.

Work conditions, described in theoretical models (as the Job Demand-Control-

Social support model, the Effort-Reward Imbalance model and the Vitamin

model) are presented as important predictors of wellness/health outcomes.

Although empirical findings have clearly illustrated the predictive power of these

models, limitations and inconsistent results support the exploration of additional,

complementary perspectives. In this context, Pomaki (2002) suggested a person-

centered, self-regulatory approach to quality of work life. In his article

“predicting quality of work life: from work conditions to self-regulations”,

personal goals are presented as the core predictor of wellness and health. Within

Motivational Systems theory (MST), personal goals help employees direct and

organize behavior. The strategies and processes involved in goal pursuit are

predictive of goal attainment. The opportunity to attain goals or the frustration of

one’s goals is the key to health and wellness. Although there are several

theoretical models and theories describing the cognitive and emotional processes

involved in the pursuit of personal goals, empirical research concentrating on

such phenomena at the workplace has been scarce. The authors conducted an

overview of studies investigating the relationship between personal goals and

wellness/health outcomes among employees which is discussed in this article.

Although most of the studies stem from different theoretical models, they

focused on goal processes that are common with MST processes in an attempt to

provide constructive and systematic conclusions. Goal processes were

significantly predictive of wellness indicators and work-related outcomes in

cross-sectional as well as longitudinal studies.

A descriptive study was conducted over duration of two years by Labiris

et al.,(2002), assessing the impact of the quality gaps, and the quality of work life

(QWL) index on the performance of a state hospital department. The medical and

paramedical staff of the Patissia Eye Clinic in Athens, Greece was enrolled in the

study and the QWL index for each health-care provider was estimated. Providers

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with higher educational backgrounds or higher ratings in the hospital hierarchy

presented with better scores in the QWL index. A random sample of 400

glaucoma patients was interviewed and responded to predetermined

questionnaires. Quality gaps in the overall diagnostic and therapeutic approach

were detected mainly in the ‘responsiveness’ and ‘empathy’ quality dimensions.

The performance of the department was evaluated by assessing the percentage of

patients with satisfactory target (intraocular pressure or IOP) as an objective

index of efficiency, the percentage of patients with satisfactory alertness as an

objective index of quality, and the percentage of patients with satisfactory

compliance as a prognostic index for long-term efficacy. The QWL index and the

quality gaps had a direct impact on the ‘alertness’ and the ‘compliance’ of the

patients, reducing the overall performance of the department.

The study carried out by Aminah (2002) supports that inter-role family

conflict occurs when the cumulative demands of multiple roles at home and at

work become too great to manage comfortably.

Studies conducted in 2001

The study conducted by Goodman et al., (2001) used the competing

values framework as a tool to investigate the relationships between

organizational culture and several important job related variables. The findings

indicated that group cultural values are positively related to organizational

commitment, job involvement, empowerment and job satisfaction, and negatively

related to intent to turnover. While hierarchical cultural values were negatively

related to organizational commitment, job involvement, empowerment and job

satisfaction, it was positively related to intent to turnover.

Maslach and Leiter (2001) in their article on job burnout opined that

burnout is a prolonged response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors

on the job, and is defined by the three dimensions of exhaustion, cynicism, and

inefficacy. According to the authors, the past 25 years of research has established

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the complexity of the construct, and places the individual stress experience

within a larger organizational context of people's relation to their work. Recently,

the work on burnout has expanded internationally and has led to new conceptual

models. The focus is on engagement, the positive antithesis of burnout and

promises to yield new perspectives on interventions to alleviate burnout. The

social focus of burnout, the solid research basis concerning the syndrome, and its

specific ties to the work domain make a distinct and valuable contribution to

people's health and well-being, they believe.

A new measure of QWL was developed, based on need satisfaction and

spillover theories by Sirgy et al., (2001). The measure was designed to capture

the extent to which the work environment, job requirements, supervisory

behavior, and ancillary programs in an organization are perceived to meet the

needs of an employee. The authors identified seven major needs, each having

several dimensions. These are: (a) health and safety needs (protection from ill

health and injury at work and outside of work, and enhancement of good health),

(b) economic and family needs (pay, job security, and other family needs), (c)

social needs (collegiality at work and leisure time off work), (d) esteem needs

(recognition and appreciation of work within the organization and outside the

organization), (e) actualization needs (realization of one’s potential within the

organization and as a professional), (f) knowledge needs (learning to enhance job

and professional skills), and (g) aesthetic needs (creativity at work as well as

personal creativity and general aesthetics). The measure’s convergent and

discriminant validities were tested and the data provided support to the construct

validity of the QWL measure. Furthermore, the measure’s nomological

(predictive) validity was tested through hypotheses deduced from spillover

theory. Three studies were conducted; two studies using university employees

and the third using accounting firms. The results from the pooled sample

provided support for the hypotheses and thus lent some support to the

nomological validity to the new measure.

