Field ManualNo. 44-18

FM 44-18

HEADQUARTERSDEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

Washington, DC, 30 September 1981

A I R D E F E N S E A R T I L L E R Y

E M P L O Y M E N T

S T I N G E R

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ChangeNo. 1

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HEADQUARTERSDEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

Washington, DC, 17 May 1985

AIR DEFENSE ARTILLERY EMPLOYMENT, STINGER

FM 44-18, 30 September 1981, is changed as follows.

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

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By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

JOHN A. WICKHAM, JR.General, United States Army

Chief of Staff

Official:

DONALD J. DELANDROBrigadier General, United States Army

The Adjutant General

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army, ARNG, and USAR: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11 A, Require-ments for Stinger Team Operations (Qty rqr block no. 491).

Additional copies may be requisitioned from the US Army Adjutant General Publications Center,2800 Eastern Boulevard, Baltimore, MD 21220-2896.

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Air Defense Artillery EmploymentSTINGER

Table of Contents

iii

17 May 1985

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Table of Contents (continued)

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This publication implements the following STANAG:2002

2010201920282034203620472103

210421122129225928682904370037363805

3880

Warning Signs Marking of Contaminated or Dangerous Land Areas,Complete Equipments, Supplies, and Stores.Military Land Classification Markings.Military Symbols.System for Field Wire Labeling.Ammunition Supply Procedures.Land Minefield Laying, Recording, and Reporting Procedures.Emergency Alarms of Hazard or Attack (NBC and Air Attack only).Reporting Nuclear Detonations, Radioactive Fallout, and Biologicaland Chemical Attacks and Predicting Associated Hazards.Friendly Nuclear Strike Warning.Radiological Survey.Recognition and Identification of Forces on the Battlefield.MGD — Terrain.Land Force Tactical Doctrine (ATP-35).Airmobile Operations (ATP-41).NATO Tactical Air Doctrine (ATP-33)(A).Offensive Air Support Operations (ATP-27)(B).Doctrine and Procedures for Airspace Control in the Combat Zone(ATP-40).Counter Air Operations (ATP-42).

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When used in this publication, "he," "him," "his," and "men" represent both themasculine and feminine genders unless otherwise stated.

★ "As part of the Army standardization program, the terms squad and team are to bechanged to crew. Future revisions of this FM will reflect this changed."

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CHAPTER 1

The Air Threat Prior to the mid-1960s, Threat air forces were equipped mainly to provide air defense. Threat

aircraft were limited in range and payload, being primarily designed as interceptors. In recentyears the mission of the Threat air force has been expanded. Missions now include destroyingfriendly nuclear reserves and tactical air forces and providing tactical air support of groundforces. Through the 1960s, and with increasing tempo through the 1970s, Threat air forces havebeen receiving new aircraft and munitions with greatly improved offensive capabilities. Olderaircraft have been modified to support new missions.

This chapter describes that portion of the air threat that Stinger is designed to neutralizeand destroy.

CONCEPT OF AIR SUPPORT

Threat forces recognize that part of their delivery means and other targets beyondair effort will be initially required to obtain artillery range.local air superiority. Fighter units of the airarmy have the dual mission of providing air AIR STRIKES defense and close support for their groundforces. Attack and bomber units are used toengage targets beyond the range of artilleryand to reinforce artillery fires on selectedtargets and targets of opportunity. Acombined bombardment by bombers andground attack aircraft is coordinated withartillery preparatory fires. After the groundattack has begun, tactical air flies closesupport missions for ground elements.

★ Threat forces consider air strikes anextension of field artillery. They have begunto place great emphasis on tactical air sup-port of ground operations. Attacks are madeagainst preplanned targets to neutralize sup-port and reserves within the tactical opera-tional area. Threat air forces usually do notuse high-performance aircraft to provideclose air support along the line of contactwhere artillery can be employed. Armed heli-

Priority tasks for tactical air are the copters are the primary air threat along thedestruction/neutralization of hostile nuclear forward line of own troops (FLOT).

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AERIAL RECONNAISSANCE Tactical aerial reconnaissance is a

method of gathering intelligence concerningthe enemy. It employs airborne collectiondevices ranging from aircrew eyes to themost advanced sensory devices. The Threatwill use reconnaissance aircraft equippedwith sensors capable of monitoring USoperations in daylight, darkness, andinclement weather. Reconnaissance aircraft

can operate singly or in pairs.

TACTICAL AIRLIFT The Threat considers tactical airlift

operations to be critical both in theconventional and nuclear area. Tacticalairlift operations include logisticsoperations, airborne drops, and assaultlandings.

AIRCRAFT AND CAPABILITIES ★ Threat forces have been particularly

effective in integrating older aircraft andnewer. more modern aircraft into aformidable fighting force. Four new aircraftin particular have greatly increased theground attack capability of Threat forces.Older MiG-21s (FISHBED) are being phasedout and replaced with the MiG-23(FLOGGER B). FLOGGER B is a multiroleaircraft with a secondary ground attackcapability greater than either the MiG-21 orthe Su-7 (FITTER A).

The MiG-27 (FLOGGER D) is the secondimportant new aircraft. Derived from theFLOGGER B, it is designed specifically forground attack. It is able to carry most newordnance currently under development.

★ Another new addition is the Su-25(FROGFOOT). The FROGFOOT with its 10hardpoints for externally stored munitionsand Gatling-type gun, has the same long-loiter, close support mission as the A-10Thunderbolt II.

★ To supplement this threat, the Su-24(FENCER) has been fielded. The FENCER isa deep penetration strike aircraft believedequivalent to our F-111. It may be able tounderfly friendly radar defenses while con-ducting deep penetrations.

★ The early MiG-series aircraft (MiGs-15,-17, -19, and -21) were all designed primarilyas interceptors to perform an air-to-air com-

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bat mission. Early MiGs could only carry twobombs or rocket pods on wing pylons nor-mally used to carry external fuel. Because ofthis limited ordnance carrying capability,their ability to attack ground targets waslimited. Although initial designs of these air-craft go back over a period of 20 years, MiGs-19 and -21 are still being used in largenumbers, and the latest models of the MiG-21are still being produced. Improvements weremade to MiG-series aircraft to increase theirground mission capability. As long as an air-craft has utility for combat, it is not scrappedbecause of obsolescence. In many cases, whenreplaced in the active threat air force, olderequipment is transferred to reserve elementsor passed on to Allies.

A review of the Threat’s air inventoriesshows that his air forces can and will employa wide range of aircraft. Aircraft expected tooperate in the forward area can be dividedinto four categories: multirole aircraft,ground attack aircraft, reconnaissanceaircraft, and helicopters.

MULTIROLE AIRCRAFT ★ Multirole aircraft are designed to per-

form both air-to-air combat missions andground attack missions. Threat assets withinthis category include the early MiG-series ofaircraft (MiGs-17, -19, and -21), MiG-23/27,and the Su-24.

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★ MiG-17 FRESCO

TYPE: FIGHTER/INTERCEPTOR/GROUND ATTACKSPEED AT SEA LEVEL: 1,125 km/hrSPEED AT ALTITUDE: 1,145 km/hrRANGE: 1,200 kmARMAMENT: ONE 37-MM, TWO 23-MM CANNONS,

ROCKET PODS, OR BOMBS

★ MiG-19 FARMER

TYPE: FIGHTER/GROUND ATTACKSPEED AT SEA LEVEL: INASPEED AT ALTITUDE: 1,450 km/hrCOMBAT RADIUS: 285 kmARMAMENT: ROCKET PACKS AND BOMBS, DROP

TANKS; THREE 30-MM CANNONS

★ MiG-21 FISHBED J

TYPE: FIGHTER/INTERCEPTORSPEED AT SEA LEVEL: 1,100 km/hrSPEED AT ALTITUDE: 2,250 km/hrCOMBAT RADIUS 465-925 kmARMAMENT: UNDERWING PYLONS FOR WEAPONS OR

DROP TANKS; ROCKET PACKS; TWINBARREL 23-MM CANNON

★ MiG-23 FLOGGER B/G

TYPE: FIGHTER/INTERCEPTORSPEED AT SEA LEVEL: 1,350 km/hrSPEED AT ALTITUDE: 2,445 km/hrCOMBAT RADIUS 965 kmARMAMENT: BOMBS; CBUS; ONE 23-MM TWIN

CANNON RACK

INA-Information not available at the UNCLASSIFIED level.

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★ Su-24 FENCER

TYPE: MULTIROLE ATTACK/LIGHT BOMBER/RECONNAISSANCE

SPEED AT SEA LEVEL: 1,530 km/hrSPEED AT ALTITUDE: 2,320 km/hrCOMBAT RADIUS 400-1.800 kmARMAMENT: EXTERNALLY CARRIED WARLOADS OF

MORE THAN 5 TONS. INCLUDES BOMBS,57-MM UNGUIDED ROCKETS, OR FOURAIR-TO-SURFACE MISSILES; TWIN BARREL23-MM CANNON

★ GROUND ATTACK AIRCRAFTThreat aircraft with a primary ground Su-17/20/22 FITTER C/D, MiG-27

attack capability are the Su-7B FITTER A, FLOGGER D, and Su-25 FROGFOOT.

★ Su-7B FITTER A

TYPE: GROUND ATTACKSPEED AT SEA LEVEL: 850 km/hrSPEED AT ALTITUDE: 1,930 km/hrCOMBAT RADIUS 320-485 kmARMAMENT: ROCKET PACKS AND BOMBS (USUALLY

TWO 1,650 LB AND TW0 1,1OO LB); 30-MMCANNON

★ Su-17/20/22 FITTER C/D/H

TYPE: GROUND ATTACKSPEED AT SEA LEVEL: 1,266 km/hrSPEED AT ALTITUDE: 2,230 km/hrCOMBAT RADIUS 360-700 kmARMAMENT: ROCKET PACKS AND BOMBS; 30-MM

CANNON

★ Su-25 FROGFOOTTYPE: GROUND ATTACKSPEED AT SEA LEVEL: INASPEED AT ALTITUDE: 880 km/hrCOMBAT RADIUS: 556 kmARMAMENT: ROCKETS, BOMBS, AND

MISSILES; 30-MM CANNONINA Information not available at the UNCLASSIFIED level.

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★ MiG-27 FLOGGER D/J

TYPE: GROUND ATTACKSPEED AT SEA LEVEL: 1,300 km/hrSPEED AT ALTITUDE: 1,800 km/hrCOMBAT RADIUS 1,200 kmARMAMENT: SIX BARREL 23-MM GATLING-TYPE GUN;

BOMBS (USUALLY 1,100 LBS); 57-MMROCKET PODS; AS-7, AS-9, AND AS-10ASMS

RECONNAISSANCE AIRCRAFT

★ The Threat uses reconnaissance aircraftequipped with photographic and electronicsensors. This equipment is capable ofdetecting our operations in daylight,darkness, and inclement weather.Reconnaissance aircraft may operate alone,but probably will operate jointly with groundattack aircraft. Used in this manner,reconnaissance aircraft detect targets ofopportunity for the ground attack aircraft.

Reconnaissance versions of MiG-21, -23, and-25 aircraft perform deep penetrationmissions and also provide reconnaissancecoverage nearer the forward edge of thebattle area. Other aircraft available forreconnaissance missions include the YAK-28BREWER D and the IL-28R BEAGLE.Reconnaissance missions will often be flownat relatively low altitude, well withinStinger’s engagement capability.

★ IL-28R BEAGLE

TYPE: TACTICAL BOMBER/RECONNAISSANCESPEED AT SEA LEVEL: 798 km/hrCOMBAT RADIUS: 2,260 kmARMAMENT: FOUR AUTOMATIC CANNONS (TWO 20-

MM, TWO 23-MM); BOMB LOAD, 4,500 LB

★ YAK-28 BREWER D

TYPE: LIGHT BOMBER/RECONNAISSANCESPEED AT SEA LEVEL: INASPEED AT ALTITUDE: 1,175 km/hrCOMBAT RADIUS: 1,930-2,575 kmARMAMENT: INTERNAL BOMB BAY; 30-MM CANNON

INA - Information not available at the UNCLASSIFIED level.

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HELICOPTERS

1Command raid. 2Airborne cavalry. 3Assault.

Threat forces have some of the mostheavily armed helicopters in the world. Thesehelicopters may be employed near theforward edge of the battle area/line ofcommunications, in the “overmatch,” and in“air assaults” against rear areas.

Helicopters have advantages over fixed-wing aircraft which enable the helicopters tobe deployed in large numbers in forwardareas. They do not require large airfields orcostly runways. They are very suitable forconducting reconnaissance of the enemy’sforward forces. They are highly mobile andcan fly in weather that grounds fixed-wingaircraft. Finally, they can carry a widevariety of weapons. These include cannons,machine guns, antitank guided missiles(ATGM), freeflight rockets, and grenadelaunchers.

These valuable characteristics are offsetby helicopters’ vulnerability to short-rangeAD weapons. The attack helicopter achievesmaximum utility in a war of movement whenemployed in an ambush or assault action.Using speed, mobility, surprise, and animpressive array of weapons, it can harass,delay, and destroy advancing columns andarmor thrusts while supporting the groundattack with firepower.

The Mi-8 HIP is the main utilityhelicopter for Threat forces and is replacingthe Mi-4 HOUND as the standard troopcarrier for air assault operations. A newversion of the Mi-8 HIP, called HIP E, hasbeen introduced as being equipped with “theheaviest firepower seen on any helicopter inthe world.” Rocket and missile launchingracks are now included on most 28-passengerMi-8 transport helicopters.

The Mi-24 HIND is the first Threathelicopter specifically designed for attackmissions. However, it is also capable oflanding a squad behind enemy lines. TheHIND presents a significant threat tomaneuver units. There are currently fiveversions of the HIND. The first three, HINDA, B, and C, differ basically in the ordnancethey carry. The fourth version, the HIND D,features a completely redesigned frontfuselage. The HIND D’s armamentcapabilities exceed those of the HIND A.Included is a radar-directed nose gun.Another later version is the HIND E which isequipped with triple instead of double missilelaunch racks under each of its outboard stubwings.

★ Other helicopters likely to be encoun-tered by Stinger personnel include the Mi-2HOPLITE, Mi-6 HOOK and Mi-28 HAVOC.

★ Mi-8 HIPTYPE: MEDIUM TRANSPORT AND ASSAULTMAXIMUM SPEED: 250 km/hrCRUISING SPEED: 225 km/hrCARGO: 4,000 kg (INTERNAL) 3,000 kg (EXTERNAL)RANGE: 160-410 kmEQUIPPED TROOPS: 24 1 2 3

★ Mi-4 HOUNDTYPE: TRANSPORT AND GENERAL UTILITYMAXIMUM SPEED: 210 km/hrCRUISING SPEED: 177 km/hrCARGO: 1,200 kgRANGE: 460 kmEQUIPPED TROOPS: 12-16 1 2 3

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★ Mi-2 HOPLITETYPE: UTILITYMAXIMUM SPEED: 210 km/hrCRUISING SPEED: 190 km/hrCARGO: 700 kg (INTERNAL) 800 kg (EXTERNAL)RANGE: 340-580 kmEQUIPPED TROOPS: 8-10 1

★ Mi-6 HOOKTYPE: HEAVY TRANSPORT AND ASSAULTMAXIMUM SPEED: 300 km/hrCRUISING SPEED: 250 km/hrCARGO: 12,000 kg (INTERNAL) 8,000 kg (EXTERNAL)RANGE: 200-610 kmEQUIPPED TROOPS: 65 2 3

★ Mi-24 HIND A

TYPE: ASSAULTMAXIMUM SPEED: 320 km/hrCRUISING SPEED: 310 km/hrCARGO: 3,600 kgRANGE: 490-540 kmEQUIPPED TROOPS: 8 1 2 3

D

TYPE: ATTACK HELICOPTER ★ Mi-28 HAVOCMAXIMUM SPEED: 300 km/hrCRUISING SPEED: 480 kmREMARKS: CARRIES UP TO 16 ANTITANK MISSILES ANDHAS AN AIR-TO-AIR CAPABILITY

1 Command raid. 2Airborne cavalry. 3Assault

ORDNANCE Concurrent with the development of (CBU). A CBU consists of many small

aircraft with improved ground attack bomblets in one package. These can becapabilities has been the development of carried in large numbers on any aircraft.improved types of ordnance to support this CBUs are dropped at high speeds and lowmission. The Threat now has an array of altitudes to cover a wide area.ordnance suited to just about any type ofmission or target. To improve capabilities against point

targets, such as bridges. Threat forces havePerhaps most important has been the developed new air-to-surface missiles (ASM)

introduction of effective cluster bomb units with vastly improved guidance systems.

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Guided free-fall bombs, similar to thosedeveloped by the West, are also new additions

munitions. Threat aircraft are equipped withcannons for use in strafing targets. They also

to the Threat's ordnance inventory..

Equipped with these new munitions, a singlecan employ unguided bombs of various sizes

aircraft can now destroy a target that only a and 57-mm unguided rockets. These rocketsfew years ago would have defied attacks by are loaded into a pod which allows a high ratelarge formations. of fire against targets. The table lists the

likely targets and characteristics of aircraftIn addition to employing specialized ordances used in attacking ground targets.

.

ATTACK TECHNIQUES — FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT

Three decades of experience have air strikes as an extension of their artillerychanged the concept of close air support capability.(CAS). Aircraft are now dedicated to the High-performance aircraft rely on speedsupport of maneuver forces in both Threat for surprise and survival. Because of theirand Allied air forces. This is in recognition of high speed, they will strike along the longestthe fact that the modern battlefield will axis of the target — this gives them more timeprovide a number of targets which CAS On target. They will attack out of the sun toaircraft can destroy. Threat forces view CAS give surprise.

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To avoid medium- and high-altitude air The air defense gunner should alwaysdefense systems, Threat aircraft operating in expect an enemy pilot to do the unexpected.the ground attack role will probably Enemy pilots will deliver ordnance on aapproach the target area by flying as low as target the best way they can. They havepractical. Most attacks on ground targets several delivery techniques and manynear the FEBA will be at altitudes of less variations of these attack techniques at theirthan 5,000 feet and at speeds of less than 550 disposal. The ground attack techniques ofknots. most interest to Stinger personnel include

lay-down, pop-up, pop-up/lay-down, andstandoff.

LAY-DOWN TECHNIQUE In the lay-down ordnance delivery The ability to release ordnance at low

technique, the pilot uses high speed and low altitude is made possible by advances in thealtitude to increase the probability of mission development of bomb retardation devicessuccess. He flies the aircraft over the target and aircraft avionics. The speed of ordnancearea about 300 feet above ground level and at fall is reduced by drogue chutes or retardinga speed of 450-600 knots. fins. This allows the aircraft to get out of the

way before detonation occurs.

POP-UP TECHNIQUE The pop-up technique offers the pilot However, offsetting these advantages. . .several advantages. By using a low-altitude are several disadvantages. Aircraft consume

approach and escape, he minimizes his more fuel at low altitudes, so the pilot hasexposure to air defenses, especially radar- reduced his range. He also has less time todirected air defense systems.some degree of deceptionsurprise.

He also gains acquire the target than he would at a higherand tactical altitude on a clear day. The technique also

increases his vulnerability to ground fire.

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The pop-up technique generally consistsof a run at low level from an intitial point (IP)about 10-20 kilometers from the target. TheIP is usually a significant terrain feature inthe area. The aircraft then flies to a pull-uppoint (PUP) about 3-8 kilometers from thetarget where it begins a rapid climb. Once theaircraft reaches attack height, it dives to anordnance release point. This point will varyaccording to the type of ordnance being

attack technique are:The attack altitude of the aircraft will be

from 1,000-5,000 feet, depending on the typeof ordnance to be released.

When the aircraft begins its dive fromattack altitude to the ordnance release point,it will usually turn left or right to a newheading which is 20°-900 from the originalheading.

delivered. It is generally located 500-1,500meters from the target. After delivering Airspeed during the attack is more aordnance, the aircraft will attempt to escape function of the type ordnance being deliveredat high speed. rather than the aircraft’s maximum

capabilities. For most ordnance, the normalMore specific figures for the pop-up speed varies from 400-500 knots.

POP-UP/LAY-DOWN ATTACKAn attack may be made on a convoy by a

flight of four aircraft armed with variousmunitions and initially flying low to avoidADA radar detection. The lead aircraft spots

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the convoy and notifies the others. They will either the pop-up or lay-down technique.) Theprobably separate into two elements of two presence of ADA guns will normally limit theaircraft each. (With a flight of only one or two attack to one pass. The probability of aircraftaircraft, the maneuver and attack techniques survival decreases as the time andwould be similar to those of the lead element opportunities available for ADA engagementin the scenario. The aircraft would spot the increase.column, execute a turn, and attack using

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STANDOFF In the standoff ordnance delivery achieve a high probability of hit and kill.

technique, ordnance is released from aircraft These bombs and missiles are equipped withat a considerable distance from the intended advanced homing guidance systems, such astarget. “Smart” bombs (with electronic active and passive infrared (ir), TV-steering) and guided missiles are used to command, and laser.

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REMEMBER

THE REASON YOUR TEAMS SHOULD BE POSITIONED A CONSIDERABLE DISTANCEFROM THE DEFENDED ASSET IS TO DESTROY THE ENEMY AIRCRAFT BEFORE THEPILOT RELEASES HIS ORDNANCE.

ATTACK TECHNIQUES – ATTACK HELICOPTERS

Attack helicopters (AH) move on thebattlefield at the lowest possible altitude,often flying among trees and buildings.Because they are more agile andmaneuverable than fixed-wing aircraft, AHcan use ground cover to hide behind whileengaging from standoff positions. They stayrelatively close to the ground, especiallywhen firing. Therefore, attack helicopters aredifficult to acquire and, because they are seenas part of the ground clutter by radar-directedair defense systems, are hard to lock onto andengage. Many Threat helicopters areequipped with ATGMs.

The attack helicopter, using nap-of-the-earth and sneak-and-peek techniques, willsurvey the battlefield for targets. Finding atank for example, the helicopter will use somesort of natural terrain like a forested area or

hill to hide behind and, when the opportunitypresents itself, will pop up over the terrainfeature and launch its ATGM(s) at the target.

Because it has to visually guide theATGM to the target, the helicopter isvulnerable to short-range air defense(SHORAD)-type weapons as the helicopterhovers. However, Threat advances inordnance may eliminate this vulnerability inthe near future.

Since helicopters can illuminate groundtargets through use of a flare system, there isalso a possibility that they may attack ourforces at night. The principal advantage ofusing flares is that they reduce aircraftvulnerability by adding an element ofsurprise.

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TACTICAL LIMITATIONS OF ATTACK AIRCRAFT All weapon systems have their

limitations, and Threat attack aircraft are noexception. These factors not only limitaircraft effectiveness, but can be usedagainst the Threat by our forces. Attackaircraft have a number of tacticallimitations.

Aircraft speed, maneuverability, andrange decrease as the aircraft’s ordnanceload increases.

Aircraft control requires some type offormation flying, at least at the start of anattack. This increases the chance of aircraftdetection and reduces the possibility ofsurprise.

Electronic countermeasures (ECM),active infrared countermeasures (IRCM),and the use of other tactics to degrade ADAeffectiveness reveal the presence of theenemy. This eliminates an important part of

an aircraft attack — the element of surprise.Darkness and inclement weather pose

navigation and target acquisition problemsfor pilots, even with aircraft having an all-weather capability. Under these conditions,aircraft will have to fly higher, increasingtheir vulnerability to ADA fires.

Low-altitude approaches increaseaircraft vulnerability to SHORAD and smallarms fire.

High-speed and low-altitude approachesmay reduce the chance of aircraft detectionand engagement, but they also reduce theaccuracy of aircraft weapon delivery. Thesetechniques also make it very difficult for thepilot to locate the target, sometimesnecessitating a second pass.

Air weapon delivery must be extremelyprecise to be accurate. The slightest fault inweapons delivery can cause the pilot to miss

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his target and fail in his mission. When fired lose concentration for that split secondon, even a near miss may cause the pilot to necessary to accurately deliver ordnance.

HELIBORNE ASSAULTS

Threat forces have placed increasingemphasis on air assault operations in recentyears. The mobility of helicopters allowsThreat commanders to:

Assist attacking forces by rapidlysurmounting obstacles and large areas ofNBC contamination.

Prevent enemy forces from closing gapscreated by nuclear strikes.

Seize and hold important objectives inthe enemy rear until the arrival of advancingtroops.

Raid to destroy control points, radarposts, and signal centers.

Assist maneuver units by providing ahighly mobile antitank capability.

Threat doctrine stresses maintaining themomentum of the attack. Heavy use of an airassault mission is one way to do this. Threatleadership believes that air assault missions

AIRBORNE

Airborne assaults are conducted withaircraft from military air transport forces.The mission of airborne forces can bestrategic, operational, or tactical.

Strategic missions are usually conductedin division strength. The purpose of this typeof mission is to establish a new battle frontwithin a theater of operations. Operationalmissions are conducted in support of armiesor fronts. Units conducting these operationsare usually of regimental size or smaller andare dropped from 200 to 400 kilometers in therear. Tactical missions are conducted up to200 kilometers in the rear. Normal objectivesare seizing bridgeheads and critical road orrail junctions, destroying airfields, and

are especially useful after a nuclear strike.Using this type of assault as soon as possibleafter a nuclear strike maximizes the gainsmade with the strike and minimizes the riskto air assault forces. Tactical air support, toinclude assault helicopters, is often used tocreate a fly-through zone in enemy lines.Tactical air support generally continues untilthe air assault forces have landed anddeployed.

In the past, Threat forces usedhelicopters to transport small numbers ofspecially trained airborne troops on airassault missions. Recently, however,emphasis has been placed on usingmotorized rifle battalions for these missions.Threat leadership believes that these forcescan be used with a minimum of training. Thethreat presented by units with the extensivecombat capabilities of a motorized riflebattalion being airlifted behind our linesshould not be underestimated.

ASSAULTS

disrupting rear areas. In a nuclearenvironment, tactical missions are mostoften used to exploit a nuclear strike.

Although airborne operations can beconducted at almost any time, Threat forcesgenerally conduct them at night. Airbornedrops are generally preceded by an increasein reconnaissance of the drop area.Reconnaissance can be conducted by air,clandestine agents, long-range patrols, orair-dropped reconnaissance teams.

Recently, Threat emphasis on tacticalairborne missions has decreased. Helicopterassaults are taking their place; however,airborne forces will still be used foroperational and strategic missions.

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CHAPTER 2

The Stinger Weapon★ To be able to direct and guide Stinger personnel, Stinger section chiefs and platoon leaders

must know the weapon itself. This chapter briefly describes the makeup of the Stinger weaponsystem. It also describes the basic steps the gunner follows in the engagement process. For amore detailed discussion of weapon characteristics and team firing procedures, refer toFM 44-18-1 and (SNF) FM 44-1A (U).

SECTION ITHE STINGER WEAPON SYSTEM

Stinger is a man-portable, shoulder-fired, infrared-homing (heat seeking) guided missilesystem. It requires no control from the gunner after firing. Stinger has an identification, friendor foe (IFF) subsystem which aids the gunner and team chief in identifying friendly aircraft.Operations at night or in bad weather are restricted by the gunner’s ability to see and identifythe target.

The Stinger weapon system is composed of four basic items: weapon round, IFF subsystem,shipping and storage containers, and harness.

THE WEAPON ROUND The Stinger weapon round is made up of A basic load of Stinger weapons consists

a missile round (consisting of a Stinger of four weapon rounds and twomissile housed within a launch tube) mated missile rounds.to a separable gripstock. A battery/coolantunit (BCU) is inserted into the weapon round MISSILE ROUND to provide prelaunch power to the system. The missile round is composed of twoYou must have all three items — missile major parts: the missile and a launch tube.round, separable gripstock, and BCU — to The missile is ejected from the launch tube byhave an operational weapon. For IFF a missile launch motor. The launch motor iscapability, an IFF interrogator is connected expended and drops from the missile outsideto the weapon. the launch tube. Once the missile coasts to a

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safe distance from the gunner, the missile for all other parts of the weapon round. Bothflight motor fires and continues to propel the ends of the launch tube are sealed withmissile in flight. Should target intercept not breakable disks. The front disk isoccur within 15-19 seconds after launch, the transparent to ir radiation, allowing themissile will self-destruct. radiation to reach the heat-sensitive missile

The fiberglass launch tube, whichhouses the missile, provides the main support

seeker. Both the front and rear disks breakwhen the missile is launched.

SEPARABLE GRIPSTOCKThe separable, reusable gripstock

consists of the gripstock assembly and theIFF antenna assembly.

The gripstock contains all the necessarycircuits and assemblies that allow the gunnerto prepare and launch the missile. Located onthe gripstock assembly are the safety andactuator device, uncaging switch, firingtrigger, IFF challenge switch, IFF

interrogator connector, and BCU receptacle.After a missile is launched, the separablegripstock is removed from the launch tube forreuse. The gripstock can be reused untilfailure. When the IFF antenna assembly isunfolded and the IFF interrogator isconnected to the weapon, it is capable ofinterrogating aircraft and receiving codedreplies.

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BATTERY/COOLANT UNITThe battery\coolant unit (BCU) contains coolant to the weapon until launch or for a

a thermal battery to provide power for maximum of 45 seconds. When the system ispreflight operation of the system and a activated, a BCU is expended. When a BCUsupply of argon gas to cool the infrared is inserted in the weapon, the BCU isdetector in the missile seeker. Once activated, considered expended as soon as it is removed.the BCU supplies electrical power and seeker For this reason, three are packed with each

missile-round.

STINGER IDENTIFICATION, FRIEND OR FOE, SUBSYSTEM

The Stinger identification friend or foe(IFF) subsystem is a part of the Stingerweapon system. Components of the IFFsubsystem used by the gunner are theinterrogator and interconnecting cable.

The gunner connects the IFFinterrogator to the weapon by using the IFFinterconnecting cable. When connected withthe Stinger weapon round, the IFFinterrogator is capable of transmitting achallenge (interrogation) to a potentialtarget. If an improperly coded reply isreceived, the aircraft is classified as an“unknown” (possibly a foe). (Detailed IFFinterrogation procedures are in FM 44-18-1.)

A programmer/battery charger, codeinput computer, shipping and storagecontainers, and code keys are used to supportthe IFF subsystem. This equipment is locatedat the section headquarters.

★ The interrogator is programmed with aninterrogation code. It can be programmed tooperate in Mode 4 secure mode for 4 days.Within 4 days, a new or recharged batterymust be installed and the unit reprogrammed.Unless it is reprogrammed, the systemautomatically shifts from Mode 4 to Mode 3.It remains in this mode of operation until thebatteries are discharged or the system isreprogrammed. Two IFF interrogators areissued per team and four interrogators arekept at the section headquarters for spares.Before an IFF interrogator is reprogrammed,a freshly charged battery pack must beinserted. The battery will be charged for aminimum of 4 hours prior to reprogrammingof interrogators. A 4-hour charge will

normally allow for 800 interrogations. Oper-ating instructions are found inTM 9-1425-429-12.

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★ COMSEC ITEMS

In addition to the IFF programmer, cer- provides the cryptographic security neces-tain communications security items are sary for operating in Mode 4. It is not used torequired to program the codes into the IFF operate in Modes 1, 2, or 3/A. The TSEC/K1-interrogator. 1A system consists of the AKAK 3662 code

The TSEC/K1-1A system is the communi- key list (AKAK), the KIK-18A/T SEC codecations security (COMSEC) component of changer key (KIK), and the KIR-1A\TSECthe MARK XII IFF system. Specifically, it interrogator computer (KIR) shown below.

The AKAK 3662 is the operational code “B” (Day 1 and Day 2) so that aircraft whichkey list for the TSEC/K1-1A system. Edi- are airborne at key change time (2400Z) maytions are composed of 28 operational and two shift to the next cryptovariable without rekey-emergency tables providing code settings on ing their kit. Editions of the AKAK are classi-a 28-day basis. The two emergency tables are fied CONFIDENTIAL and are markednot authorized for use. Individual tables con- CRYPTO. Individual tables are classifiedsist of 64 metal pins in the KIK. Each table CONFIDENTIAL.provides two key settings designated “A” +

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The KIK-18A/TSEC, code changer key isa mechanical device used to cryptographi-cally key the KIR or KIT. The metal pins,which protrude from one end of the device,plug into the code changer assembly of theKIR or KIT to set the code. Once the pins aremanually set, the KIK may be used to key anynumber of KIRs or KITs. The KIK is classi-fied CONFIDENTIAL when set with a codeand UNCLASSIFIED when not set.

The KIR-1A\TSEC interrogator compu-ter is used primarily in the ground/surface

interrogator of MARK XII-equipped IFFsystems. After being cryptographicallykeyed by the KIK, the KIR can computeindividually unique interrogations that aretransmitted as challenges through an inter-rogator to an unidentified aircraft. It alsoverifies the validity of the coded replies fromthe aircraft’s transponder. The KIK is classi-fied CONFIDENTIAL. Handling instruc-tions are contained in TB 380-41 and NSAmanual KAM 25.

★ SHIPPING AND STORAGE CONTAINERS The weapon-round container is a The missile-round container is a wooden

reusable aluminum box used for storing an box containing a missile round, three BCUs,operational weapon round, two spare BCUS, and one set of ear plugs.- Two missile-roundand a set of ear plugs. Four of these containers are issued to each team as part ofcontainers are issued to each team as part of its basic load. As rounds are expended, theits basic load. When the weapon-round con- gunner simply opens a missile-roundtainers are arranged in the team’s ¼-ton container, removes the missile round, matestrailer, the two top weapon-round containers the gripstock of the expended round to theare converted into “ready racks.” The latches new missile round, and inserts a BCU. Heof the two top containers are released after then has a complete weapon round to use ifsecuring the containers in the trailer, thereby needed. The empty box is then returned to themaking the weapons readily accessible to trailer. Replacement missile rounds areteam members. - stored at ammunition supply points (ASP).

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TRANSPORT HARNESS

The Stinger basic load is carried on the harness is used to secure the basic load on thestandard ¼-ton cargo trailer and is held in trailer. The harness also allows rapid accessplace by a transport harness. The transport to the two top weapon-round “ready racks.”

SECTION II

THE ENGAGEMENT PROCESS

★ LAUNCH AND INTERCEPT BOUNDARIES

The engagement process is influenced by ordnance delivery speeds. ProperStinger’s launch and intercept boundaries, employment of the Stinger weapon requiresand the size and shape of the boundaries are understanding of its capabilities andinfluenced by many factors. Among these are limitations. For a more detailed discussion ofthe type, speed, altitude, and aspect of the Stinger launch and intercept boundaries andaircraft. Stinger can effectively engage all other classified information, refer to (SNF)aircraft operating at low level and at FM 44-1A (U).

ENGAGING AIRCRAFT

The engagement process consists of a to rapidly perform the procedures, as shownseries of actions performed by the Stinger on next two pages.team. The team chief and gunner are trained

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CHAPTER 3Organization and Command and Control

To effectively employ Stinger on the battlefield, commanders must know how Stinger unitsare organized. They must also know the command and control structure of Stinger before theycan effectively deploy it.

This chapter discusses Stinger organization and the command and control of Stinger. Thischapter also explains how Stinger fires are controlled.

SECTION I STINGER ORGANIZATION

TEAM The basic Stinger tactical element is the identify the targets, give the gunner an

team. Teams are subordinate elements of engagement order, and then attempt toStinger air defense sections. Each team is engage with a second weapon-round.composed of a team chief and a gunner. Bothteam members are trained to perform all Each team is normally equipped with a

¼-ton truck and trailer, with the exception ofteam functions. The team normally acts as aunit with the team chief establishing the those teams assigned to the air assaultidentity of the aircraft and authorizing the division. In addition, teams haveengagement. communications equipment, binoculars,

target alert data display set (TADDS), andWhen under heavy attack, both team two IFF interrogators. For further

members may act as gunners to increase information, refer to appropriate tables offirepower. In this case, the team chief should organization and equipment (TOE).

SECTION The Stinger air defense section consists The number of teams in a section

of a headquarters element composed of a depends on the type organization to whichsection chief and a radiotelephone the section belongs. The accompanying chartoperator/driver, and a varying number of shows the total allocation of Stinger teamsStinger teams. and sections in major organizations. A

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further breakdown of teams and sections equipment, IFF interrogators, an IFFwithin major organizations is discussed later programmer/battery charger, and a TADDSin this section. to assist in early warning. For further

The section headquarters has a ¼-ton information, refer to appropriate tables oftruck and trailer, communications organization and equipment.

PLATOON The Stinger platoon is organic to the

firing batteries of the divisional ADAbattalion. The Stinger platoon has its ownTOE and is assigned to the headquarterselement in separate brigades and regiments.In divisional ADA, the platoon normally isunder the direct command of the ADAbattery commander.

The platoon headquarters is composed ofa platoon leader, platoon sergeant, and aradiotelephone operator/driver. The platoonheadquarters has a ¼-ton truck and trailer.The element also has communicationsequipment required to command and controlthe platoon. For further information, refer toappropriate tables of organization andequipment.

DIVISIONAL ORGANIZATION

ARMORED, INFANTRY, MECHANIZED (AIM) DIVISION Within the divisional organization, each organization purposes within AIM divisions,

ADA Stinger platoon consists of a each Stinger platoon is designated as theheadquarters element and four sections. fourth platoon of each Chaparral and VulcanThree sections have five teams; the fourth battery.) Stinger platoons within eachsection has three teams. A total of 4 platoons AIM division are organized as shown.and 72 teams are in the division. (For task

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★ ARMY OF EXCELLENCE ORGANIZATIONSStinger units which are being transitioned to Army of Excellence organizations are shown

below.

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★ Heavy Division

A Stinger platoon is organic to each of headquarters and headquarters battery. Athe three SGT York Gun/Stinger batteries in total of four platoons and 60 teams are in thethe ADA battalion of the heavy division. An division.additional Stinger platoon is assigned to the

★ Light Division

A Stinger platoon is organic to each of has 20 teams for a total of 40 teams in thethe two LADS/Stinger batteries in the ADA division.battalion of the light division. Each platoon

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★ Motorized Infantry Division

A Stinger platoon is organic to each of Two Stinger platoons are assigned to thethe three gun/missile batteries in the ADA Chaparral/Stinger battery. A total of fivebattalion in the motorized infantry division. platoons and 60 teams are in the division.