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Tausig (2001) examined the possibility that alternate work schedules

affect perceived work-life imbalance in their study “unbinding time: alternate

work schedules and work –life balance”. The results showed that alternate

schedules per se do not unbind time. However, perceived control of work

schedules increases work-life balance net of family and work characteristics. The

most consistent family characteristic predicting imbalance is being a parent. The

most consistent work characteristic predicting imbalance is “hours worked”.

Once there is control for hours worked, women and part-timers are shown to

perceive more imbalances. Younger and better educated persons also perceive

more work-life imbalance. However, they also report higher levels of schedule

control and since schedule control improves work-life balance, it may be more

important for unbinding time than schedule alternatives.

Monis and Sreedhara (2001) carried out an empirical study of five Indian

and five foreign MNC BPO firms operating in India, ranked among the top 100

by the International Association of Outsourcing Professionals (IAOP) for the

year 2009. The data was collected using both qualitative and quantitative

methods from 243 employees of Indian MNCs and 163 employees of foreign

MNC’s who constituted one per cent of the population under study. The study

found that, on an average, the level of satisfaction towards the career

development practices is at 69.71 per cent and 69.82 per cent among the

respondents of Indian and foreign MNC BPO firms respectively, both of which

constitute ‘satisfied’ on the scale. Regression analysis, using a significance level

of 5 per cent, shows that three of the variables, namely, the variables of ‘I have a

clearly established career path’ (p=.001), ‘Viewing BPO sector as a long-term

career option’ (p=.000) and ‘Having a dynamic career path is a must in order to

retain the outstanding and highly-performing employees’ (p=.018) are

significantly influencing the satisfaction of the respondents of Indian MNC’s and

two of the variables, namely, the variables of ‘I have a clearly established career

path’ (p=.000) and ‘Having a dynamic career path is a must in order to retain the

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outstanding and highly-performing employees’ (p=.042) are significantly

influencing the satisfaction of the respondents of foreign MNCs towards the

career development practices and all the other variables have emerged as the

insignificant variables. Interestingly, all the significant variables are positively

associated with the satisfaction of the respondents and all the variables used in

the present study collectively account for 38.9 per cent (R square = .389) and

41.5 per cent (R square = .415) of the satisfaction of the respondents of Indian

and foreign MNC BPO’s respectively towards the career development practices.

Studies conducted in 2000

A meta-analysis has confirmed that conflict between work and non-work

life is associated with impaired psychological well-being and other negative

outcomes (Allen et al., 2000). Work family conflict is a form of inter-role

conflict in which the general demand of time devoted to the job interferes with

the involvement of family related responsibilities. They emphasized that

problems associated with family responsibilities are additional sources that may

diminish QWL among IT professionals. They additionally assert that when an

employee has higher work responsibility there will be more spillover of negative

work outcomes on family life. The demands of managing higher responsibility at

work and home are also a potential source of stress because it allows a spillover

to family life thus creating an imbalance working environment.

“Burnout” is most often described as a concept with three separate

dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization (lack of empathy), and

reduced accomplishments at work. Falkum (2000) wanted to study the

descriptive validity of the concept, which may be measured by the Maslach

Burnout Inventory. The Maslach Burnout Inventory was mailed to 1,476

members of the Norwegian Medical Association. The response rate was 73%.

The dimensional structure of the instrument was examined by principal

component analysis, and the identified factors correlated with validated measures

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of job satisfaction and depression. The dichotomized factors were combined in

eight different ways, and the specificity of the resulting types was studied. The

three original dimensions were reproduced, and the internal consistency of the

factors was good (Cronbach's alpha ranging from 0.91 to 0.69). There were high

correlations between emotional exhaustion and both job satisfaction (r = -0.54)

and depression (r = 0.72). Emotional exhaustion seemed to be the least specific

of the burnout dimensions. For the purpose of reasonable descriptive validity, the

burnout notion should be based on both emotional exhaustion and

depersonalization. With the applied dichotomization thresholds, this implies that

3% of Norwegian physicians are burned out.

Job satisfaction at the reference desk is an important consideration. It not

only affects quality of life and the overall level of life satisfaction experienced by

the reference staff; it also affects reference work. Satisfied employees maintain

attitudes and engage in activities conducive to reference service effectiveness.

Life satisfaction and job satisfaction are related in a reciprocal manner, with life

satisfaction having the stronger effect.

The study on the effects of life satisfaction and job satisfaction of

reference librarians and their work by Landry (2000) found a moderate positive

relationship between life satisfaction and job satisfaction. A moderate negative

relationship was found between life satisfaction and the desire to find a

comparable job in another library.

Using data from the National Study of the Changing Workforce-1992, on

a sub-sample of workers in dual-earner families, Moen et al., (2000) examined

the strategies they used to manage work/life pressures, as well as how these

strategies, along with workers' life stage and work conditions, predict multiple

measures of psychological life quality (low work/family conflict, stress, and

overload, along with high coping/mastery). The authors found that strategies and

work conditions are gendered, with workers in dual-earner couples most apt to be

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in neo-traditional arrangements (husbands in professional and/or long-hour jobs

and wives working fewer hours, often in non-professional occupations). Life

quality is gendered as well, with women in dual-earner arrangements reporting

more stress and overload, as well as lower levels of coping/mastery than men.

However, the factors associated with life quality are similar across gender, with

conditions at work serving as key predictors of life quality indicators for both

men and women. Specifically, having a demanding job and job insecurity are

associated with low life quality, while having a supportive supervisor is

positively linked to life quality outcomes. Work hours and work-hour preferences

matter as well. Men and women in couples where both spouses work regular (39-

45) full-time hours, tend to score high on indicators of life quality, while those

working long hours and those preferring to work less, are less likely to do so.

Studies conducted in 1999

Carayon and Smith (1999) presented a macro-ergonomic model of work

design that is applied and tested to examine Total Quality Management (TQM) in

the public sector. According to the model, TQM can influence different aspects

of work design and quality of working life (QWL). Questionnaire data collected

in two public sector organizations in the USA showed that TQM can have both

positive and negative impact on work design and QWL. The main positive

impact of TQM was found on job content, job control and participation, and

social relationships. The main negative impact of TQM was on workload,

uncertainty, and clarity of job duties. The impact of TQM on QWL was mixed.

The results showed that the impact of TQM on work design and QWL varied

very much across the six participating departments, as well as within the

departments.

The aim of the study conducted by Slakoper (1999) was to compare the

quality of life of shift workers and non-shift workers. Satisfaction with various

aspects of life and the overall satisfaction were examined by means of the

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Quality of Life Scale (QLC). A total number of 107 chemical industry workers

participated in the study, of whom 56 worked in shifts and 51 worked in regular

hours. The results revealed that the average satisfaction with the present job and

financial status was lower in shift workers than in the non-shift workers (P <

0.05). The differences in the two predictors of life quality did not affect the

overall satisfaction with life in either group.

Studies conducted in 1998

The idea that R&D professionals typically spend a considerable amount of

their time working as members of teams makes sense. After all, plenty of

research indicates that the use of cross-functional teams improves the

effectiveness of product development efforts. However, the increasing use of

cross-functional teams raises an important question for researchers and R&D

practitioners: does the use of cross-functional teams improve the quality of work

life for Cordero? Di Tomaso (1998) addressed this question in study of 1,714

R&D professionals working on projects. They suggested that being a member of

a cross-functional team may be more demanding than working as a member of a

functional project group. On the other hand, they expect that working on a cross-

functional project team may be more rewarding than working in a functional

project group. Their study tested these hypotheses by examining the relationships

between measures of the extent to which respondents work on cross-functional

teams and five measures each of the participants' job demands and positive job

outcomes. The study identifies positive relationships between working on cross-

functional teams and the five positive job outcomes standard: job growth, job

security and membership in successful teams, earning money and job

satisfaction. The study found less consistent and weaker relationships between

working on cross-functional teams and the five job demands studied.

Specifically, the study identified positive relationships between working on

cross-functional teams and the following job demands: effort, job involvement,

and considering a lot of difference of opinion. The results of this study did not

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find a conclusive relationship between cross-functional team membership and

time pressure. And contrary to expectations, the study found a negative

relationship between working on cross-functional teams and job stress.