★ Airborne Division

A Stinger platoon is organic to each of toon has 20 teams for a total of 60 teams inthe three LADS/Stinger batteries in the ADA the division.battalion of the airborne division. Each pla-

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★ Air Assault Division

A Stinger platoon is organic to each of platoon has 20 teams for a total of 60 teams inthe three LADS\Stinger batteries in the ADA the division.battalion of the air assault division. Each

★ NONDIVISIONAL ORGANIZATION

SEPARATE BRIGADEThis platoon is organic to the brigade ters element and four sections. The sections

headquarters element. In separate brigades, have four teams as shown below.the Stinger platoon consists of a headquar-

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★ ARMORED CAVALRY REGIMENT

In armored cavalry regiments, the Stin- sections. Four sections have four teams andger platoon is organic to the regimental one section has six teams. The ACR has aheadquarters element. The platoon is organ- total of 22 teams.ized with a headquarters element and five

SECTION II

COMMAND AND CONTROL

The full potential of any military forcecannot be realized without effectivecommand and control. Command andcontrol of air defense artillery mustaccomplish two things:

1. Engagement of hostile aircraft whileproviding for protection of friendly aircraft.2. Integration of all ADA weapons into onecohesive force so that the appropriate level offirepower will be generated but overkillavoided.

Two factors make command and controlof Stinger teams especially challenging:1. A large number of Stinger teams are on thebattlefield.2. Teams are highly mobile; they remain inone position for only short periods of time.

This section discusses the command andcontrol structure that enables Stinger leadersto perform their mission. The section alsoexplains how Stinger fires are controlled anddirected.

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WHAT IS COMMAND AND CONTROL?

Command is defined as “the authorityand responsibility to use available resourcesto accomplish assigned missions inaccordance with established procedures.”Also included in command, is the authorityand responsibility for supply, administra-tion, training, discipline, health, welfare, andmorale.

Control is defined as “the authoritywhich may be less than full commandexercised by a commander over part of theactivities of subordinate or otherorganizations.”

Together, command and control is theprocess of directing the activities of militaryforces to attain an objective. It includes theconsideration of —

Physical means of its accomplishment.These means include communications,control centers, and information gatheringsystems.

Staffs and facilities necessary to gatherand analyze information, plan for what is tobe done, and supervise the execution of whathas been ordered.

STINGER COMMAND STRUCTUREDivisional Stinger. Command for air defense artillery battalion and battervdivisional Stinger units follow a relatively

.commanders and finally to the Stinger

simple chain. Within the division, command platoon and section.descends from the division commander to the

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Nondivisional Stinger. Command for nondivisional organization to which Stingernondivisional Stinger also follows a simple is organic sets the priorities for Stingerchain. A Stinger platoon is organic to the employment. He also has the positioningheadquarters element of separate brigades or authority for Stinger.regiments. The commander of the

Special Command Statuses. Specialcommand statuses can be formed byattaching or placing the ADA unit under theoperational command (OPCOM), operational

control (OPCON), or tactical control ofanother unit. These statuses create specialoperational, training, administrative, andlogistic relationships between the ADA unit,its parent organization, and the receivingunit.

Attachment, US and NATO. AttachedADA units are those placed in anorganization on a relatively temporary basis.Subject to the limitations imposed by theattachment order, the commander of theorganization receiving the attached ADAelement will exercise the same degree ofcommand and control over attached unitsthat he does over units organic to hiscommand. This includes providingadministrative and logistic support.However, the responsibility for transfer andpromotion of personnel will normally beretained by the parent unit.

Before discussing operational commandand operational control, it is important tonote that these terms are defined differentlyin US and NATO environments. In a pure USenvironment, the term “operational

command” is synonymous to the term“operational control.”

Operational Command/OperationalControl, US. In a pure US environment,OPCOM/OPCON gives the commanderreceiving the ADA unit the authority andresponsibility for the composition ofsubordinate forces, the assignments of tasks,the designation of objectives, and theauthoritative direction necessary toaccomplish the mission. Administration,discipline, internal organization, logistics,and training are kept by the parent unitunless modified in the operationrelationship.

In a NATO environment, OPCOM givesthe commander receiving the ADA unit theauthority and responsibility to assignmissions or tasks, to deploy units, to reassignforces, and to retain or delegate operationaland/or tactical control as necessary. It doesnot include administrative or logisticalresponsibility.

In a NATO environment, OPCON givesthe commander receiving the ADA unit theauthority and responsibility to direct forcesassigned so that the commander mayaccomplish specific missions or tasks usually

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limited by function, time, or location; to In NATO, tactical control is the detaileddeploy units; and to retain or delegate and, usually, local direction and control oftactical control of those units. It does not movements or maneuvers necessary toinclude authority to assign separate accomplish missions or tasks assigned. Foremployment of the units concerned. Neither ADA, tactical control is best defined as firedoes it include administrative or logistic coordination.control.

REMEMBERATTACHMENT, OPCOM, OPCON, AND TACTICAL CONTROL ARE NOT MISSIONS.

THESE STATUSES ARE USED ONLY TO CREATE SPECIAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEENADA UNITS AND RECEIVING UNITS.

CONTROL OF STINGERControl operates to preclude the

engagement of friendly aircraft and tomaximize the engagement of hostile aircraft.Control of Stinger is accomplished primarilythrough the declaration of weapons controlstatuses and through rules and procedurespublished in the unit tactical standingoperating procedure (TSOP). The authorityto engage aircraft is delegated to the teamchief. Commanders exercise control byprescribing the precise conditions underwhich that authority may be exercised.

Air Force), who is appointed by the theatercommander. He establishes AD rules andprocedures that apply throughout thetheater. He may divide the theater into ADregions and appoint region commanders.

The region air defense commander isdelegated full authority for air defenseoperations within his region. He alsoexercises control by publishing rules andprocedures. Some of these rules, such asweapons control statuses, change frequentlyand are ordered into effect in specific areas at

Air defense weapons in a theater of specific times. Intermediate commanders, tooperations are controlled by one authority, include supported maneuver commanders,the area air defense commander (normally may make these rules more restrictive, if the

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tactical situation warrants, but may not imposed by the region air defensemake them less restrictive than those commander.

COMMAND AND CONTROL OF THE STINGER PLATOON Command and control of the Stinger

platoon is accomplished by the platoonleader from his headquarters element.Command is exercised through the platoonleader and the section chiefs within theplatoon. The headquarters element has radio.equipment for control of the sections, forcommunications within the supported unit’scommand net, and for receipt of earlywarning information from the ADAbattalion and/or supported brigade. Anychanges in weapons control status, earlywarning, operating frequencies, call signs,ground security situation, IFF codes, etc., aretransmitted immediately to the sections. Theplatoon headquarters monitors the personneland equipment status of all sections by radio.

When the Stinger platoon is tacticallyemployed as an element of a SHORAD firingbattery, the Stinger platoon leader locates hisheadquarters element within or near thefiring battery command post (CP). In thissituation, the Stinger platoon leader assignstactical missions to sections as directed bythe battery commander.

When the Stinger platoon is tacticallyemployed as the sole air defense organizationsupporting a maneuver force, the Stingerplatoon leader locates his headquarterselement within or near the CP of thesupported unit. In this situation, the Stingerplatoon leader responds to air defenserequirements directly from the supportedunit commander. He assigns tacticalmissions to his sections to provide air defensefor the supported unit’s priority assets.

The tactical situation may require that aStinger platoon be employed with aSHORAD platoon. In this situation, thespecific command relationship between theplatoon leaders will be established by theSHORAD battalion or battery commander.

Normally, the Stinger section is thelowest element to be separately tasked ordeployed. It is under the direct command of

the Stinger section chief. The Stinger sectionchief exercises command and control of hisStinger teams primarily through use ofdetailed TSOP. This procedural method ofcommand and control is used because theteams are usually located long distancesfrom the section headquarters element.Therefore, direct and personal supervision ofeach team is not normally possible. A tacticalradio net provides a link between the sectionchief and his teams. Over this net, the sectionchief maneuvers his teams and providespositive control as needed. He modifies theirstate of readiness by relaying the air defensewarning and weapons control statuses. Eachsection headquarters has radio communica-tions with its platoon headquarters, thesupported unit, and its firing teams. Earlywarning is received via voice radio and thetarget alert data display set.

★ The section chief may have to locate atsome point between the teams and TOC. Toeffectively control the teams, the sectionheadquarters element must be in communi-cations with the Stinger teams. In the casewhere the Stinger section headquarters haslost contact with Stinger elements, the head-quarters element must relocate to reestablishradio contact.

★ The Stinger section headquarters mustalways maintain communications with itsteams and liaison with the maneuverbattalion.

When appropriate, platoons or sectionsmay be attached to the supported unit for aspecific period. When so attached, command(to include administration and logistics)becomes the responsibility of the commanderto whom attached. Air defense rules ofengagement, weapons control statuses, andfire control orders which apply to the divisionarea continue to be binding on attachedStinger elements. The local commander maymake these measures more restrictive, butmay not make them less restrictive.

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COMMAND AND CONTROL PROCEDURESControl of the fires of Stinger weapons is

based on the fact that the elapsed time fromtarget detection until target flyover ismeasured in seconds. Also, Stinger weaponsare manned and fired by teams. Each team isindividually positioned and is separatedfrom all other teams supporting the sameforce. To be timely, the firing decision mustbe accomplished at the team position by theteam chief. Authority to engage must bedelegated to the team chief. Therefore, tocontrol fires of their teams, Stinger leadersmust insure that each team member has allthe information and instructions necessaryto make a correct engagement decision.

Control is exercised through air defenserules of engagement (ROE) which aredirectives that delineate the circumstancesunder which Stinger weapons can fire at anaircraft. Rules of engagement are establishedby the region/area air defense commanderand are provided to the lowest necessary levelby inclusion in the tactical SOP of each unithaving an air defense mission or capability.The tactical SOP may include any or all ofthe following:

HOSTILE CRITERIANormally, the responsibility for target

identification rests with the team chief. Theexact criteria in use may vary with thetactical situation, from command tocommand, and in terms of time and space.Unit SOPs may classify those aircraft thatare:

Attacking friendly elements. Anyaircraft actively attacking the team ordefended unit or installations may beidentified as hostile. The right of self-defenseis never denied.

Performing any of the following actsover friendly troops or territory without priorcoordination.

Discharging smoke or spray.Discharging parachutists orunloading troops in excess of normalaircraft crew.

Engaging in mine-laying operations.Making unauthorized or improper entry

into an area designated as restricted orprohibited. Care should be exercised inapplying this criterion. This is necessary toavoid engaging a friendly aircraft that hasbeen damaged and is returning to the rear ofour lines. Also, it may have inadvertentlystrayed into the restricted area due to anavigational error.

★ Operating at prohibited speeds, alti-tudes, or in prohibited directions. The teamchief must be able to apply this criteria if itcomes to him in the form of early warning.

★ Bearing the military markings orhaving the configuration of an aircraftemployed by a known enemy nation. This isthe criterion most likely to be used by theStinger team chief and probably the mostdifficult to apply. Application of thiscriterion must be based on visual inspectionof the aircraft. Since aircraft markings arenot usually visible at long ranges, mostidentifications must be based on recognitionof the physical features of the aircraft. Toeliminate any element of doubt, the teamchief must be capable of recognizing friendlyas well as enemy aircraft. (For additionaldiscussion of aircraft recognition, refer to FM44-30 and STANAG 2129.)

★ To aid in identification (ID), the Stingerweapon has been equipped with an IFF unit.The gunner initiates the IFF sequence bypressing the IFF INTERROGATE switch onthe gripstock assembly. Once the gunnerissues a challenge, the rest of the sequence isautomatic. Aircraft with Mark X or Mark XIItransponders automatically decode only ifthe interrogator is programmed with Mode 4and Mode 3. Mode 3 is built into the interro-gator; however, if during programming theMode 4 only position is used, Mode 3 (Mark X)will not be challenged until the two or fourdays of Mode 4 coded have expired. The air-craft’s transponder then prepares and sends

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a coded reply. The reply is received by theStinger antenna and is routed to the interro-gator for decoding. The interrogator convertsthe reply into an audible tone which is thenrouted via the interconnecting cable to thegunner as a friendly tone. If the aircraft’stransponder sends an incorrect reply to theIFF challenge, the reply is processed by theIFF system into an unknown tone. Addition-ally, aircraft not equipped with the trans-ponders will not reply to the challenge, andthis is also interpreted into an unknown tone.The gunner hears the friendly or unknown.tone in his right earphone immediately afterchallenging the aircraft.

★ Positive IFF Mode 4 responses indicate a“true friend.” Local tactical directives willspecify whether Mode 3 returns are to be con-sidered a possible friend. All other aircraft(those providing no IFF response) are given a

tentative ID of “unknown.” This aids theStinger team in identifying most friendlyaircraft; however, the IFF unit does not pro-vide positive ID of all friendly aircraft. Elec-tronic malfunction or physical damage mayprevent the interrogator or transponder fromworking properly. This is the reason that,given a tentative ID by IFF, the Stinger teamnormally must accomplish positive ID byvisual recognition. An absence of an IFFreturn (Stinger IFF subsystem malfunction)will require the team chief to visually identifythe aircraft. Engagement based solely on anunknown IFF return is permissible onlyunder certain specified rules of engagement.

★ Interrogator programming is explainedin TM 9-1425-429-12. The tones are describedin FM 44-18-1. The mode, tone or symbolicresponse, and the team actions for Stinger ineach of the weapons control statuses areshown in the following illustration.

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WEAPONS CONTROL STATUSESWeapons control statuses are conditions other commanders (corps, division, ma-

which describe the relative tightness with neuver brigade, or maneuver battalion) havewhich the fires of AD systems are managed. the authority to impose a more restrictiveThis degree or extent of control varies, de- weapons control status within their respec-pending on the relative priorities of two tive areas of operation for assigned, attached,needs— or organic ADA weapons. Weapons control

The need to provide for the protection of statuses may be varied to apply only to cer-friendly aircraft. tain aircraft for specified time periods. For

The need to maintain a high level of airexample, the status “Weapons Free for air-

defense for a specific tactical situation. craft heading westbound; Weapons Tight forall other aircraft” is not unusual. Weapons

The weapons control status is imposed control is normally described as a statusby the area air defense commander; however, (condition).

RIGHT OF SELF-DEFENSERules of engagement do not prohibit a an aircraft that is attacking it — the right of

unit or air defense weapon from shooting at self-defense is never denied.

FIRE CONTROL ORDERSFire control orders are commands which Fire control orders are normally issued

are used to control AD engagements on a by the immediate ADA commander (teamcase-by-case basis, regardless of the chief) for the purpose of fire distribution or forprevailing weapons control status. safety.

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LOSS OF COMMUNICATIONSIf communications break down for any

reason, the section/team must takeimmediate action to reestablishcommunications. These actions will be listedin the TSOP and may be similar to thefollowing if, at the time communications arelost, the weapons control status was:Weapons Tight. The section/team willremain in weapons tight.Weapons Hold. If a time limit was placed onthe weapons holds restriction, the

section/team will maintain weapons hold forthis time limit and then revert to weaponstight. If no time limit was established, thesection/team will maintain weapons hold for30 minutes and then revert to weapons tight.Weapons Free. If a time limit wasestablished, the same rule applies as inweapons hold. If no time limit wasestablished, the section/team willimmediately revert to weapons tight.

WARNING PROCEDURES AND ALERT STATUSESTo prepare units for enemy air attack, air States of alert can be used by the section

defense warnings (ADW) may be broadcast chief to vary the level of preparedness of hisby ADA battalion, TOC, or the division teams. These states of alert should be definedairspace management element (DAME). in the local TSOP and may be based on theThese warnings provide the platoon leader ADWs. (See example.)general information of the air threat.

EXAMPLERED – BATTLE STATIONSALL TEAMS PREPARE TO ENGAGE AIRCRAFT.

YELLOW – STANDBYDESIGNATED TEAMS PERFORM AIR WATCHAND BE PREPARED TO ENGAGE AIRCRAFT.ALL TEAMS BE PREPARED TO ENGAGEAIRCRAFT WITHIN A SPECIFIED TIME.

WHITE – STAND-DOWNTEAMS ARE TEMPORARILY RELEASED FROMTHE AIR DEFENSE MISSION, BUT MUST BEABLE TO ATTAIN STANDBY STATUS WITHIN ASPECIFIED TIME PERIOD.

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SUPPLEMENTAL FIRE CONTROL MEASURES

Supplemental fire control measures areprocedural management measures intendedto delineate or modify hostile criteria,delegate identification authority, or servestrictly as aids in fire distribution or airspacecontrol. The fire supplemental fire controlmeasures are air defense operations area(ADOA), weapons engagement zones (WEZ),high density airspace control zones,temporary airspace restriction measures,and sectors of fire and primary target lines(PTL).Air Defense Operations Area. An areaand the airspace above it within whichprocedures are established to minimizemutual interference between AD and otheroperations. It can include designation of oneor more of the following:

Air defense action area. An area and theairspace above it in which friendly aircraft orADA weapons are normally givenprecedence in operations except underspecified conditions. This type of ADOA isprimarily used to minimize mutualinterference between friendly aircraft andADA weapon systems. Air defense actionareas which have been prioritized for ADAweapons are similar to restricted operationsareas for aircraft, except that air defenseaction areas are normally in effect for alonger period of time.

Air defense area. A specifically definedairspace for which air defense must beplanned and provided. This type of ADOA isprimarily used for airspace control, but mayalso be used to define any area within whichADA units are operating.

Air defense identification zone (ADIZ).Airspace of defined dimensions within whichthe ready identification, location, and controlof airborne vehicles are required. This type ofADOA is normally used only for airspacecontrol. Areas within an ADIZ will normallybe characterized by extremely stringenthostile criteria and weapons control statuses.Weapons Engagement Zone (WEZ). Avolume of defined airspace within which a

specific type of AD weapon is preferred foruse in an engagement. Use of WEZ does notpreclude engagement of high-priority targetsby more than one type of weapon system ifcentralized control of each weapon systeminvolved is available. The activation of aWEZ can be used to delegate identificationauthority to respective fire units byspecifying different (usually more stringent)hostile criteria within the WEZ than outsidethe WEZ. Commonly used WEZs include —

Fighter engagement zone (FEZ). FEZsare normally established only in those areaswhere no effective surface-to-air capability isdeployed.

High-altitude missile engagement zone(HIMEZ). Normally applied to long-rangesurface-to-air missiles (SAM), a HIMEZlimits the volume of airspace within whichthese weapons can conduct engagementswithout specific direction from the authorityestablishing the WEZ.

Low-altitude missile engagement zone(LOMEZ). This volume of airspaceestablishes control over engagements by low-to-medium altitude SAMs (to include Hawk).The same considerations pertinent to theHIMEZ and FEZ apply. Subject to weaponsystem capabilities, the LOMEZ may extendbeyond the forward line of own troops (FLOT).