Comparing the responses of participants who work on project teams with those

who do not, the results of the study indicate that respondents who work on

project teams face greater job demands than positive job outcomes. However,

working on cross-functional teams seems to increase positive job outcomes more

than job demands. In other words, working on cross-functional teams appears to

increase the quality of work life for the technical professionals in this study.

Burke (1998) proposed three hypotheses to explain the work-family

relationship. The first is “spillover”, where the events of one environment affect

the other; the second is “compensation”, where the individuals attempt to

compensate in one environment for what is lacking in the other and the third is

where the environments can be described as “independent”. Accordingly, IT

based employers that have been slow to respond to the continuing pressures have

contributed to a growing incidence of work-life conflict among their employees.

The spillovers between work and personal life have serious implications on

employees’ QWL. It has also been argued that the conflict related to work and

personal demands can lead to negative health outcomes for employees, may

decrease organizational commitment, job satisfaction and increase burnout,

which will eventually lead to poor QWL.

The article “stress at work” by Richards (1998) starts by describing the

role of stress in modern work life which is subject to profound changes. It

explains why unambiguous terms and the application of theoretical concepts are

needed to advance scientific knowledge in this field. ‘Stressor’ is defined as an

environmental demand or threats those taxes or exceeds a person's ability to meet

the challenge. ‘Strain’ is the person's response to an unmet stressor in

psychological (especially emotional) and physiological terms. ‘Coping’ refers to

efforts mobilized to reverse the threat or to meet the demands. ‘Stressful

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experience’ delineates that part of strain reactions that reaches the awareness of

the involved person. Next, three prominent theoretical concepts are introduced

termed ‘person-environment fit,’ ‘demand-control,’ and ‘effort-reward

imbalance’. “Person-environment fit” describes stressful experience, first, as

result of a misfit between supplies at work and needs of the working person,

second, as result of a misfit between demands and abilities. The “demand-control

concept” claims that strain is contingent on the combined effects of high

demands and low control, especially low decision latitude, at work. The model of

“effort-reward imbalance” posits that lack of reciprocity between efforts spent

and rewards obtained at work (high effort and low reward) elicits strain. In this

approach, rewards include money, esteem, and career opportunities including job

security. Selected findings from epidemiologic investigations are summarized

that document adverse health effects of stress at work as defined by these

concepts. Finally, practical implications of these findings for the design of

preventive measures at work are briefly discussed, and future directions are

outlined, emphasizing the promise of combining the concepts mentioned, of

studying the work-non work interface, and of conducting theory-based

intervention studies.

The study carried out by Priebe et al., (1998) examined the attitudes

towards work, work incentives, and the impact of work on quality of life for

people with schizophrenia and investigated whether these findings differ among

western countries. The authors interviewed 24 randomly selected subjects with

schizophrenia and schizo-affective disorder (12 employed and 12 unemployed) at

each of three sites: Boulder, Colorado, United States; Berlin, Germany; and

Berne, Switzerland. No significant differences were found in the subjects'

attitudes toward work or subjective well-being, although Swiss patients had a

higher cost-of-living-adjusted income. Unemployed subjects reported a lower

subjective reservation (minimum financially worthwhile) wage than employed

subjects in Berlin and Berne, whereas the reverse was true in Boulder. When

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subjects from all sites were combined, employed patients displayed less

psychopathology and significant advantages in terms of objective and subjective

measures of income and well-being. They were also more likely to stress the

importance of work. The results suggest that work is associated with a markedly

better quality of life for people with schizophrenia, but the disability pension

programs in the United States might introduce work disincentives.

Studies conducted in 1997

The aim of the study carried out by Schoonwinkel and Klopper (1997)

was to describe guidelines for a personal and professional development

programme to facilitate the quality of work-life experienced by psychiatric

nurses in a hospital. An explorative and descriptive research design with a

qualitative research orientation was employed. The study was divided into three

phases. In phase one the needs, desires and expectations of psychiatric nursing in

a hospital nursing service were explored and described. In phase two the factors

in a nursing service which influence the quality work-life of nurses, were

explored and described. Consequently, the last phase of the study was conducted,

being inferred from data of phases one and two which lead to the conceptual

framework upon which the guidelines and programme are based. A personal and

professional development programme for psychiatric nurses to facilitate quality

of work-life experienced, consisting of three parts, was described to enclose

aspects of the psychiatric nurse's internal and external environments, as well as

patterns of interaction between the internal and external environments.