Short-range air defense engagementzone (SHORADEZ). Areas of SHORADdeployment may fall within a HIMEZ orLOMEZ. It is also possible that some areasmay be solely defended by SHORAD assets.A SHORADEZ can be established to definethe airspace within which such assets willoperate. Because centralized control overSHORAD weapons may not be possible,these areas must be clearly defined andpromulgated so that friendly aircraft canavoid them.

The example shows WEZ geographicand altitude boundaries for a type AD region.Each WEZ gives particular types of weaponsmore freedom of action in the protection of

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rear area assets. Thus, within an activatedHIMEZ, Hercules and Patriot would beplaced in a less restrictive WCS. The sameapplies to Hawk with regard to the LOMEZ.Established well forward, the LOMEZ givesHawk greater freedom of action andmaximizes its effectiveness. TheSHORADEZ performs the same function forshort-range ADA organic to committeddivisions. The FEZ covers the same region,but over ADA, WEZ areas descend only to theupper limits of HIMEZ, LOMEZ, andSHORADEZ. Since fighters and ADAsystems each have their own operatingareas, the possibility of friendly aircraftengagement is minimized.

WEZs are established by local operationplan, but are activated and modified bymessage.

High-density Airspace Control Zone(HIDACZ). A HIDACZ is an airspace ofdefined dimension in which there is aconcentrated employment of numerous andvaried airspace users. These can includeaircraft, artillery/mortar/naval gunfire,local AD weapons, and surface-to-surfacemissiles. HIDACZ is established by the areaair defense commander upon request of localmaneuver commanders. HIDACZ isestablished when the level and intensity ofairspace operations dictate the need forspecial airspace control measures. Thenumber of such zones will vary depending onthe combat situation and/or the complexitiesof air traffic control in conjunction with firesupport coordination. The establishment of aHIDACZ normally increases temporaryrestrictions on ADA fires within the volumeof defined airspace.Temporary Airspace RestrictionMeasures. Temporary airspace restrictionscan be imposed on segments of airspace ofdefined dimensions in response to specificsituations and requirements. These caninclude search and rescue (SAR) operations,air refueling areas, high density airspacecontrol zone, concentrated interdiction areas,and areas declared AD WEAPONS FREE.These restrictions include —

Identification of the airspace user beingrestricted.

Period, area, altitude, and height ofrestriction..

Procedures for cancellation ormodification of the restriction in event ofcommunication loss.

The three common temporary airspacerestrictions are —

Restricted operations areas.Minimum risk routes (MRR)/low-level

transit routes (LLTR).Standard-use Army aircraft routes.

Restricted operations areas are airspacesof defined dimensions within which theoperation of one or more airspace users is

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restricted, generally for a short time. Theseareas are established by the airspace controlauthority (ACA) in response to the requestsof ground force commanders.

Restricted operations areas for aircraftcan be established to maximize ADAeffectiveness. In such cases, the normal ADAweapons control status will be Weapons Free.

EXAMPLERESTRICTED OPERATIONS AREAS

FOR AIRCRAFT

WEAPONS FREE: FOR DESIGNATEDAIRSPACE AROUND A KEY CROSSING SITEDURING RIVER-CROSSING OPERATIONS.WEAPONS FREE AREA INFORMATION (E.G.,SIZE, TIME-RESTRICTION IS IN EFFECT)WOULD BE PROVIDED TO AIR FORCE ANDARMY AVIATION UNITS AS WELL AS AIRDEFENSE UNITS. KEEPING FRIENDLYAIRCRAFT AWAY FROM THE WEAPONS FREEAREA WOULD ALLOW ADA MAXIMUMFREEDOM TO ENGAGE HOSTILE AIRCRAFT.

Restricted operations area for ADA canbe established to maximize aircrafteffectiveness. In such cases, the normal ADAweapons control status will be WeaponsHold.

EXAMPLERESTRICTED OPERATIONS AREA

FOR ADA

WEAPONS TIGHT: EXCEPT WEAPONSHOLD, 0600-0645, FOR HELICOPTERSWESTBOUND OVER 1ST BRIGADE AREA. THISCONTROL STATEMENT PROVIDES SPECIALPROTECTION FOR FRIENDLY HELICOPTERSSCHEDULED TO PASS WESTWARD THROUGHTHE 1ST BRIGADE AREA AT INDICATED TIME.

Minimum risk route/low-level transitroute (MRR/LLTR): A temporary corridor ofdefined dimensions passing in eitherdirection through ADA defenses, a highdensity airspace control zone, or through arestricted operations area. It is designed toreduce risk to high-speed aircraft transitingthe tactical operations area at low altitudes.MRRs/LLTRs will normally be confined tothat airspace in which ADA must bemaintained at Weapons Free. Such circum-stances will exist where there is inadequatetimely control capability to permit a moreflexible method of air defense. However,aircraft transiting the tactical operationsarea are not required to use activatedMRRs/LLTRs. In such cases where aircraft

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do not use MRRs/LLTRs, it is recognizedthat established AD procedures will apply.Also, close air support (CAS) aircraft will notnormally use MRRs/LLTRs. This is becausesuch sorties are flown in response to Armyrequests and are coordinated by the forwardair controller (FAC) or other tactical aircontrol system elements with the supportedArmy unit.

The weapons control status for ADA fireunits whose engagement ranges intercept anactivated MRR\LLTR remains at WeaponsTight for that part of the route. Should itbecome necessary to change to WeaponsFree, that particular route will be closed bythe commander who established it.

Standard-use Army aircraft routes aretemporary corridors of defined dimensions

passing in either direction through the rearoperations area to designated points in thetactical operations area. These routes willterminate in relatively secure areas. Twopoints are important for ADA in connectionwith standard-use routes —

Since high-speed aircraft avoidstandard-use routes, ADA hostile criteriamay include provisions that high-speedaircraft within these routes can be declaredhostile.

The weapons control status of ADA fireunits whose engagement ranges intercept anactivated standard-use route remains atWeapons Tight for that part of the route.Should it become necessary to change toWeapons Free, that particular route will beclosed by the commander who established it.

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Sectors of Fire and Primary TargetLines. Stinger teams normally use sectors offire and primary target lines to insure that allaircraft attacking the defended asset areengaged. Normally, if a single aircraft isattacking the asset, all air defense must beprepared to defend against multiple targetsattacking from different directions. Also,these control measures provide sectors of fireor primary target lines applicable to eachweapon defending an asset. Each Stingerteam normally concentrates its fires on themost threatening aircraft within its assignedsector or closest to its primary target line.Typical control measures are—

Primary sector of fire (PSF). A sectordefined by azimuth boundaries within whichthe team will focus its primary attention(both searching and firing).

Primary target line. An azimuth alongwhich the team will focus its primaryattention.

The assignment of a PSF or PTL does notrestrict the team to looking only at the sectoror line. Rather, it means that, given twotargets that are equal threats, the team willfire on the target within the PSF or closest tothe PTL.

Sectors of fire are normally designated atsection headquarters after review of fire unitcoverage diagrams. Overlapping coverageand distance between teams is discussedlater in this manual. The section chiefassigns primary target lines as shown in theexample.

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CHAPTER 4

CommunicationsThe ability of a Stinger platoon/section leader to react to rapidly changing conditions on

the modern battlefield is dependent on efficient and reliable communications. Radio and wirecommunications are provided Stinger units to facilitate command and control. Because theStinger teams are widely dispersed, and subject to frequent and rapid moves, radio is the primemeans of communications during tactical operations.

Threat forces know the key to success in combat is an effective communications system. TheThreat will use electronic warfare (EW) to disrupt as many command, control, and weaponscommunications systems as possible. Their major electronic offensive will happen during thefirst minutes of the first battle. Therefore, communications on the modern battlefield may beconsiderably degraded or nonexistent.

★ The improved early warning Manual SHORAD Control System (MSCS) ties in the airdefense coordination net and the early warning broadcast nets which are used by Stinger units.(See FMs 44-3, 44-11, and 44-18-1 for further details.)

STINGER RADIO EQUIPMENT

Stinger platoons use only one type of AMradio — AN/PRC-l04 (1) for receipt ofearly warning. Stinger platoons use FMradios for battery and platoon commandnets, and for supported unit nets. Stingerplatoons within armored, infantry,mechanized (AIM) infantry divisions andseparate brigades are authorized theAN/VRC-47 (2) radio and AN/VRC-48 (3) radio. Within these units, Stinger

teams are authorized an AN/VRC-47 (2) radio. Stinger platoons within aircavalry combat brigades and armoredcavalry regiments are also equipped withthese radios. Stinger platoons with airbornedivisions are authorized the AN/VRC-48 (3) and AN/ GRC-160 (4), radios.Stinger platoons within air assault divisionsare authorized the AN/VRC-48 3 andAN/PRC-77 (5) radios.

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★ AN/GRC-213(1)

AM RADIO SET AN/GRC-213 IS USED TOMONITOR EARLY WARNING INFORMATION.IT IS AUTHORIZED FOR THE STINGERPLATOON AND SECTION HEADQUARTERS.PART OF THE AN/GRC-213 CAN BE RAPIDLYCONVERTED TO A MANPACK (AN/PRC-l04A).

AN/VRC-47, and AN/VRC-48(2)

(3)

AN/GRA-39

THE AN/VRC-47 COMBINES THE RT-524/VRC WITH ONE ADDITIONAL RECEIVER— THE R-442/VRC. THIS RADIO SETMONITORS ONE NET WHILE THE RECEIVER-TRANSMITTER OPERATES IN ANOTHER.

THE AN/VRC-48 RADIO USES THE RT-524/VRC RECEIVER-TRANSMITTER. THEAN/VRC-48 COMBINES THE RT-524 WITHTWO ADDITIONAL RECEIVERS (R-442/VRCAUXILIARY RECEIVER). THIS RADIO SETOPERATES IN THREE RADIO NETS AT THESAME TIME. THE RADIO RECEIVERSMONITOR TWO SEPARATE NETS WHILE THERECEIVER-TRANSMITTER OPERATES IN ATHIRD.

BOTH AN/VRC-47 AND -48 RADIOS CANBE REMOTED, USING THE AN/GRA-39RADIO SET CONTROL GROUP. THISBATTERY-OPERATED REMOTE CONTROLSYSTEM CONSISTS OF A LOCAL CONTROLUNIT AND A REMOTE CONTROL UNIT. WHENCONNECTED TO THE RADIO WITH FIELDWIRE, THE AN/GRA-39B CAN BE OPERATEDFROM A DISTANCE OF UP TO 3.2 KM (2 MI).BY USING THE REMOTE CONTROL UNIT,STINGER PERSONNEL CAN TRANSMIT ANDRECEIVE COMMUNICATIONS INFORMATIONWHILE POSITIONED AWAY FROM THEIRVEHICLES.

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(4)AN/GRC-160

THE AN/GRC-160 INCORPORATES THECOMPONENTS AND OPERATIONAL CHARACTERIS-TICS OF THE PORTABLE FM RADIO SET AN/PRC-77AND THE VEHICULAR RADIO SET AN/VRC-64. THEAN/GRC-160 WILL NET WITH THE AN/VRC-12SERIES. IT IS, HOWEVER, A SMALLER SET AND ISDESIGNED TO OPERATE OVER SHORTERDISTANCES. THIS RADIO SET CAN BE USED INREMOTE OPERATION.

AN/PRC-77(5)

RADIO SET AN/PRC-77 IS A SHORT-RANGE,LIGHTWEIGHT, FULLY TRANSISTORIZED RADIOSET THAT CAN BE EITHER VEHICLE-MOUNTED ORMAN-CARRIED. IT CAN BE OPERATED WITHSPEECH SECURITY EQUIPMENT.

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RADIO NETS

PLATOON COMMAND NET

THE STINGER PLATOON COMMAND NET ISUSED TO PROVIDE COMMAND AND CONTROL OFSTINGER. THIS IS A TWO-WAY NET BETWEEN THEPLATOON AND SECTION HEADQUARTERS.

SECTION COMMAND NET

STINGER SECTION COMMAND NET IS USED TOPROVIDE COMMAND AND CONTROL OF STINGERTEAMS. THIS IS A TWO-WAY NET BETWEEN THESTINGER SECTION HEADQUARTERS AND THESTINGER TEAMS.

The relationship of the Stinger nets and made to show communications links orequipment within a sample platoon in an equipment above platoon level.AIM division is shown below. No attempt is

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Normally, the Stinger platoon leader willplace the receiver/transmitter unit of theAN/VRC-48 on the frequency of the platooncommand net. This allows two-waycommunications between the platoonheadquarters and the sections. The platoonmay be in support of a maneuver unit. In thiscase, one receiver of the AN/VRC-48 is tunedto the frequency of the supported unit’scommand net. If not in support of a maneuverunit, this receiver can be used to monitorother air defense units. These units operatewith or in the vicinity of the platoon. Thesecond receiver of the AN/VRC-48 isnormally used to monitor the C/V batterycommand net. The platoon leader can switchfrequencies to transmit to monitored units asnecessary.

★ The TADDS (FM) and the AN/GRC-213(AM) radios are both used to monitor early

AN/GRC-213 monitors early warning infor-mation which is generated from either aHIMAD battalion or the nearest air defensecommand and control facility.

When the platoon leader uses his equip-ment in this manner, he is receiving a greatdeal of data. The table shows what data aretransmitted over the various nets.

★ The Stinger section headquarters hassimilar communications capabilities asthe platoon headquarters. The Stingersection headquarters is authorized anAN/VRC-48 radio, a TADDS, and anAN/GRC-213 AM radio set. This equipmentgives the section chief the capabilities toreceive early warning information from theearly warning net and FAAR. Also, he canmonitor two frequencies while receiving

warning information. The TADDS receives and transmitting on a third.this information directly from a FAAR. The

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The Stinger section headquartersoperates in the Stinger section command net.Normally, the Stinger section chief will placethe receiver/transmitter unit of theAN/VRC-48 on the frequency of the sectioncommand net. This allows two-waycommunications between the sectionheadquarters and the teams. If the section is

in support of a maneuver unit, one receiver ofthe AN/VRC-48 is tuned to the frequency ofthe supported unit’s command net. Thesecond receiver of the AN/VRC-48 isnormally used to monitor the Stinger platooncommand net. The section chief can switchfrequencies to transmit to monitored units asnecessary.

STINGER TEAM NETTING – AIM DIVISION

EACH STINGER TEAM IN AN ARMORED, INFANTRY,MECHANIZED (AIM) DIVISION, SEPARATE BRIGADE, ANDARMORED CAVALRY REGIMENT IS EQUIPPED WITH ATADDS AND AN AN/VRC-47 FM RADIO. THE TEAM CHIEFNORMALLY PLACES HIS RECEIVER/TRANSMITTER ONTHE FREQUENCY OF THE SECTION COMMAND NET. THEAUXILIARY RECEIVER IS THEN USED TO MONITOR ANYOTHER FREQUENCY THE SECTION CHIEF SPECIFIES. THISIS TRUE ONLY IF THE TEAM IS NOT SUPPORTING AMANEUVER UNIT. REMEMBER, HE CAN ONLY MONITORONE NET AT A TIME IN ADDITION TO HIS SECTIONCOMMAND NET. THE TADDS, OF COURSE, RECEIVESINFORMATION FROM A FAAR. THE STINGER TEAM-SUPPORTED UNIT RELATIONSHIP IS SHOWN.

STINGER TEAM NETTING – AIRBORNE

EACH STINGER TEAM IN AN AIRBORNE DIVISION ISEQUIPPED WITH TWO AN/GRC-160 RADIOS. ONE RADIOPROVIDES COMMUNICATIONS WITHIN THE SECTIONCOMMAND NET. THE OTHER RADIO PROVIDESCOMMUNICATIONS WITHIN THE SUPPORTED UNITCOMMAND NET.

★ STINGER TEAM NETTING – AIR ASSAULT

EACH STINGER TEAM IN AN AIR ASSAULT DIVISION ISEQUIPPED WITH ONE PRC-77 RADIO, WHICH PROVIDESCOMMUNICATIONS WITHIN THE SECTION. THE STINGERSECTION HEADQUARTERS MONITORS THE SUPPORTEDUNIT COMMAND NET AND SERVES AS THE RADIO LINKBETWEEN THE TEAMS AND THE SUPPORTED UNIT.

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★ STINGER TEAM NETTING WITH VULCAN

WHEN VULCANS PROVIDE AIR DEFENSE OF A COMPANYTEAM ALSO SUPPORTED BY STINGER, THE VULCANPLATOON LEADER, VULCAN SQUADS, AND STINGERTEAM(S) OPERATE IN THE VULCAN PLATOON NET. EARLYWARNING, CHANGES IN WEAPONS CONTROL STATUS,AD WARNINGS, ALERT STATUS, AND OTHERINFORMATION RECEIVED BY THE VULCAN PLATOON AREREPEATED ON THE VULCAN PLATOON NET. WHENREQUIRED, THE COMPANY TEAM COMMANDER AND THESTINGER SECTION CHIEF MAY PASS ORDERS ANDINFORMATION TO THE STINGER TEAM THROUGH THEVULCAN PLATOON NET.

FAAR/TADDS

FAARThe FAAR is a self-contained, pulse-

doppler search radar system. Its mission is toprovide EW in the form of general targetlocation and tentative identification. The EWis provided to TADDS receivers located atChaparral/Vulcan fire units, Stingerplatoons, sections, and teams. The range ofthe FAAR is 20 kilometers.

The FAAR transmits information to theTADDS using an AN/VRC-46 FM radio.Since the AN/VRC-46 is an FM radio, line ofsight is necessary between the FAAR and theTADDS.★ Several FAARs will normally be

operating in the division area. Each has adifferent address code. Also, each is assigneda different frequency in the Communications-Electronics Operations Instructions (CEOI).To get the location of the FAARs, the sectionchief usually obtains this information fromthe local C/V battalion tactical operationcenter.

Normally, the Stinger section chief willstudy the positions of the various FAARs inthe division area. He will then determinewhich one will provide the best early warningcoverage for his teams. He then mustdetermine if line of sight can be achievedwith the selected FAAR. If the teams cannotachieve line of sight, he must choose another

FAAR. FAAR positions may change duringa battle. Therefore, the section chief mustknow where the FAARs are located at alltimes.

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FM 44-18

TADDSThe size of the sector a Stinger team must Each Stinger team is authorized a target

search affects the range at which aircraft can alert data display set (TADDS). The batterybe detected. If an observer is warned of an operated TADDS is a lightweight FMapproaching aircraft and has a narrow receiver used to obtain early warning,sector of search, his chances of detecting the location, and tentative identification oftarget early are greatly improved. aircraft detected by a FAAR belonging to the

Chaparral/Vulcan battalion.

WIRE COMMUNICATIONS

Wire is one of the most dependablecommunications means. Wire is more securethan radio communications, but security ofclassified information is only insured when itis used over security approved wire systems.Wire communications are especially useful indefensive operations when movement isoften limited and time is available forinstallation and maintenance. When thesupported unit establishes its wire system,Stinger units can communicate by wire.Stinger wire communications means arelimited. The Stinger units depend on theparent organization or supported unit to laywire to them.

Stinger team positions may be

interconnected by wire for localcommunications in static situations orduring listening or radio silence. This mightbe the situation where Stinger units aresupporting a battalion task force.