Organizations in Hong Kong were surveyed by Catherine and Chiu (1997)

to gauge how women-friendly they were and how their human resource managers

viewed the effect of women-friendly HRM policies and practices on employees'

quality of work life. It was found that only about half of the policies mentioned

in the questionnaire were practiced by less than 10 per cent of the organizations.

Principal component analysis conducted showed that organizational women-

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friendliness was multi-facet in nature. Using these facets – women friendly

dimensions (WFDs) - as criteria and controlling for size, the study found that

firms with American and European origins were more women-friendly than

Hong Kong firms. Furthermore, when American companies were compared to

Hong Kong companies, it was on the WFD of career development that the former

were significantly higher than the latter. In contrast, when comparing European

organizations with Hong Kong organizations, it was the WFD of flexibility on

which the two differed most markedly.

Studies conducted in 1996

Air Force radar controllers represent an excellent example of night shift

workers, as they are obliged to demonstrate perfect alertness during working

hours. Puca et al., (1996) set out: a) to assess the quality of life in these shift

workers; b) to identify those with shift work syndrome and c) to evaluate the

possible effects of “triazolam” both on their quality of life and sleep. The results

reveal an impairment of the quality of life in shift workers, independently of the

presence of a circadian rhythm sleep disorder. Quality of life was more severely

impaired in subjects with circadian rhythm sleep disorder. Hypnotic therapy

brought about an improvement both in the sleep disorder and in the quality of life

of subjects affected by shift work syndrome. Selective alertness tests failed to

demonstrate any "sedative carry-over" in the treated patients.

Studies conducted in 1994

What are the positive and negative work experiences reported by teachers,

and how do these contribute to their quality of work life? The study of Hart

(1994) reported structural equation analyses conducted on questionnaire data

obtained during three studies from 1539 Australian primary and secondary

school teachers. Drawing on perceived quality of life research it was

hypothesized that psychological distress and morale would be separate outcomes

of positive and negative work experiences. Results confirmed that psychological

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distress and morale operate on different dimensions. Three structural equation

models showed that positive experiences were stronger determinants of morale

than psychological distress, whereas negative experiences were stronger

determinants of psychological distress than morale. Psychological distress and

morale contributed equally to teachers' overall quality of work life. When

examined simultaneously it was found that positive experiences contributed only

to morale whilst negative experiences contributed only to psychological distress.

These findings challenge conventional wisdom and suggest that it is not possible

to enhance morale by reducing negative experiences, nor is it possible to reduce

psychological distress by focusing on positive experiences.

The study of Igbaria (1994) assessed the job involvement of 464

professionals and managers in the information systems (IS) field and investigated

the role of involvement in influencing the quality of work life. Results showed

significant variation in the level of job involvement displayed by IS employees

and differential patterns of relationships among the study variables for IS

personnel with low, moderate, and high levels of job involvement. The findings

indicated that involvement serves as a complex moderator role in the pattern of

relationships of work experiences, and of job characteristics with career

expectations and career outcomes. It has both linear and non-linear relationships

with several of the study variables. While in some cases, high levels of job

involvement tend to enhance the beneficial effects of work experiences on the

quality of work life; in others such involvement tends to heighten the negative

effects of role stressors.

Home health care has undergone startling changes in the past decade and,

in the process, become a strategically important ingredient of health care

delivery. However, the question remains whether home health care organizations

can deliver the benefits anticipated for integrated care delivery systems. The

answer to this question depends to a great extent on whether home health care

organizations build vibrant, visionary leadership capable of transforming

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organizations and motivating staff to deliver high quality and low cost services.

The research work of Smith and Piland (1994) examined a case study of

transformational leadership as it relates to the quality of working life for nurses,

homemakers, and staff. The findings indicated that leader behavior is strongly

associated with homemakers', and to lesser extent staff members' job satisfaction,

job involvement, and propensity to remain with the organization. These job

attitudes have been shown to be related to higher job performance.

Studies conducted in 1992

From the additive models of overall quality of life, two hypotheses were

derived about the relationships among work-family conflict, work-leisure

conflict, job satisfaction, family satisfaction, leisure satisfaction and global life

satisfaction in the research carried out by Rice and Mc Farlin (1992). In

supporting these two hypotheses, path analyses of survey data from a national

probability sample of United States workers (n = 823) showed: (1) the direct

paths between work-non work conflict and global life satisfaction were non-

significant; and (2) the indirect paths between work-non work conflict and global

life satisfaction, which are mediated by job satisfaction and non work

satisfaction, were all significant. Further analyses indicated that, in general, the

magnitude of these path coefficients was not significantly moderated by socio

demographic variables. Discussion considered the role of additive models as

conceptual frameworks for studies concerned with the effects of work

experiences on the overall quality of life.

The study carried out by Fields and Thacker (1992) examined changes in

union and organizational commitment after the implementation of a joint union-

management quality of work-life (QWL) program. The results indicated that

company commitment increased only when participants perceived the QWL

effort as successful, but union commitment increased irrespective of the

perception of QWL success. The purpose of the present investigation was to

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advance understanding of the influence of participation in a quality of work-life

(QWL) endeavour on both company and union commitment. Although there are

many definitions of QWL, there is agreement that in unionized organizations,

QWL refers to a cooperative effort on the part of union and management

representatives to involve employees in the day-to-day decision-making process

at work. Such union-management efforts can affect both the company- and

union-related attitudes of participants.

The study of Sheridan (1992) investigated the retention rates of 904

college graduates hired in six public accounting firms over a six-year period.

Organizational culture values varied significantly among the firms. The variation

in cultural values had a significant effect on the rates at which the newly hired

employees voluntarily terminated employment. The relationship between the

employees' job performance and their retention also varied significantly with

organizational culture values. The cultural effects were stronger than the

combined exogenous influences of the labor market and the new employees'

demographic characteristics. The cultural effects were estimated to have resulted

in over six million dollars' difference in human resource costs between firms with

different cultural values.

Studies conducted in 1990

Efraty and Sirgy (1990) conceptualized quality of work life (1990) in

terms of need satisfaction stemming from an interaction of workers' needs

(survival, social, ego, and self-actualization needs) and those organizational

resources relevant for meeting them. It was hypothesized that need satisfaction

(or QWL) is positively related to organizational identification, job satisfaction,

job involvement, job effort, and job performance; and negatively related to

personal alienation. A survey study was conducted by the authors based on a

sample of 219 service deliverers to the elderly in a large mid-western city. The

results were consistent with the hypotheses.

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The paper by Vieira (1990) refers to an introductory study about "Quality

of work life" (QWL), subject which requires a growing importance in certain

organizations. At first it is a discussion on the origin of this movement and its

conceptualization by some authors. Afterwards two approaches to QWL are

exposed-the classical and the situational. This is a classification used by the

authors themselves to emphasize the original, conventional concept of QWL and

to differentiate it from the second approach which is really situational and which

has a broader sense, adapting to reality and to the context of the organization.

The paper concludes with a reflection on the future courses of organizations, its

human resources and QWL.

The study of Golembiewski and Sun (1990) sought to determine

whether the high success rates observed in a large survey of QWL evaluative

studies (N=231) can be substatially explained in terms of the lack of rigor of

research methodology and design as the literature critical of QWL often

proposes. The study found statistically significanl support for a positive-findings

bias hypothesis, but rigor explained less than 7% of the variance in outcomes.

This implies only modest support for the position that attractive QWL results can

be substantially accounted for by a positive-findings bias.

Studies conducted in 1989

Kraut, Dumais and Koch (1989) found out the impact of computerized

record system on the work lives of customer service representatives in a large

utility company. Computerization of even a small component of a job can have

profound effects on job effectiveness and employment quality, but these effects

do not conform to simple models. Authors have shown that after service

representatives began using a computerized record system, their work lives

changed. The changes associated with computerization were as large as any other

natural source of variation that they could identify in this setting. Moreover, the

methods allowed the researchers to conclude with reasonable certainty that the

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changes they found were the result of technology, broadly conceived, and were

not the result of methodological artefacts, pre-existing differences between

groups, or extraneous, historical factors. Researchers concentrated on solving

methodological problems in establishing the causal impact of technology,

because until they can distinguish causal impact from methodological artefact,

more sophisticated questions about the generality of effects, mediation of effects,

and direction of causation cannot be addressed at all.

In theory, QWL programs entail a cooperative mode of labor-management

relations that should enhance organizational productivity and employee

satisfaction. In practice, however, municipal QWL programs have been unstable

and often restricted in scope to relatively unimportant decisions. This article by

Accordino (1989) explores why municipal QWL programs are started and

sustained, yet why they fail to become more vital parts of organizational decision

making.