Members of split Stinger teams also usewire to communicate over short distances.The gunner strings wire to another position,attaches the field telephone, and establishescommunications with the team chief.

Two types of field telephones are usedwithin the platoon. The TA-312/PT is used byboth platoon and section headquarters, whilethe TA-1/PT is used at the team level.

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BACKUP COMMUNICATIONSThe mobility required of a Stinger

section in most cases dictates that radio bethe primary means of communications. Forsections in a static situation, wire can be usedeffectively as a backup. For sections on themove, however, wire is impractical.

The Stinger sections and teams needearly warning and command and controlinformation to accomplish their mission.Backup channels for this informationalready exist in the platoon’s and section’snormal communications setup. Use ofalternate routing of information can beaccomplished through the supported unitnets. For instance, a message could be routedover the supported unit net to a Stinger teamwhose radio has been damaged. The section

chief could send the message through thesupported unit command net directly to theunit nearest the Stinger team. In the samecase, if time and distance permit, the teamcould also lay wire to a nearby unit fortemporary communications.

★ The AN/GRC-213 receiver gives theplatoon leader and section chief thecapability of getting early warning. TheStinger team does not have this capability.Therefore, any early warning from thissource must be relayed to Stinger teams overthe section command net. Since this type ofinformation is time-essential, it could beoutdated before the team receives it. Thisinformation must be verified.

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VISUAL★ Arm and hand signals may be used by

the Stinger team members. They use thesesignals to communicate among themselvesand with supported unit personnel. Arm andhand signals are useful when radio or wire isnot available and battlefield noise does notpermit use of voice commands. Arm andhand signals should be used only when abso-lutely necessary. Standard and special hand-and-arm signals are covered in FM 71-1. Theyare used to control small unit actions, re-covery operations, and vehicle movementsfor the tank and mechanized infantry com-pany team. Arm and hand signals for thecommunication of Stinger fire commands areshown in FM 44-18-1.

SOUNDSuch simple devices as whistles, bugles,

horns, sirens, bells, klaxons, voiceamplifiers, and explosive devices are used forsound communications. Principal uses ofsound communications are to attractattention, transmit prepared messages, andspread alarms. Sound signals aresatisfactory only for short distances; rangeand reliability are greatly reduced by battlenoise. Sound signals are open to enemyinterception and imitation. Thus, they maybe restricted for security reasons. To avoidmisunderstanding, sound signals must besimple. Prearranged meanings for soundsignals are normally included in the unitSOP and CEOI.

USING THE CEOIProper use of the CEOI is a major portion instead of aiding effective, secure communi-

of operations security (OPSEC). The CEOI is cations. To be effective, all of the CEOI, notperhaps the most abused document in theArmy today. Often it is regarded as a docu-

just parts of it, must be used in training.Operations security, including use of the

ment which interferes with communications CEOI, is discussed further in appendix B.

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CHAPTER 5

Stinger Employment Principles and Guidelines

Stinger units are organized and equipped to accomplish the ADA mission within theirsystem capabilities. The specific tactical mission assigned to a Stinger platoon will varydepending on the mission received by its higher headquarters and the current tactical situation.

This chapter describes the types of missions which can be assigned to a Stinger unit. It alsodescribes how Stinger deployment may have to be changed based on changing priorities andhow Stinger is organized to support the tactical plan. The chapter also shows how Stingerdefenses are planned.

SECTION I

ORGANIZATION FOR COMBATStinger’s role is to provide air defense for forward combat elements against low-altitude

hostile aircraft. Stinger defends high-priority maneuver and field artillery battalions in position,and also defends high-priority critical assets (e.g., command post, trains, ASP, and POL) forwhich no ADA guns or Chaparral are available. Stinger also complements ADA guns whenpriorities and the situation permit.

ALLOCATION OF FORCESStinger assets of a division are

consolidated at the Chaparral/Vulcan (C/V)battalion and are allocated in accordancewith the division commander’s priorities.Once priorities are established the C/Vbattalion commander will task-organize todefend these priorities. Priorities mayinclude forward maneuver brigades, cavalrysquadron, artillery units or point targets; i.e.,bridges.

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ORGANIZING FOR COMBATWhen task organizing for combat,

certain general guidelines are applicable toany type of operation. The organization mustsupport the tactical plan; for example, theforce at the critical point must be strongenough to do the job. The platoon is designedto operate with four sections. Allocateenough time for sections to move into thesupported maneuver unit area. Anticipatefuture requirements — organize so thatminimum changes will be required.

At brigade level, task organizing of ADAassets allocated by the division commanderfor a particular operation is based on thebrigade commander’s priorities for airdefense. The ADA commander must retainsufficient control to react to rapid changes inair defense priorities which come about bychanges in the ground commander’s schemeof maneuver. Normally at brigade level, theADA battery commander will task organizethe ADA assets for the brigade. The Stingerplatoon leader may help in this task.

★ A maneuver battalion may require moreor less than five teams; there may beinstances where a maneuver battalionrequires no Stinger teams. To support these

varying requirements, the Stinger platoonleader retains the flexibility to adjust thenumber of teams in the sections in accor-dance with the tactical situation.

Additionally, the SHORAD battalioncommander retains the flexibility to adjustthe number of sections in Stinger platoons.For example, if a brigade is organized withmore than three battalions and has morethan one supporting field artillery battalion,the SHORAD battalion commander maydetach sections from other Stinger platoonsand attach them to the Stinger platoonsupporting the brigade.

The platoon’s success in combat is basedon the skillful use of its Stinger assets. Toproperly task organize at this level, leadersmust have a clear understanding of thecapabilities and limitations of the section,teams, and Stinger weapons they haveavailable to allocate.

At times, a Stinger platoon may providethe only air defense for a brigade. In thiscase, the platoon leader makesrecommendations to the commander on airdefense priorities and task organizing.

TACTICAL MISSIONS

The role of the Stinger weapon system is Therefore, the tactical mission received byto provide air defense against hostile low- your platoon can be an ADA standardaltitude rotary and fixed-wing aircraft for tactical mission, an ADA standard tacticalcritical assets of the supported organization. mission, with certain elements modified orThe ADA commander selects the appropriate deleted, or a specific narrative mission.tactical mission for his subordinate elementsbased on the mission he receives and on the An ADA standard tactical mission cantactical situation which confronts him. be assigned to any type of ADA unit and

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assigns specific responsibilities to thereceiving unit and establishes a specific anddefinite command relationship between thesupported and supporting unit. Four ADAstandard tactical missions are: generalsupport (GS), general support-reinforcing(GS-R), reinforcing (R), and direct support(DS).

GENERAL SUPPORTAn ADA unit with a GS mission provides

air defense for the force as a whole. Itsupports the entire force and is notcommitted to any specific element of theforce. This is the case where a Stinger sectioncould be in GS of a battalion as a whole. Also,a Stinger platoon may be placed in GS of abrigade as a whole.

GENERAL SUPPORT-REINFORCINGAn ADA unit with a GS-R mission

primarily provides air defense for the force asa whole. Secondarily, it also augments thecoverage of another ADA unit. GS-R unitsare not committed to any specific element ofthe force. An example may be a Stingerplatoon primarily supporting a wholebrigade and secondarily reinforcingcoverage of a Vulcan platoon which is DS to amaneuver battalion. This tactical mission isseldom used for Stinger.

REINFORCINGAn ADA unit with a reinforcing mission

augments the coverage of another ADA unit.

REMEMBER

Both ADA units are committed to a specificelement of the force. This tactical mission isseldom used for Stinger.

DIRECT SUPPORTAn ADA unit with a DS mission provides

dedicated air defense for a specific element ofthe force that does not have its own ADA. TheADA unit is committed to that specificelement of the force. For example, a Stingersection may be placed in DS of a maneuverbattalion for a certain operation. Thismission is used frequently with Stinger.

ADA standard tactical missions can beassigned to any type ADA unit. This does notmean that any one standard tactical missionis the norm for a particular type unit. It ispossible that none of the ADA standardtactical missions will apply in particularsituations. In such a case, the ADAcommander might issue a standard tacticalmission with certain elements modified. Orhe might avoid the use of standard tacticalmissions altogether and issue only a specificnarrative mission. Therefore, it is incorrect tosay, for instance, that DS is the normaltactical mission for Stinger. Direct support isa possible Stinger mission, but by no meansthe normal Stinger mission.

The standard tactical mission definitionstates that such missions assign specificresponsibilities to the receiving unit. Theresponsibilities of each ADA standardtactical mission are summarized in matrixform.

THE PLATOON OR SECTION MAY NOT ALWAYS RECEIVE A STANDARD TACTICALMISSION. THE PLATOON LEADER/SECTION CHIEF MAY RECEIVE A SPECIFIC NARRATIVEMISSION OR A STANDARD TACTICAL MISSION WITH CERTAIN ELEMENTS MODIFIED ORDELETED. THE MISSION MAY BE TO PARTICIPATE IN AN ALREADY ESTABLISHED DEFENSEOR TO ESTABLISH A DEFENSE IN CONJUNCTION WITH OTHER STINGER UNITS.

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TYPES OF AIR DEFENSEAREA DEFENSE POINT DEFENSE

This defense type is reserved by friendly This is defense of a limited area,Air Force units. (Stinger does not participate normally in the defense of the vital elementsin this type defense.) of a force or the vital installations of the rear

zone. The asset defended can be either mobile

BELT DEFENSEor static. (A point defense is the air defensenormally used by all ADA units including

This is a specialized application of area Stinger.)defense. It places limited ADA weapons in a SELF-DEFENSEstrict attrition role. A belt defense is notnormal ADA employment. (Stinger does not This type of defense is used by friendlyparticipate in this type defense.) units to defend themselves against air attack

through the use of organic weapons. (Stingerparticipates in this type defense.)

SECTION IIAIR DEFENSE PLANNING

AIR DEFENSE EMPLOYMENT PRINCIPLESFour basic principles govern the employment of all air defense weapons: Mass, Mix,

Mobility, and Integration. These principles provide the foundation for the employment doctrineand tactics discussed in this chapter.

MASSThis is achieved by allocating enough

Stinger air defense weapons to adequatelydefend the asset. For example, a Stingersection is the minimum force that can defenda maneuver battalion. If the threat is severeor if the battalion is widely scattered, twosections may be required to obtain the massnecessary to defend the battalion.

MIXThis is achieved by employing different

types of air defense weapons together todefeat the air threat. When a variety ofweapons are used together, air defense ismore effective. Thus, a mixture of Vulcanguns and Stinger weapons augmented bysmall arms, all differing in characteristics,offers a better defense than Stinger alone.

MOBILITYThis permits the application of the

principles of mass and mix on a dynamicbattlefield. Continual movement of airdefense units is required to provide protectionfor moving point defenses (maneuverelements).

Stinger teams must be able to movecontinually with armor and mechanizedinfantry forces, reacting to the frequentchanges in missions and priorities. Stingerteams should possess mobility equal to themaneuver element they are supporting.

INTEGRATIONThis is achieved by tying all ADA

weapons together in a common effort and bycoordinating air defense with maneuver.Effective command, control, andcommunications links must be establishedbetween all levels of the air defense artilleryorganization and with each maneuverelement receiving air defense support.

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Stinger is integrated into the overall airbattle through application of the air defensecommander’s rules and procedures. It isintegrated into the maneuver force throughcoordination between the Stinger platoonleader and the maneuver force commander.

AIR DEFENSE ARTILLERYCertain general guidelines must be

considered by Stinger platoon and sectionchiefs when designing defenses and selectinglocations for Stinger teams. These includebalance fires, overlapping fires, weightedcoverage, mutual support, early engagement,and defense in depth.

★ BALANCED FIRESSince critical assets will often be

attacked as targets of opportunity, attackcan come from any direction. It is, therefore,desirable to have equal firepower in alldirections. On rare occasions, enemy aircraftmay be confined to a well-defined avenue ofapproach. Balance may then be sacrificedand the defense weighted in the direction ofattack. This should be done, however, onlywhen there is little possibility of an attackfrom another direction.

★ OVERRLAPPING FIRESTeams are normally positioned so that

the engagement capability of one teamoverlaps that of an adjacent team. By

The Stinger platoon leader and hiscommander must also be guided by theseprinciples when deciding where and how touse Stinger sections and teams.

EMPLOYMENT GUIDELINESfollowing this guideline, the section chief canguard against the possibility that an aircraftwill slip through the defense without beingengaged by at least one Stinger team.The maximum overlapping fire distancebetween teams is 4,000 meters. In caseswhere more than one weapon system isemployed in the same defense, overlappingfires should be achieved between LIKEweapon systems.

★ WEIGHING COVERAGEIn unusual circumstances, such as when

terrain restricts low-level attacks inparticular directions or when intelligencehas established that air attacks will comefrom a particular direction, a defense can beweighted.

★ MUTUAL SUPPORTMutual support allows one Stinger team

to fire into the dead zone of another Stingerteam. The maximum mutual support dis-tance between teams is 2,000 meters.

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EARLY ENGAGEMENTStinger teams should be positioned so

that they can engage an aircraft before it canattack the unit or asset being defended. Thismeans that teams should be positioned outaway from the asset being defended or wellforward in the direction of the expected airattack.

★ Ideally, an attacking aircraft should beengaged and destroyed before it can releaseits ordnance. The range at which an aircraftcan release ordnance on a target is defined byan ordnance release line (ORL). The ORLwill, of course, vary with the type ofordnance, the attack technique used, and thespeed and altitude of the aircraft. In general,the Stinger section leader should plan for adefense against aircraft using the pop-uptechnique. The range of the ORL for this typeof attack varies from 500-1,500 meters.

DEFENSE IN DEPTHThis is that quality of a defense which

allows supporting fire units to absorb andprogressively weaken attack, preventobservation of the asset by the enemy, and

allow the supported commander to maneuverhis reserve. It is achieved through adherenceto all the other employment guidelines.

STINGER DEFENSE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS★ Besides the principles and guidelines discussed previously, other considerations must be

taken into account when planning a defense. Discussed below are the requirements and situa-tions under which the principles and guidelines are applied. In some cases, it may be advisableto use effectiveness templates when planning a Stinger defense. Sample effectiveness templates—are shown in (SNF) FM- 44-1A(U).

SCHEME OF MANEUVERThe Stinger platoon leader/section chief

must know the ground commander’s schemeof maneuver before he can plan a successfuldefense.

AIR DEFENSE PRIORITIESAir defense priorities provide the basis

for the Stinger platoon organization forcombat. Since the number of assets whichmay require Stinger protection usuallyexceeds the number of weapons available toadequately protect them, a priority listingmust be developed. Air defense priorities areestablished for every operation and for eachcourse of action considered by the supported

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commander and staff. The development of same manner as the platoon leader at thethe priority list is essentially a matter of higher level. In a point defense, Stinger mayassessing each element of the supported unit be employed alone or be integrated with otheras a potential target for enemy air attack.Factors considered include:

divisional air defense weapons.

Criticality. The supported unit commandermakes a determination on the importance ofvarious assets to the success of the operation.For example, a bridge may be deemed to beabsolutely essential to the advance of abattalion which will conduct a river crossingoperation. Air defense of this bridge thenmight have a higher priority for air defenseand requires more ADA weapons than otherless important assets.Vulnerability. Another consideration isvulnerability. Some assets may be hardenedor hidden while others are required to be inthe open. Others may be naturally morevulnerable to damage from air attack. Forexample, a bomb dropped on a fuel dump willcause much more damage to combatcapability than the same bomb dropped on atank company.★ Recuperability. This considers how fastan asset can recover from damage inflicted toagain perform its mission. At times, recuper-ability can become of prime importance. Forinstance, if fuel is critically short, a fuel dumpcould not be recouped quickly. It would, there-fore, be important to protect that asset. Whenfuel becomes available, the importance of thefuel dump might be decreased.

Sufficient air defense artillery assets tocover all possible targets may not beavailable. The commander may be able torelocate or consolidate assets to make themost of available air defense. For instance, abattalion’s trains might be shifted closer tobattalion TOC so that it can be afforded someStinger protection.

★ Once priorities have been established,the SHORAD battery commander, in conjunc-tion with his Stinger platoon leader, deter-mines how his sections and teams should beallocated and, if appropriate, what positionsthey should occupy. At the battalion level,the Stinger section chief may operate in the

THREAT★ In considering the threat, the Stinger

leader asks himself two questions. Whattypes of aircraft, ordnance, IR, and ECM hasthe threat been using in the area? How canthe threat be expected to attack the defendedunit?

★ The enemy air threat is perhaps the mostdifficult factor to evaluate. It is difficult toestimate what targets the enemy will attackand what tactics he will use. For example, if ahelicopter threat exists, maneuver companyteams in the forward area provide lucrativetargets because of the threat ATGM capabil-ity and should receive priority for Stingerassets. Primary targets will be those targetsthat will stop or slow their attack, such astanks, ATGM, and hard points. They will tryto destroy these targets to achieve abreakthrough.

TACTICAL AND TECHNICALREQUIREMENTS

When selecting positions for Stingerteams, the following must be considered:Observation and Fields of Fire. This isthe primary consideration. Positions shouldbe selected that provide all-around visibilityand allow the weapon to be fired in anydirection. Positions should ideally have atleast 5 km of observation in the directionfrom which attack is expected. Whenemployed with other Stinger teams in a pointdefense, the prime consideration for positionselection is visibility within its assignedsector closest to its primary target.Communications. Positions selectedshould offer good line-of-sight communica-tions with the Stinger section headquarters,unit being supported, and the FAAR beingused for early warning. If the team cannotcommunicate from its position, the positionis unsatisfactory.

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Physical Security. Team positions musthave protection from ground attack. Teamsmust be positioned within or near friendlyunits for security against ground attack. Thisis particularly true when teams aresupporting units in the forward area. Also,teams must have protection against enemyground fires. Masking between the positionand the enemy hides the position from enemyground observation and suppressive actions.

Cover and Concealment. Firing positionsshould offer cover and concealment so theteam is afforded protection from enemyobservation and fire. Because of the dust andsmoke signature produced by a missile firing,the enemy can spot a Stinger firing positionand attack it. Therefore, the team must seekand obtain cover and concealmentimmediately after firing. The team’s vehicleand trailer must also be camouflaged.Accessibility for Team Vehicles. Theposition should be easy for the team vehicle

to the rear and flanks for rapid shifting ofposition. The team must be relatively close tothe vehicle for access to the basic load. If theselected team firing position is too far fromthe team vehicle, the team will have difficultyin off-loading and carrying Stinger weapons.Also, the team will have to carry otherequipment to the site, such as TADDS, fieldwire, and the remote control unit forcommunications. Another consideration isgood accessibility for the team vehicle whenthe team must move quickly to an alternateposition.Technical Requirement. The technicalrequirements of the Stinger weapon positionpertain to safety. The gunner must insurethat the area behind the weapon is clear ofother personnel to a distance of 50 meters(164 feet). The team chief should be close tothe gunner’s side and insure that he is notendangered by the weapon backblast. Also,the gunner should allow at least 5 meterssafety distance from equipment (e.g., a

tO move into. Concealed routes are necessary vehicle).