Krim and Arthur (1989) in their article “ quality of work life in city hall:

towards an integration of political and organizational realities”, written with the

intention of offering general lessons for public sector QWL activities, concluded

that managers, not unlike the public-sector manager featured earlier, have lent

critical support to the QWL program at vital junctures. It was not always clear

that these managers understood QWL's possibilities for either the city or its

employees, but they did respond to the positive reinforcement of "good press"

and the negative reinforcement of possible "bad press." The leader of the major

municipal union that refused to cooperate, while still reluctant about QWL

efforts in the city, has subsequently been more flexible in other labour-

management initiatives within the state. The leader of the participating municipal

union has reaffirmed a personal commitment to the QWL program since the

management facilitator crisis and has subsequently come to lend much stronger

vocal support for the program's possibilities. These people, along with others

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influential in the city program, have experienced the role of the media and how

through it the quality of work life program can affect their own political agendas.

Studies conducted in 1986

The study carried out by Williamson and Alexander (1986) attempted to

test the "central concept" of QWL by examining the relationship between

negotiated QWL-related issues and organizational productivity and employee

absenteeism. QWL is operationalized in this research to include only those

labour contract clauses which address the control of one's own life in the work

environment. (Glacer, 1976; Makarov, 1982; Walton, 1974) This research is not

a direct test of the impact of a QWL program. Rather, the test is distal in nature,

examining whether or not the inclusion of negotiated contact clauses relating to

control of one's own life in the work environment produces increases in

productivity and/or decreases in absenteeism.

Studies conducted in 1985

Steinberg initiated with twenty employees a semi-autonomous production

group in one of their depots in 1983. During the ten ensuing years, this group

exemplified one of the most interesting experiences in Quebec relating to the

quality of life at work. Pelletier (1985) followed the evolution of this project

from its birth to its completion in October 1983. He highlighted the results

obtained for the company as well as those concerned with the social welfare of

the employees. He described the problems encountered, the successes obtained

and the traps to look for when setting up programs on the quality of life at work

or in any other model of work organization.

Rice et al., (1985) developed a preliminary conceptual model for

examining the effects of organizational work on the perceived quality of life

(PQL) which defines PQL as affective beliefs (hot cognitions) concerning the

status of one's life. The potential influences of work on PQL are considered in

terms of effects mediated by the perceived quality of work-life versus those

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mediated by the perceived quality of non-work life; person-changing versus

environment-changing effects; and first-party versus second-party effects.

Studies conducted in 1983

The paper by Moos (1983) describes the development of scales to assess

the perceived social-environmental quality of work and family settings. The use

of these scales in comparing and contrasting work and family settings and in

examining their role as contexts for adaptation and growth is illustrated. Some

tentative conclusions about social-environmental influences on individual and

family adaptation are drawn and practical applications for planning ecologically

oriented interventions are discussed.

The study by Katz, Kochan and Gobeille (1983) analyzed the relationship

among plant-level measures of industrial relations performance, economic

performance, and quality-of-working- life programs. The analysis employed

pooled time-series and cross section data from 18 plants within a division of

General Motors for the years 1970-79. The empirical results showed strong

associations between industrial relations and economic performance measures

and limited support for the hypothesis that quality-of-working-life efforts

improve both kinds of performance.

Studies conducted in 1982

Volvo is convinced that there are great possibilities to create more

effective job design solutions. Johnson (1982) carried out a study in Volvo on the

quality of work life and he suggested a new strategy on production technology

and works organization which was developed in the early 70s. Since then the

concept of flexible technology, team work and a spirit of collaboration has

diffused to all the different product groups. The base for this development must

be new technology, the capability and knowledge among the employees

combined with a managerial approach that mobilizes the potential of good

working ability. The changed directions both include moving toward

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craftsmanship in assembly operations as well as automation in manufacturing

whenever feasible.

Studies conducted in 1980

The study of Abdel-Halim (1980) examined the moderating effects of

employee’s higher order need strength (HONS) on the relationship between job

performance and job satisfaction. Data were collected from a sample of 123 non-

supervisory employees in a large retail-drug organization in the Midwest.

Moderated regression and subgroup analyses were performed on the data, and the

results provide support for the moderating role of HONS. Specifically, job

performance is positively related to intrinsic as well as extrinsic sources of job

satisfaction for strong HONS individuals while no such relation is found for

individuals with weak HONS

Studies conducted in 1978

While concern for the quality of working life (QWL) is by no means new

it is never-the less true that there has been an enormous amount of research,

experimentation and commentary in this field in recent years. A particular

confluence of forces ever-accelerating technological change; rapidly-shifting

attitudes, life-styles, and social institutions; and the paradox in many countries of

a customary prosperity threatened by doubts as to future economic performances

at least in part responsible for the burgeoning interest in the field. But important

also is its multidisciplinary nature, which has afforded to social scientists of

varied orientations the opportunity to participate in a new intellectual growth

industry. It is somewhat surprising; therefore, that QWL is a subject on which

economists have remained relatively silent. The purpose of the study by Newton

(1978) was to suggest certain areas of common interest between economists and

other social scientists in the QWL field. First, they attempted to show the

relevance for QWL research of two recent and provocative attempts to modify

traditional micro-theory. The authors argued that they are important particularly

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in lending a perspective to the QWL field, in suggesting to economists a

rethinking of their traditional mechanistic approach to the production process,

and its accompanying assumptions of a maximizing calculus, which leave little

room for qualitative workplace considerations. Secondly they attempted to

include some QWL variables in a simple model of aggregate labor input

designed to draw attention to the potentially crucial role of work humanization.

Before examining some of the features of the "new micro-theory", however, a

brief explanation of what is meant by "quality of working life" would seem to be

in order.

Studies conducted in 1977

The case developed by Drexler and Lawler (1977) describes the beginning

of the quality of work life project in which the authors were responsible for

measurement activities. In this role, the authors have attended meetings, read

correspondence and documents concerning the project, conducted interviews,

and administered questionnaires. The project was a part of a programmatic effort

jointly sponsored by the national quality of work centre, Washington, D.C. and

by the institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan. The objective

of the program was to improve the quality of the work life of the employees.

Studies conducted in 1975

Cherns (1975) in his article “perspectives on the quality of working life”

mentioned that QWL owes its origins to the marriage of the structural, systems

perspective of organizational behaviour with the interpersonal, human relations,

supervisory-style perspective. Its basic assumptions are: (1) that organizations

have a technical system that (2) sets the parameters for the operation of its social

system, consisting of (3) patterns of interactions that are partly task based and (4)

partly in the service of preserving the integrity of the system itself; and (5) that

the objectives of any organization allow a choice among technologies; (6) that

people have their own needs, some of which they expect to have satisfied in their

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work, and (7) others which may emerge, and require satisfying, in the work

situation. Associated with these assumptions or axioms are certain values: (1)

Autonomy is preferable to dependence, (2) High levels of skill are preferable to

low, (3) Learning is good.(4) A high degree of self-investment in work is good,

provided the work itself and the work situation offer opportunities for growth and

self-realization.

2.3 CONCLUSION

This chapter narrated the origin and development of the concept of the

quality of work life over the years. This concept originated in the United States,

slowly spread in different parts of the world and became the hottest word in the

corporate lexicon.

The review of literature clearly shows that this concept is explored from different

angles by industrial psychologists, management theorists and academicians all

over the world and lots of research works have been taken up. Today quality of

work life is a more sophisticated industrial management tool in the hands of

managers to make the organizations a better place for working, learning and

living. It has been realized that for the successful running of any enterprise,

proper handling of human factor is of paramount importance. And this human

factor, according to Jucius, (1975) “refers to a whole consisting of inter-related,

inter-dependent and interacting physiological, psychological, sociological and

ethical components”. At the same time, it should be noted that this human aspect

of an organization is very often subjective, qualitative and dynamic, with one’s

own aspirations and intentions. As Sheldon (1923) puts it, “no industry can be

rendered efficient so long as the basic fact remains unrecognized, that is

principally human. It is not a mass of machines and technical process, but a body

of men. It is not a complex of matter but a complex of humanity. It fulfills its

function not by virtue of some impersonal force, but by human energy. Its body

is not an intricate maze of mechanical devices, but a magnified nervous system”.

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The theoretical background of the study given in Chapter 1 and the review

of related studies given in Chapter 2 have led the researcher to throw certain

research questions. This further led researcher to make certain assumptions and

hypotheses. These are incorporated in the methodology which is given in the next

chapter, that is, Chapter 3.