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TERRAIN AND WEATHERHilly terrain presents masking problems

for the employment of Stinger. Also, hillyterrain restricts communications, acts toinhibit team mobility, and increases thesupply problem. Weather can adverselyaffect Stinger ir acquisition range. Forexample, rain, snow, and fog will absorb andscatter ir radiations and reduce ir range.Also, rain, snow, dust, fog, smoke, heatshimmer, and haze tend to reduce visibilitywhich reduces the range of visual detection ofaircraft. The effects of terrain and weathercan thus influence the number of Stingerteams needed, and their locations to defendthe asset.

NUMBER OF TEAMS AVAILABLEAs a general rule Stinger teams may not

be available in sufficient numbers to defendall the ground commander’s assets. TheStinger platoon leader must therefore make

this fact known to the supported unitcommanders and make recommendations onhow many assets he can defend.

REMEMBER

THESE EMPLOYMENT GUIDELINES ARENOT HARD AND FAST RULES TO BE COMPLIEDWITH IN EVERY POSSIBLE SITUATION.

OFTEN, STINGER SECTION CHIEFS ANDTEAM CHIEFS WILL NOT BE ABLE TO COMPLYWITH ALL THESE GUIDELINES IN SELECTINGPOSITIONS FOR STINGER TEAMS. THECHOICE OF THE BEST POSITIONS USUALLYINVOLVES A COMPROMISE OR TRADE-OFFBETWEEN THESE GENERAL GUIDELINES. THEDECISION AS TO WHICH GUIDELINES WILL BEACCORDED PRIORITY IS SITUATIONDEPENDENT AND IS DRIVEN BY THE DEFENSEDESIGN REQUIREMENTS.

SECTION III

DIFFERENT DEFENSE CONSIDERATIONS★ STATIC CRITICAL ASSET DEFENSE

Stinger’s capability to engage approaching aircraft makes it a valuable weapon for a staticcritical asset defense. It is especially effective when combined with other air defense weaponsystems in a mixed and integrated defense.

The first step in planning a defense is to define the area to be defended. The area to bedefended is defined by the borders of the asset increased by the radius of effect of the most likelyweapon the enemy may use. This information should be plotted on a map. The C/V battalionand/or the supported unit S2 can usually provide information on the expected threat.

Vital points within a defense and routes of approach must also be considered before theplanner can say he has adequately defined the area to be defended:

★ VITAL POINTS WITHINA CRITICAL ASSET DEFENSE ROUTES OF APPROACHWithin a fairly large critical asset Routes of approach fall into two general

defense, certain assets will probably be of categories, probable and forced. A probablehigher priority than others. The commander route of approach is one that the enemy ismay be able to accept limited amounts of likely to use, but is not restricted to use. Thedamage in some parts of the defense and pilot of an aircraft traveling at 500 knots 150unable to accept any damage in others. In meters above the ground can see little detailthese cases, coverage should favor the high- on the ground. He can, however, see largepriority assets. objects such as highways, rivers, and

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mountain ranges and may use them to assistin navigation. If such landmarks lead to acritical asset, they may be considered as in ornear the probable route of approach. A forcedroute of approach is one that the attacker iscompelled to use. When considering probableroutes of approach, the planner may favorthe routes in his coverage but balance cannotbe disregarded completely. Balance iscompletely abandoned in favor of weightedcoverage when considering forced routes ofapproach.

★ THREAT CHARACTERISTICSAND ORDNANCE RELEASE LINE

A thorough knowledge of enemycapabilities and techniques is essential whenplanning a defense. Chapter 1 of this manualdescribes attack techniques Stingerpersonnel will encounter.

In most cases, damage to an asset canresult from an indirect hit within the radiusof effect of the weapon the enemy chooses touse. Additionally, the fact that an enemypilot may release the weapon at a distancefrom the asset, and not directly above it mustbe considered. Considering these factors, itthen becomes the objective of the Stingerplatoon/section leaders to organize a defensethat insures engagement of the target prior tothe point at which a weapon can be released.

★ The ordnance release line (ORL) willvary with the type of attack used. SinceStinger is designed to counter low-altitudeaircraft, the ORL for the pop-up type attackshould be used in planning — 1.5 kilometersis generally a good figure to use. In someinstances, however, ordnance may bereleased farther from the target. If a pilotdesires to attack an area, rather than a point,the ORL may be as much as 2 to 3 kilometersfrom the target. Unless there is terrain mask-ing, Stinger’s forward aspect capability willcompensate for this.

Once the area to be defended has beendefined, the defense planner must positionhis teams in accordance with theemployment guidelines of balance,

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overlapping fires, early engagement, andweighted defense.

MAP ANALYSIS AND PLANNINGOnce the section chief has defined the

area to be defended and plotted it on a map,he begins his map analysis. The section chiefoften will have to make decisions quickly andwill not have time for a detailed analysis. Themap analysis described below will serve as alogical base upon which to make decisions.

The section chief must identify twothings in this analysis — team positions and

any areas the teams cannot cover as placed.An incoming low-flying aircraft is

masked to position A as shown belowbecause position A is at a lower elevationthan hill 101; therefore, a team at position Amay not see a target until it is on this side ofhill 101. The team at position B can seebeyond hill 101; therefore, it can capitalize onearly detection and the forward aspectcapability of the weapon. The section chiefselects position B over position A.

While this method is not particularlyaccurate, it does provide the section chiefwith a good idea of what positions are best forhis teams. These positions may have to befurther adjusted after a groundreconnaissance is conducted.

Once the final position is selected, thesection chief must coordinate those locationswith the supported S3.

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★ MOBILE CRITICAL ASSET DEFENSECONVOYS

Stinger teams will often be required toprovide air defense for units while they aremoving in convoy or march column alongroads behind the line of contact. Units inconvoy will usually be moving at a speed of15-20 mph in either an open column (50-100meters between vehicles) or closed column (50meters or less between vehicles). The totallength of the convoy will, of course, varydepending on the spacing of the vehicles andthe size of the unit. For example, in closedcolumn, a mechanized infantry battalion isabout 6 kilometers long and in open columnabout 18 kilometers long. A field artillerybattery in closed column is approximately1/2 kilometer long and in open column about2 kilometers long.

When traveling in convoy under condi-tions of good visibility, units are likelytargets and are vulnerable to attack byenemy air. As with the defense of units inposition behind the line of contact, attack byhigh-performance aircraft is the primaryconcern; attack by helicopters is less likely.

March columns are more likely to beattacked as targets of opportunity, ratherthan as preplanned targets. This means, inessence, that the pilots of enemy aircraftmust first find and pinpoint the location ofthe targets before making an attack run. Anattack on a convoy by a flight of aircraft isdescribed in chapter 1.

Stinger can be employed to defend aconvoy by pre-positioning Stinger teamsalong the march route or by integratingStinger teams into the march column.

PRE-POSITIONING TEAMS ALONGTHE ROUTE OF MARCH

Stinger teams may be pre-positioned todefend a convoy as it passes a critical pointalong the route. This is the perferred way ofdefending a convoy, if the tactical situationpermits. This method of employment can beconsidered when a critical point can be

identified along the route where the convoy islikely to be forced to bottleneck or may halt;such as at bridges which could be destroyedbefore or as the unit crosses, road junctionswhere other traffic may slow or halt thecolumn, or refueling points. This method canbe used when the distance to be traveled bythe convoy is relatively short (e.g., about 5kilometers); or when circumstances willpermit Stinger teams to join and beintegrated with the column after it passes thecritical point.

Pre-positioned teams can be used only ifthe route is relatively secure from groundattack. This allows pre-positioning of Stingerteams at the critical point. Stinger teams canmove out ahead of the column and occupypositions prior to the convoy passing thecritical points.

The enemy may preplan air strikes atcritical points such as crossroads and bridgesalong march routes. Since these points arereadily identifiable from the air, there is ahigher probability of attack on the first passby enemy aircraft. Accordingly, whenpossible, an early engagement capabilityagainst any direction of attack should beprovided.

When establishing a point defense alongthe march route, the employment guidelinesfor Stinger are applied in the same way aswhen defending a stationary point defensebehind the line of contact. Once the convoypasses the critical point, Stinger is movedahead to another critical point. Stinger teamsare often employed in leapfrog style to insurecontinuous protection along the route ofmarch. This tactic is extremely difficult toemploy if there is only one congested primaryroute.

INTEGRATING TEAMS INTOTHE MARCH COLUMN

★ If only one team is available, the teamshould not be split. When teams are split,

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efficiency is greatly degraded. The ADA systems to achieve mutual support or over-planner should employ a sufficient number of lapping coverage.

When air attack is imminent. or in before it makes its attack run on the convoy.progress, the Stinger team moves its vehicle Stinger teams should be ordered to hold fireoff the road and quickly dismounts. The teamtakes up the best available firing position — a

against enemy aircraft only whenWEAPONS HOLD is in effect. This alsoposition from which the aircraft can be seen

and Stinger can be safely fired. applies when it is necessary to support thecommander’s concept of the operation; for

★ When possible, the Stinger team example, to support a deception operation.engages the aircraft on its first pass and

When the column is attacked, the massed delivery to be ineffective. When thefires of all available small arms, machine immediate threat of air attack has subsided,guns, Stinger, and any supporting ADA the Stinger team resumes its assignedweapons are placed on the attacker to destroyhim, drive him away, or cause his ordnance

position within the convoy, passing othervehicles as necessary to regain this position.

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DEFENSE OF MANEUVER UNITSDefending maneuver elements in

offensive and defensive operations arecovered in detail in chapter 7. Certain generalconsiderations apply to both operations. AStinger section defending a maneuverbattalion will generally be closer to theforward edge of the battle area than onedefending a fixed asset. Three factors take ona high degree of importance. These factorsare physical security, mobility, and positionrequirements.

PHYSICAL SECURITYPhysical security becomes a primary

consideration. To perform their missioneffectively, Stinger teams must bereasonably secure from ground attack. Thismay preclude positioning teams in front ofmaneuver elements. The early engagementcapability is reduced to insure physicalsecurity of the Stinger team.

MOBILITYMobility is the second major

consideration. The Stinger team must havethe capability to move and shoot to keep upwith maneuvering combat elements. Thismobility must be achieved and maintained toinsure air defense protection to the maneuverforce. The mobility of the Stinger teams mustbe the same as that of the supported force.

POSITION REQUIREMENTS*Position requirements is the third major

consideration. The Stinger section chiefshould position his teams as close behindmaneuvering elements as possible. Thepositions should provide all-around obser-vation and if possible have line of sight witha FAAR. This usually dictates positions onhigh terrain. If a position with all-aroundobservation is not available, then a positionfrom which the team can at least see in thedirection of the enemy avenue of approach isdesirable. The section chiefs position mustalso have line of sight for communicationwith the Stinger teams and the supportedunit.

As a general rule, Stinger teams shouldoverwatch maneuvering elements from goodpositions. Maneuver elements are mostvulnerable to air attack when moving;therefore, Stinger teams must be prepared tofire at all times.

Maneuver units in the forward area canexpect attacks by both high-performanceaircraft and helicopters. Although attacksfrom any direction are possible, attacks fromthe general direction of the enemy groundforces are most likely. Enemy aircraft willprobably approach their targets on routesgenerally perpendicular to or parallel withthe forward line of own troops (FLOT).Aircraft may even penetrate and attack thepoint defense from the rear if they have anyremaining ordnance. Maneuver units aremore likely to be attacked as targets ofopportunity than as preplanned targets.Therefore, jet aircraft attack techniques maybe similar to those depicted for the attack ofmarch columns wherein the aircraft pilotfirst finds and fries his target and thenattacks.

★ When two or more Stinger teams aresupporting one company team, they shouldnormally be separated, with teams onopposite flanks or ends of the unit’sformation to improve early engagementagainst aircraft attacking from variousdirections. The dimensions of the companyteam formation are usually small enough topermit overlapping fires between Stingerteams positioned in this manner,

Remember, when a company team comesunder air attack, it should temporarily divertsome or all of its small arms and machineguns to an air defense role to assist Stingerand other supporting ADA weapons indestroying or driving off attacking aircraft.

The allocation of Stinger teams, both tothe support of committed maneuvercompanies and to the defense of other assetsin the task force rear area, will often provide abonus effect of early engagement andoverlapping fires. To illustrate by example, a

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battalion task force is in a defensive position TOC, and one team to the heavy mortarwith its company teams deployed along the platoon. The Stinger teams have beenFEBA. The TOC, trains, and heavy mortar positioned to defend these individual assets.platoon are to the rear as shown. Shown below are considerations when in

One Stinger team has been allocated to the defense of a task force as a whole.each company, one team to the battalion

EARLY ENGAGEMENT FROM FRONT AND REAR

THE STINGER TEAMS SUPPORTING THECOMPANIES PROVIDE AN EARLY ENGAGEMENTCAPABILITY AGAINST JET AIRCRAFT ATTACKINGASSETS IN THE TASK FORCE REAR AREA FROMTHE NORTH.

THE STINGER TEAMS PROTECTING THE TASKFORCE ASSET IN THE REAR PROVIDE AN EARLYENGAGEMENT CAPABILITY AGAINST JETAIRCRAFT ATTACKING THE COMPANY TEAMSFROM THE SOUTH.

EARLY ENGAGEMENT FROM FLANKS

THE STINGER TEAMS SUPPORTING THECOMPANIES ON THE FLANKS PROVIDE AN EARLYENGAGEMENT CAPABILITY AGAINST JETAIRCRAFT ATTACKING THE TASK FORCE FROMTHE EAST OR WEST.

★ OVERLAPPING FIRES

THE LOCATIONS OF THE STINGER TEAMS ARESUCH THAT OVERLAPPING FIRES AGAINSTAIRCRAFT ATTACKING FROM DIFFERENTDIRECTIONS ARE POSSIBLE.

REFERENCE (SNF) FM 44-1A (U), FOR STINGERWEAPON SYSTEM PARAMETERS (LAUNCH ANDINTERCEPT BOUNDARIES) FOR VARIOUS SPEEDTARGETS.

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CHAPTER 6

Stinger Platoon Operations

Command control of the Stinger platoon is performed by the Stinger platoon leader from hisheadquarters element. To insure coordination and integration of the Stinger sections in theoverall air defense for the supported unit, he normally locates his headquarters element in thevicinity of his parent battery. The purpose of the Stinger headquarters element is to commandand control Stinger sections and teams, collect and pass on pertinent information to thesections, and position Stinger teams as required to support the mission.

This chapter will discuss how platoon and section headquarters personnel operate incombat. It describes how platoon personnel prepare for combat operations and how theyaccomplish their mission.

COMMAND RELATIONSHIPS In the division, the Stinger platoon

operates as an element of either a Chaparralor a Vulcan battery. When an ADA battery issupporting a maneuver force, the batterycommander is the air defense artillery officerfor that maneuver force. For example, when aVulcan battery is in direct support of abrigade, the Vulcan battery commander isthe principal adviser to the brigadecommander on air defense matters. TheStinger platoon leader is a subordinate ADAunit leader. He provides assistance to thecommander on Stinger matters and receivesdirection on Stinger employment.

serve as the supported unit’s air defenseadvisor. This situation occurs when, throughthe process of organizing for combat, theStinger platoon is the sole air defense unitproviding air defense for a maneuver force.

This would also be the case where aStinger platoon is organic to a separatebrigade/regiment. Once priorities areestablished by the commander, the Stingerplatoon leader develops the plans and ordersnecessary to defend the unit against airattack, The Stinger platoon leader receivesdirection from the commander/S3 for Stinger

When not deployed with a higher level employment.ADA unit, the Stinger platoon leader can

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TROOP LEADING PROCEDURES ISSUE A WARNING ORDER

The platoon leader must prepare forcombat by following certain procedures andorganizing for the specific mission. Toaccomplish the tactical mission, the platoonleader should follow a logical sequence. Itbegins when he is alerted for a mission. Itstarts all over again when he gets a differentmission. In combat, the leader will rarelyhave time to go through each step of theplanning sequence in detail. The stepsinclude

Receive the mission.Issue a warning order (to subordinate

leaders).Make a tentative plan (that will

accomplish the mission).Initiate the necessary movement.Make the reconnaissance.Complete the plan.Issue orders.Supervise and refine the plan.

Once the battle starts, subsequent ordersand responses must be fast, effective, andsimple. This requires teamwork and anunderstanding which permits the leader toturn a mission-type order into action. Thisaction must support the plan of the nexthigher commander without detailedinstructions. The process is not rigid; modifyit to fit the mission, situation, and availabletime.

RECEIVE THE MISSIONStinger leaders receive a mission in

either an oral or written operation order(OPORD) or a fragmentary order (FRAGO).The order is prepared and sent from thebattery tactical operation center (TOC) to theStinger platoon headquarters. It outlines themission for the unit. A platoon leader mayhave about 2 to 3 hours time to prepare for theoperation; however, time will vary with thetactical situation. The platoon leader shouldanalyze the mission and plan the use ofavailable time.

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The platoon leader issues a warningorder to the sections, telling his subordinatesof the action and the time it is to start. Thewarning order must be issued early enoughfor the sections to have time to plan andprepare. Normally, warning orders areissued through the chain of command. Thisallows all personnel to be kept informed ofwhat they must do and why. A warning ordergives advance notice of an action or an orderthat is to follow. They are usually issued asbrief oral or written messages.

EXAMPLE

122300T NOV 82 NB 253614FROM STINGER PLT LDR, B BTRY, 1-18 ADATO ALL STINGER SECTION CHIEFS B BTRY,

1-18 ADA“B BTRY WILL BE RELEASED FROM GS, 32 INFDIV, AND ASSIGNED DS TO 1ST BDE, 32d INF(CP-NB294726), EFFECTIVE 130700T.STINGER SECTIONS WILL BE ASSIGNED DS TORESPECTIVE BATTALIONS. MORE INFORMA-TION TO FOLLOW WHEN BRIGADE OPORD ISISSUED.”

MAKE A TENTATIVE PLAN

If the platoon leader knows the missionand terrain, he can make a quick decisionabout how the unit can accomplish themission. This is a tentative plan that he canchange if necessary when he goes throughthe remaining steps. The tentative plan hedevelops is the basis for coordination,reconnaissance, reorganization (if any), andmovement.

INITIATE NECESSARY MOVEMENT

Make good use of available time so thatthe section chiefs can prepare their teams tomove. The platoon leader must have an SOP

C1, FM 44-18

ISSUE ORDERSto permit these actions to proceedsimultaneously so that no time is wasted. Thesections may be required to move with theirsupported unit to provide air defenseprotection en route. If so, coordination mustbe effected with the ADA battery commanderor convoy commander as the case may be.Such matters as the location of FAARs, newsignal instructions, reorganization andmaintenance, and any other items notcovered by SOP should be taken care ofbefore the movement starts.

MAKE THE RECONNAISSANCE

The platoon leader may or may not seethe terrain over which the platoon may fight.In most cases he can only make a mapreconnaissance. Combat conditions requirethe procedure to be completed in a few hours.The positions of Stinger teams aredetermined in designing the defense. Thesepositions are plotted on a map and representthe tentative location for defense. Theplatoon leader considers overlappingcoverage between weapons, any weighting ofthe defense desirable, and nature of terrain sofar as can be determined from the map.Actual positions must be selected from aground reconnaissance and may vary withinnarrow limits from positions selected by mapreconnaissance. The platoon leader mayaccompany the battery commander on hisreconnaissance. Whether sectionrepresentatives accompany the reconnais-sance party depends upon the tacticalsituation and time. In most cases the sectionchief will accompany the supported battalionreconnaissance party.

COMPLETE THE PLAN

As a result of the reconnaissance, theplatoon leader may or may not alter thetentative plan. Focus on specific tasks for allunits. Make certain that all team locationsare accessible to FAAR for early warningand are coordinated with the supported unit.

★ Most orders are issued orally, sometimesfrom a handwritten, five-paragraph, field-order outline and a sketch or overlay. If thecommander has made a reconnaissance, hewill issue orders from a vantage point in theassigned area. This permits him to point outparticular terrain features on the ground aswell as on the map. The commander mayissue overlays with his order. He thenrequires subordinate commanders to copythis information on their own maps. TheStinger platoon leader may or may notaccompany his battery commander to hearthe brigade order. But at some point in time,he will receive the order. At times he will getthe section chiefs together and issue orders tothem before an operation. Normally,however, the section chiefs will receive theoperations order or FRAGO from the platoonleader during a fast-moving operation.Personnel are briefed in sufficient detail toinsure that they understand exactly whatthey are to do. Items covered during thebriefing should include, at a minimum, theenemy situation, the friendly situation, howStinger will support the operation, ADA rulesof engagement, missile resupply status,FAAR locations, frequencies, and anyadditional material deemed necessary by theplatoon leader.

Again, the tactical situation and timewill be the deciding factor on how the platoonleaders and section chiefs receive theirinstructions.

SUPERVISE AND REFINE

Make sure that all arrangements havebeen made to get the job done. The platoonleader and section chief must supervise toinsure that all necessary preparations forconduct of the operation are being made.These include coordination, reorganization,maintenance, resupply, movement, andother required actions. Make sure teams havemaps, CEOI extracts, full gas tanks, fullbasic loads, and reprogrammed IFFinterrogators (if needed).

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Make provisions for maintenance of element must relocate to reestablish radiocommunications between the sections and contact. Once the operation has begun, seethe platoon headquarters. Terrain and that the plan is followed and be prepared todistance factors could disrupt radio refine the plan as the situation develops.communications. The platoon headquarters

SOPS AND COMBAT ORDERSSTANDING OPERATING

PROCEDURESThe best way to insure that troops

quickly understand what a leader wantsthem to do is to develop SOPs for differentsituations. Use these SOPs during training.SOPs tell platoons or sections how to reactand what the platoon leader/section chiefwants them to do. In other words, theypreclude having to issue the sameinstructions every time something needs tobe done. This is important because once thebattle begins, success or failure may dependon how fast the unit can react to the ordersthe platoon leader/section chief receives.

There will be situations when specialinstructions will need to be issued. The timeavailable will determine exactly how to issuethe orders. Even when there isn’t much time,the ideas shown below will help in issuingclear and complete instructions.

OPERATIONS ORDERSAn operation order is simply a

presentation of the information andinstructions needed to accomplish a specificmission. The amount of detailed informationin the operation order will depend on theinformation already received and the timeallowed for preparation.

The example shows how to organize theplatoon order to make sure troops are toldeverything they need to know. This formatwill help the platoon leader to prepare hisorder. Use it as a checklist and rememberthat it is only a guide. Give the order in wordsthat the troops can understand. For example,he might say, “here’s how we’re going to dothe job,” rather than, “execution.”

★ EXAMPLE

SITUATION:INFORMATION ON THREAT AND FRIENDLYFORCES.THE MISSION AND INTENDED ACTIONS OF ATLEAST THE NEXT HIGHER HEADQUARTERSAND OTHER ADA UNITS IN THE AREA.MISSION:WHAT THE UNIT (BATTERY, PLATOON, ORSECTION) IS TO DO.EXECUTION:THE TACTICAL PLAN TO ACCOMPLISH THEMISSION.TASKS FOR EACH PLATOON, OR FORSECTIONS AND INDIVIDUALS.SERVICE SUPPORT:ADMINISTRATIVE INFORMATION TO INCLUDEPLANS FOR –AMMUNITION.RESUPPLY.CASUALTY EVACUATON.RATIONS.COMMAND SIGNALIFF INFORMATION.RADIO FREQUENCIES AND CALL SIGNS,SIGNALS, AND OTHER CONTROL MEASURESTHAT WILL BE USED DURING THE OPERATION.WHERE THE LEADER WILL BE DURING THEOPERATION AND WHERE THE NEXT HIGHERLEADER WILL BE.

The most important part of receiving anorder is knowing what the unit has to do inrespect to the area and the supported unit.The chances of success are reduced unless the

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leader knows exactly what he is supposed todo, what other units are doing, and whereand when these actions are to be done. Afterhearing the entire order, don’t leave until allof the questions have been answered.

As soon as the order is received and thecommander’s plan is understood, take a fewminutes to go over the notes that were taken.Think about the order and ask thesequestions —

What mission(s) was received?What is known about the threat?How does the terrain and weather

influence the operation?What supplies or equipment are needed?

Are any special tasks assigned to anyone?Mission. Identify exactly what the unit is toaccomplish. Be sure to know how much timeis required to prepare. Are there anyrestrictions or special tasks that apply to theplatoon or section?

A thorough understanding of themission will allow the leader to make a timeschedule for required preparations. Theplatoon/section leader will be told what timethe operation is to begin and when theplatoon/section must be ready to go. Heshould identify the things that must be done,then work backwards from the “ready” timeto allow the troops time to finish each task.This technique is called the “reverseplanning sequence.”Threat. Develop the best picture of theThreat:

Where he is located.What his strength is.

What type of weapons and equipmenthe has.

This applies equally to the ground andair threat. Tell the troops as much as youknow about how to destroy the kind of enemyyou are likely to meet.

Sometimes the enemy will use the samepattern over and over in a certain area. Forexample, if the enemy has been conductingambushes around road junctions, tell thetroops about it.Terrain and Weather. Most decisions onroutes, sectors of fire, primary target lines,team positioning, and movement depend onthe terrain. Study every bit of ground toproperly employ men and equipment andgain an advantage over the enemy. Properuse of terrain will provide cover andconcealment before, during, and after theoperation; increase the effectiveness ofStinger fire; and decrease the effectiveness ofenemy fire.

Take into consideration how weathercan influence the operation. Cold, heat, rain,or snow can create problems if men andequipment are not prepared. Also, certainweather conditions can lower Stingereffectiveness (refer to chapter 5).Supplies, Equipment, and SpecialTasks. Consider the mission to beaccomplished. Does the unit have the rightkind of supplies and equipment? If themission requires a special skill, such astactical air movement, be sure to know how todo it. If help is needed, or if something isneeded for the operation, but is unavailable,tell the leader/commander.

RECONNAISSANCE,SELECTION, AND OCCUPATION OF POSITION

Stinger units will be continually moving, Reconnaissance, selection, andwhether employed in forward or rear areas.The section must move often to perform its

occupation of position (RSOP) must be part ofevery unit’s SOPs SOPs for RSOP must be

mission and survive on the battlefield. thoroughly understood and practiced

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repeatedly by unit personnel. SOPs mustcover both day and night movements andoccupations of position. They should includeloading plans for each of the ways in whichthe unit can be moved — rail, sea, air (bothcargo aircraft and helicopter), and road. Theplatoon, normally, does not displace by itself.Therefore, this discussion will be limited toRSOP as applied only to the section. Thesection usually displaces with the supportedunit and seldom conducts an RSOPindependent y.

THE ROP SEQUENCEThe basic sequence of actions for

conducting RSOP is as follows:Receive a movement warning order.Issue the section warning order.Plan the reconnaissance.Brief personnel and issue orders.Make a ground reconnaissance and

select positions.Plan and prepare for the occupation.

The time available for RSOP andcircumstances under which it is conductedwill vary greatly. A section chief will seldomhave time to conduct a detailed groundreconnaissance and a methodical occupationof position. Often, time will permit only ahasty map reconnaissance, some quick oralorders, and a rapid displacement to newpositions. No matter how abbreviated theRSOP, however, the basic actions remainabout the same. The two actions mostcommonly abbreviated will be the groundreconnaissance and the planning of theoccupation.

After conducting a map reconnaissance,the section chief identifies the teamprimary/alternate positions to an accuracyof about 100 meters. The team chief can thenpick the best position within the general area.If a ground reconnaissance is possible, thesection chief or his designated representativewill normally perform it. The purpose of theground reconnaissance is to verify the

tentative general positions selected in themap reconnaissance. Team members are notnormally taken on the ground reconnais-sance unless the section is released from itsair defense mission. In this case, the seniorteam chief is normally left in charge of thesection while the section chief conducts thereconnaissance.

If the terrain is particularly difficult orthe distance to be traveled long, the sectionchief should have the teams accompany thesupported unit until reaching the newpositions to insure air defense coverageduring movement. Upon reaching the newpositions, he can reposition his teams asnecessary to take advantage of the terrainnot shown by his map reconnaissance.

A section RSOP may be required for tworeasons:When a Defended Asset or Unit Moves.The reconnaissance party may consist of thesection chief and guides from the supportedunit. The teams would move with thesupported unit providing air defenseprotection en route. Members of the reconparty may be used as guides at the releasepoint to insure a rapid and orderlyoccupation of position.

As time permits, the section chief and hisparty make a detailed reconnaissance of eachteam position as well as his own CP location.

The section chief will brief the guides asto each team’s primary sector and primarytarget line. As the teams pass the releasepoint, they will pick up their guides and moveto the selected firing positions. If not alreadyaccomplished by the reconnaissance party,each team’s primary task is to select the bestfiring position within the area assigned bythe section chief and become operational. Inaddition, each team will select at least one ortwo alternate firing positions. As timepermits, they will continue to improveprimary and alternate positions, diggingfoxholes, camouflaging, and providingoverhead cover.

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In this example, the section is given anew mission. The section is to defend a keybridge within a battalion rear area.In Response to a Change in Mission. Thissituation requires that the section chief movehis section as a unit rather than byindividual teams or as a supported unit

movement. First, the section chief issues awarning order to allow his team chiefs toprepare for the movement. Using a map, thesection chief normally spots locations for histeams. The section chief selects a route, anassembly area, checkpoints, and releasepoints along the route.

PLATOON OPERATIONS The Stinger platoon headquarters instance, the platoon leader could leave the

element is small. It consists of the platoonleader and two other individuals. They arethe platoon sergeant and the radiotelephoneoperator/driver. The element is transportedon a ¼-ton truck and trailer. This element isnot staffed to operate as a large commandpost. The platoon leader normally locates hisheadquarters element in the vicinity of hisparent battery. Depending on the tacticalsituation, the element can collocate with acentralized Stinger section which has goodcommunications. Collocating with acentrally located section can be used to takeadvantage of additional personnel. For

platoon sergeant in charge of the elementand he could be free to visit his other sections,check on the troop’s welfare, supplies,problems, etc. Also, more personnel would beavailable to man the element.

The platoon leader can locate close to thebrigade TOC. At this location, the head-quarters element radio can be remoted fromthe vehicle to the TOC. He can assist the ADcoordination officer from the supportingADA battery to the TOC. This duty can givethe Stinger platoon leader first-handinformation on the air battle. The platoon

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radio must be monitored at all times, even if coordinates missile resupply within thethe teams are on standby. supported maneuver unit. If necessary, the

The platoon headquarters monitors the platoon headquarters may have to reallocateoperational state of all sections by radio. The existing missile stocks between sections. Theplatoon headquarters maintains a Stinger platoon headquarters assists its sections insituation map and overlays, and monitors resolving any unforeseen problems whichthe position and engagement reports of its the section cannot handle.sections. Personnel and equipment losses are Air defense priorities within themonitored and reported to higher supported maneuver unit are frequentlyheadquarters. The platoon headquarters reexamined to accommodate any change inmonitors missile expenditure and plans and unit losses.

PLATOON HEADQUARTERS INTERNAL OPERATIONS For Stinger platoon day-by-day

operations, some simple yet effectiveprocedures may be used to keep thecommander posted on the air defensesituation. The platoon leader should beprepared to brief his commander on all airdefense matters pertaining to the forcewhenever called upon to do so. In turn, hemust also attend briefings on operations andintelligence so that he knows what the unit isdoing. He should also keep the platoonsergeant abreast of the tactical situation andany on-going activities.

PLATOON HEADQUARTERSPERSONNEL

The platoon leader has the platoonsergeant and the radiotelephoneoperator/driver to assist him.Platoon Sergeant. The platoon sergeant isthe senior noncommissioned officer assignedto the Stinger platoon. The platoon has a verycomplex command and control problem for aunit of its size. The platoon controls a total of18 teams operating in a large part of thedivision area. Some of the platoon sergeant’sresponsibilities and tasks include, but are notlimited to: assisting the platoon leader inplanning and conducting the defense of thesupported unit against low-altitude airattack, establishing and maintaining

communications with Stinger sections, andsupervising the training of Stinger sections.Radiotelephone Operator/Driver. Theradiotelephone operator (RATELO)/driver isrequired at the platoon and section levels.This position requires an experiencedindividual to operate the command netstation and monitor the C/V command netradio and early warning net. He transmitstime-critical air defense information to thesections when other personnel are absent orasleep. The platoon headquarters radio mustbe monitored 100 percent of the time.

OPERATIONAL AIDSSeveral operational aids may be used by

headquarters element personnel to assistthem in their daily operations.Air Defense Status Chart. The operatingstatus of the Stinger section and otherpertinent data are maintained to provide aready source of information for theheadquarters personnel. A commander maywant to look at the chart at any time, so itmust reflect current status. The use anddesign of the chart will vary with theindividual platoon. This chart could bemounted on a small board and covered withacetate. It does not have to be elaborate. Infact, the status can be shown on a sheet ofpaper as shown in the example.

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Operations Overlay. An operations be elaborate. An overlay normally showsoverlay can be fabricated by superimposing a locations of friendly units, boundaries,locally devised coordinate system on acetate control points, coordinating points,over an operations map. An operations objectives, directions of attack, axes ofoverlay of this type can be used for airspace advance, and routes of march.coordination purposes so that the platoonleader can determine which Stinger teams Stinger weapon positions are plotted onare affected by friendly aircraft flights. The the operations overlay. The overlay should beoperations overlay for the platoon need not classified according to the SOP.

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Journal of Events. The Stinger platoon contribute entries to the unit’s staff sectionheadquarters should maintain a journal of journal. In any event, the Stinger platoon CPevents which reflects important actions should operate in concert with theconcerning the platoon. States of alert, commander’s or S3’s directives in thischanges in weapons control status, etc., matter. Sample entries are shown. (Detailedshould be recorded. Entries should be simple information pertaining to journals andand direct and need not be typed. Some units workbooks is found in FM 101-5.may require only that the Stinger platoon

INTELLIGENCE

initiative to obtain all informationconcerning the enemy air threat, the terrain,and the weather. Much intelligenceinformation is disseminated from thedivision to brigade and from the brigade tothe battalion. This information is availableto the battery command post. Pertinentintelligence should be passed on to Stingerplatoon personnel as required.

Some of this information is gleaned fromorder of battle manuals, captured maps,situation reports (SITREPS), aerialphotography, weather reports, etc. The

Stinger personnel must take the platoon coordinates with the supported unit’sintelligence section daily for updatedintelligence and maps. Each Stinger sectionand team must have a map of the area inwhich they are operating.Threat Air Intelligence. Threat air intelli-gence will come down to the platoon from thebattery CP. The platoon leader will forwardpertinent information to the sections. Theplatoon leader may also visit the battery CPto obtain specific information. In the case ofnondivisional Stinger units, the Stingerplatoon leader may contact an air defensecommand post such as the C/V command

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post for this information, if time and distancepermit. The Stinger teams need to know thecomposition of the air threat for aircraftrecognition purposes. They must know asmuch as possible about enemy aircraft theywill encounter and any new variations ofground attack techniques which maydevelop. A list of enemy aircraft is developedby intelligence agencies and providedthrough air defense channels to assist inidentification after hostilities commence.

Periodic updating of informationpertaining to these aircraft will betterprepare Stinger personnel for combat. Evenduring combat operation, the Stinger platoonleader must continue to reinforce aircraftrecognition skills of Stinger personnel duringinactive periods.Terrain and Weather. Terrain and weatheraffect Stinger operations. For example,terrain that affords good observation andlong fields of fire favors the use of attackhelicopters by the enemy. Stinger personnel

SECTION HEADQUARTERS

The Stinger section chief selects theposition where the section headquarters is tobe located. The section headquarters will belocated at some point between the teams andthe supported unit CP or the Stinger platoonCP. The main consideration is whether hecan effectively command and control theStinger teams. To accomplish this, he mustcommunicate with each team.

Day-by-day operation of the headquar-ters element is very similar to that of theplatoon headquarters. Many of the controlrequirements are time critical.

COMMAND RELATIONSHIPSThe section chief positions his teams in

accordance with the commander’s airdefense priorities. If the maneuver unit is

must become adept at map reading andrecognizing masked locations from whichhostile aircraft/helicopters may launchsurprise attacks. Weather conditions affectStinger operations to a considerable degree.Stinger effectiveness is degraded duringcertain atmospheric conditions. In general,the higher the humidity, the shorter therange of infrared radiation acquisition.Other particles in the atmosphere, such asdust, smoke, fog, and rain, will absorb andscatter ir radiation and reduce ir acquisitionrange. Also, these conditions will reducevisual detection and identification rangeswhich are vital to gunner reaction timesduring an engagement.

Weather affects all aspects of operations.The Stinger platoon leader must consider notonly the effects of weather on his Stingerteams and weapons, but also its effect on airoperations and on the terrain. The platoonleader may have to relocate teams in periodsof reduced visibility to maintain overlappingcoverage.

INTERNAL OPERATIONS

supported by a Vulcan platoon, that platoonleader assumes overall control of ADAresources. In this case, the Stinger sectionchief assumes the role of a subordinate ADAleader.

HEADQUARTERS PERSONNELSection Chief. The section chief directlycontrols his teams and is heavily involved inair defense planning. He must transmit earlywarning to the teams, evaluate friendlyflight information, and adjust the weaponscontrol status in the affected area. Hemonitors and evaluates the individualpositions of the Stinger teams. He mustmonitor the current ammunition and fuelstatus of the teams and keep the platoonleader informed on important supplyproblems.

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The section chief coordinates with reallocate missiles within the section untilcompany/battery/troop commanders and resupply is affected.other leaders on positioning his teams. Hecoordinates with these leaders on security, In addition to these duties, the sectionrations, medical aid, communications chief advises the supported unit on air

defense matters including small arms airrequirements, etc., on a local level. defense.Also, he must evaluate and forward Radiotelephone Operator/Driver. Theafter-action reports required by the unit SOP. RATELO/driver assists the section chief toThe section chief may have to reallocate operate the section command net and operate

missiles. For example, if one team has the Stinger section headquarters.expended all its missiles, he may have to

OPERATIONAL AIDSOperational aids at this level must be locations and other pertinent information to

small and simple. section operations as shown in the example.Operations Overlay. An operations over-

Air Defense Status Chart. An air defense lay can be made similar to the one at platoonstatus chart at this level must show team level.

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IFF REPROGRAMMINGThe section chief must determine when based on the tactical situation. He may

and where to reprogram the Stinger team’s stagger this operation. That is, he may doIFF interrogators and recharge the IFF this operation for three teams on one day andinterrogator batteries. This servicing is two teams on another day.

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CHAPTER 7

Combat Operations

As a part of the divisional air defense battalion, Stinger is a vital member of the combinedarms team.

This chapter focuses on the Stinger section and teams in support of the battalion task forceconducting combat operations. The close relationship between Stinger and the supportedmaneuver unit is magnified by the very real enemy air threat and the requirement forcontinuous, ready, and effective air defense.

This chapter is not intended to fully inform the reader on the offensive and defensivetechniques used by the battalion task force. The leaders of Stinger platoons and sections,however, must thoroughly understand the operations of the battalion task force and thecompany team to effectively support them.

HOW STINGER SUPPORTS COMBAT OPERATIONS Stinger is always a defensive weapon,

that is, it reacts to the presence of an airthreat. Whether defending maneuver unitsengaged in the offense or in the defense, thekey to successful Stinger operations is toestablish and maintain positions that willenable Stinger teams to provide protectivecover for the supported force. This meansthat Stinger moves with the force and shiftsits positions as necessary to support theforce.

The differences then, between Stingeroperations in the offense and in the defenselie primarily in the manner the supportedforce moves in each situation. The offense is

movement followed by short halts as contactis made and the battle develops. The tempo ofthe defense is slower but still involvesmovement as the supported force advances inpreparation for the attack.

In a fluid situation, teams move andposition themselves relative to the supportedunit to maintain covering fires. On occasion,the section chief will be unable to position histeams. Therefore, the teams positionthemselves relative to the element of the forcethey are assigned to support. The teams willkeep the section chief informed of theirlocations. If the tempo of the action is slower,the section chief retains positioning control

fluid. It is characterized by sudden bursts of of his teams.

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STINGER SUPPORT IN THE OFFENSE When maneuver units begin an offensive

operation, they must give up their coveredand concealed positions, attracting theattention of the enemy. Therefore, movingunits are extremely vulnerable to air attack.For this reason, these maneuver units arenormally accorded a higher priority for airdefense than they would be in a defensiveposture.

TYPES OF OFFENSIVE ACTIONSThe battalion task force will participate

in many different types of offensiveoperations. Each of these combat activitiesrequire changes in the manner in whichStinger is deployed and employed.Operations commonly conducted include:

Movement to contact.Attacks - hasty and deliberate.Exploitation and pursuit.

Movement to Contact. Movement tocontact is a tactical maneuver to gain orregain contact with the enemy. Units movingto contact move in a traveling configuration,traveling overwatch or bounding overwatch.The method used depends on the probabilityof contact with the enemy. Traveling is used

in the initial phase of the operation when nocontact with the enemy is expected. The unitshifts to traveling overwatch as theprobability of contact increases and tobounding overwatch when contact isimminent.

Defense of the unit in the travelingtechnique is similar to the defense of aconvoy. Stinger teams are integrated into thecolumn, and firepower is concentrated at thehead and tail of the column.

Stinger teams move out of the columnpath and dismount to engage attackingaircraft.

In the traveling overwatch, the unitslows down and moves in long bounds withan overwatch element providing coveringfires over the bounding element. Stingerteams should be used with both the boundingand the overmatching elements. The teamswith the overmatching element arepositioned to provide coverage over thebounding element while it moves forward.The teams with the bounding element stopand dismount to engage attacking aircraftbut their purpose is to establish forwardpositions to cover the trail element as itmoves up.

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The bounding overwatch is charac-terized by short spurts of movement, makingmaximum use of cover and concealment. Thelead unit moves under the protective fire of atrail overmatching unit. In this situation, thelength of the bound is such that Stinger cancover the bounding element from theoverwatch position. When the lead unitcompletes its bound, it provides cover as thetrail unit with accompanying Stinger moves

If only one Stinger team is available, theteam will normally remain with theoverwatch element.

If two Stinger teams are available, oneteam will remain with the overwatchelements. The other Stinger team shouldaccompany the bounding element. When thebounding element becomes the overmatchingelement, its Stinger team will be ready to fire.

up.

Attacks — Hasty and Deliberate. Whenthe task force does gain or regain contactwith the enemy, one of several actions may betaken. One company team may fix the enemyforce with fire while the remainder of the taskforce bypasses it. The task force may conducta hasty attack using fire and maneuver toneutralize or destroy the enemy and continuethe attack. If strongly defended positions areencountered, the task force may stop,regroup, and mass for a deliberate attack topenetrate and break through into theenemy’s rear area. When contact is gained,fire and maneuver may be used. Movement issimilar to bounding overwatch, coupled with

controlled and directed fires against theenemy position.

The basic guidelines for Stinger teamssupporting the bounding overwatch alsoapply during the attack.

Exploitation and Pursuit. An exploitationis undertaken to follow up success in thehasty or deliberate attack. This consists of aseries of movements to contact and hastyattacks characterized by speed and violence.Once the enemy is in full retreat, thebattalion task force executes a pursuit toovertake and destroy the retreating forces.

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The same basic guidelines for Stingerteams supporting the bounding overwatchalso apply during the exploitation andpursuit.

PLANNING FOR THE ATTACKNormally at battalion level, Stinger

support is planned and controlled by thesection chief. Support is based on thebattalion commander’s priorities. TheStinger leader works closely with thebattalion S3. Two factors, mobility andvulnerability, are critical considerationswhen planning support of an offensiveoperation. The team’s organic vehicle is the¼-ton truck. It may be unable to keep up witharmor or mechanized infantry forces in someinstances. When planning support of anoperation, the section chief must recognizethat his mobility problem may increase asordnance litters the battlefield.

The Stinger teams will be morevulnerable to enemy direct and indirect firethan the armored or mechanized units theyare supporting. This is true because Stingermust be fired from an exposed position. Also,the vehicle is not armored. These factorsmust be taken into account when planningan operation.

Flexibility and coordination are the keysto a successful plan. Once contact is madewith the enemy, the battalion task forcecommander may have to shift units rapidly.Little or no time will be available foradditional planning. The flexibility of theinitial plan will determine how well Stingerteams continue to support the mission aftercontact. The Stinger section and teams mustcontinuously coordinate with supportedunits, who insure that their units do notoutrun or fall behind air defense coverage.

The Stinger section chief will normallyreceive a warning order prior to an offensiveoperation. This warning order can containinformation such as the time of attack,mission, and objectives. It can also containadministrative instructions and employmentplans for battalion elements. The sectionchief then issues a warning order to histeams. Additional information required tosupport his plan must be obtained from thesupported unit.

Air defense priorities will be provided tothe section chief with the warning order.After developing his plan, the section chiefmust get the battalion commander’sapproval through the battalion S3.

STINGER SUPPORT IN THE DEFENSE The overall system of ACTIVE defense is

based on the rapid movement of forces. Theseforces concentrate against the enemy’s mainthrust once it is identified. Battalion taskforces then engage the enemy attack with allavailable firepower. The friendly forces usethe advantages of terrain and prepared firingpositions. As the attacker is defeated, forcesare shifted to new positions or reoccupy oldones.

The battalion task force may beemployed in a variety of situations in theconduct of the ACTIVE defense. At divisionlevel, the battlefield is normally organizedinto three areas: covering force area, mainbattle area, and rear area.

COVERING FORCE AREAForces in this area are deployed to find

the enemy. They fight him with sufficientforce to cause him to reveal the location of hismain effort. Battalion task forces make upthe covering force. They fight from a series ofcovered and concealed battle positions —engaging when the enemy cannot returneffective fire. They then move on order to newpositions and engage the enemy again.

Priority of air defense for a battalion taskforce in the covering force area (CFA) willnormally go to the exposed and vulnerablecompany teams. Each company team shouldbe supported by one or more Stinger teams.

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The teams will be positioned to provide over-matching of units as they move from positionto position. Remaining teams will be em-ployed to protect logistical elements andother assets.

In the CFA, passive air defense measuresof camouflage, dispersion, nightdisplacement and resupply, and reduced sizeof CPs contribute to the effectiveness of airdefense.

MAIN BATTLE AREAThe main battle area (MBA) begins at

the forward edge of the battle area andextends to the rear boundaries of the forwardbrigades. Forces in the CFA delay the enemyand make him deploy. Then the battaliontask forces are shifted in the MBA. Battaliontask forces may concentrate on a series ofsuccessive battle positions in order to destroythe enemy in the main battle area.

In the main battle area, when thebattalion TF is in the defense, the priorities ofair defense will shift. The shift is fromcompany teams more toward fire support,command and control, and logistical assetsof the battalion. Company teams in gooddefensive positions are not as vulnerable assome other battalion elements. Typicalpriorities for Stinger support might be: heavymortar, supporting tanks and antitankweapons (such as TOWs), trains, and TOCareas.

In the MBA, Stinger teams should bedeployed behind the FEBA to protect theflanks and rear of the battalion task forcefrom air attack. Stinger teams may occupy

preselected positions which are planned foras much overlapping coverage as possible.Usually, they provide air defense protectionfrom overmatching positions. As a generalrule, Stinger units will overwatch theirsupported units from high, accessible terrainthat provides the best fields of view,communications, and command and control.

★ When a battalion task force is directed toshift to concentrate against the enemy mainthrust in another brigade area, Stingerpriorities would again change. Companyteams moving on road networks providelucrative targets for air attack. Stinger teamsare integrated into each company’s marchcolumn to provide air defense. A companyteam using open roads and moving aconsiderable distance may have two or moreStinger teams allocated to support it.

★ The Stinger section chief is located wherehe can best control the section. The teamsbegin movement when friendly elementsbegin movement. If a team is accompanyinga maneuver element, the team chief selectsthe best positions en route to the new area.

★ When supporting a maneuver unit indefense, Stinger leaders must be aware of allthe ground tactical aspects of the defense; thesection chief must decide what to do in anygiven situation. For example, when abattalion task force is disengaging, thesection chief must be prepared to rapidlychange Stinger coverage to comply with newpriorities.

DISMOUNTED OPERATIONS Stinger is assigned to all types of

divisions, separate brigades, and regiments.prepared to support maneuver units under alltactical and terrain conditions.

Regardless of their mode of transportation,at times Stinger teams will have to abandon A Stinger team without organic transpor-their vehicles and operate dismounted. While tation to carry team equipment or the basicStinger teams operate most effectively with load of Stinger weapons is severely limited astheir organic equipment, they must be to firepower, communications, and mobility.

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★ OFFENSIVE OPERATIONSGenerally, the types of offensive

operations conducted by foot mobile troopsare similar to those previously explained forthe battalion task force in offensiveoperations. During the attack, withinbattalions, companies use boundingoverwatch and fire and maneuver.

Stinger teams provide support bymoving and positioning themselves relativeto the element of the force they are assignedto support.

★ When planning to move Stinger teamsdismounted during an attack, extensivecoordination is required. The commandermay decide to provide assistance to Stingerteams to hand carry additional Stingerweapons to insure an adequate supply ofweapons. When dismounted, because ofweight limitations, the team is limited tocarrying only two Stinger weapons. Inaddition, a team radio (manpack), extraBCUs, individual weapons, binoculars, etc.,must be carried. Providing assistance todismounted Stinger teams to carry extraStinger weapons will enhance thesustainability of air defense for the supportedunit. To aid the section chief in planning, asample march-load and weight allocationtable of Stinger team equipment is shown inFM 44-18-1.

Equipment remaining behind must besafeguarded. Arrangements must be made tobring this equipment forward as soon as thetactical situation permits.

The section chief should planresupply of missile rounds as required.

★ DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS

for

Dismounted troops are used in built-upareas or in rugged, broken, or heavily woodedterrain which restricts mounted movement.Dismounted troops in the defense do notmove rapidly. Stinger positions arepreselected as much as possible before teamsmove into them. Stinger positions are chosenwith the idea of obtaining overlappingcoverage. Again, when maneuver unitsdisplace in the defense, Stinger teams moveand position themselves relative to thesupported force.

★ During defensive operations, Stingerteams positions must include overheadprotection. Alternate fighting positionsshould always be constructed.

★ STINGER IN AN NBCENVIRONMENT

Stinger teams will fight essentiallythe same in a nuclear environment as in aconventional environment. Combat servicesupport and communications may be dis-rupted more than in a conventionalenvironment. Teams may also be isolated forextended periods of time. Otherwise, con-ventional team tactics are unchanged for usein a nuclear environment.

Complete descriptions of how Stingerpersonnel operate, survive, and fight in anuclear environment are found in FM 44-18-1.

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★ CHAPTER 8

MANPAD Defense in Non-ADA Units

MANPAD systems are allocated to non-ADA units to provide self-defense protectionagainst air attack. This need has developed because of the improved capability of threat airforces to destroy our maneuver units. MANPAD systems in the self-defense role can be used toprotect these non-ADA units when they are displacing, traveling in a convoy, or during othercritical periods when the units come under air attack. This chapter discusses how MANPADsystems are employed, in general terms, to protect these units from air attack. For detailedemployment doctrine and weapon handling techniques refer to this manual and FMs 44-18-1,44-23, and 44-23-1. Classified weapon system capabilities and limitations and gunner rangingtechniques of fire are found in (SNF) FM 44-1A(U).

ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT

Current tables of organization and equip- employment of MANPAD systems as in anment (TOE) do not authorize MANPAD ADA unit. MANPAD systems are employedpersonnel in non-ADA units. In the base by one soldier rather than as a two-man teamTOE, these units are not authorized communi- found in a typical ADA unit.cations and other equipment to support the

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NUMBER OF MANPAD SYSTEMSThe number of MANPAD systems for heavy and light divisions are shown in the

non-ADA units in the Army of Excellence following tables.

Authorized equipment for the nondedicated gunner is shown in the following illustration.

COMMAND AND CONTROLThe unit commander retains the responsi- same as used with small unit self-defense

bility and authority to direct self-defense against air attack which are described ingunners to engage known enemy targets. FM 44-8.Other aspects of control for gunners are the

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Self-defense gunners do not have equip- control information.ment to effect access to normal ADAcommand and control communications The gunner will fire only in self-defensechannels. Based on their missions, only a (WEAPONS HOLD); for example, when firedsimple communications system is required. upon or when the aircraft commits a hostileFM radio, or wire communications between act. Hostile criteria is found in chapter 3,gunners and the unit command post, will FM 44-18 and chapter 5, FM 44-23.serve to transmit necessary command and

SYSTEM EMPLOYMENT Currently, the MANPAD system which

is used for non-ADA air defense employmentis the Redeye guided missile system. In thiscontext, the Redeye mission is to provide airdefense protection for assets throughout thedivision area. It will be employed to supple-ment and enhance local small arms used inthe air defense role.

Early engagement should be strived forif the asset is critical to the command oroperation. The matter of early engagement isone of judgment on the part of thecommander. Early engagement is achievedby placing the gunner out and away from thedefended asset. This is accomplished so thatthe gunner can engage and destroy the targetprior to the aircraft reaching the ordnancerelease line. The gunner cannot accomplishthis if he is positioned on, or close to thecritical asset, because the advantage of earlyengagement is negated. Therefore, a fastmover (fighter bomber) can approach theasset and accomplish target destructionbefore he is engaged due, in part, to thelocation of the gunner and his reaction time.

Gunners must be provided, wheneverpossible, sufficient time to ready theirweapons. When not alerted they must havetheir MANPAD weapons close by even whenthey are performing their own MOS duties.System effectiveness largely depends ongunner reaction time.

It must be remembered that the gunner isnot in the ADA command and control loop.He does not know the weapons control statusin effect and does not need to. However, hedoes need to know if an aircraft is performingan attack maneuver. The maneuver may bedifficult for the gunner to assess; therefore,he needs to be well indoctrinated in expectedthreat aircraft tactics.

During convoy movement, the gunnerswill provide self-defense against enemy airattack. The positioning of MANPAD sys-tems will depend on convoy length and avail-able MANPAD weapons. Convoy protectionprocedures found in chapter 7, FM 44-18-1apply. Gunners may be pre-positioned alongthe route of march to provide air defense atkey points such as choke points and bridges.

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CHAPTER 9

Support of Special OperationsThe environment greatly affects combat operations. Operations cannot be stopped because

of rain, snow, ice, extreme heat, lack of water, or rough terrain. Certain areas of the worldcombine one or more of these conditions. These environments present special problems tomilitary operations. In this chapter, four environments most commonly encountered aredescribed. They are mountains, jungles, deserts, and northern environments.

In addition to fighting in these environments, certain types of operations require specialplanning and tactics. Chief among these are airborne, air assault, night, and river crossingoperations and operations in urban terrain. This chapter describes these types of operations andhow Stinger can be used to support them.

MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS

Mountains of military significance aregenerally characterized by rugged,compartmented terrain with steep slopes andfew natural or man-made lines ofcommunication. The weather is usuallyseasonal varying from extreme cold to warmtemperatures. Rapid, drastic changes inweather are not unusual in mountainousterrain. The wind can also pose a problem. Incold weather, the wind chill factorsignificantly increases the chance offrostbite. Winds are accelerated when forcedover ridges and peaks or when convergedthrough passes and canyons.

Above an altitude of 2,500 meters,acclimatization is required. Acclimatizationis complete only when personnel realize theirlimitations and the limitations imposed ontheir equipment. After months in a high-

altitude environment, 70 percent of sea levelwork capacity standards can be achieved.The effects of high altitude onunacclimatized personnel are increasederrors in performing simple mentaloperations, decreased ability for sustainedconcentration, deterioration of memory,decreased vigilance, increased irritability,and self-evaluation impairment.

There are several health hazards thatexist in mountainous climates.

SNOW BLINDNESS Because of the rarified atmosphere at

high altitudes, more direct sunlight reachesthe earth than at sea level. In the snowyconditions common in mountainous areas,

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snow blindness can become a problem. Snowreflects about 75 percent of the sun’s rays.This, coupled with the increased intensity ofthe sun’s rays, can overload the eyes. Snowblindness is usually temporary. However,personnel with severe cases may becompletely disabled for several days. Snowblindness can be prevented by using snowgoggles or sunglasses which completelycover the eyes.

FROSTBITEFrostbite is a constant hazard when the

wind is strong because of the wind chillfactor. The face, especially, must be protectedfrom high winds and prop blast. Sweatingexcessively must be avoided. The buddysystem is essential when the danger offrostbite exists.

SUNBURNIn the rarified atmosphere at high

altitudes, sunburn can be a problem. Aserious case of sunburn can disable a personfor several days.

DEHYDRATIONAlthough normally associated with

desert climates, dehydration can occur inmountainous climates as well. Personneloften will not drink as much water as theyneed. Use of fruit flavoring often helps.Leaders must, however, monitor theirpersonnel closely for any signs ofdehydration.

Mountainous terrain offers uniquechallenges to military operations. Some ofthe physical characteristics of thisenvironment which affect operations arerugged peaks, steep ridges, deep ravines, andvalleys; limited routes of communication;highly changeable weather; and theavailability of natural cover andconcealment.

Control of the heights is important tosuccessful mountain operations. Mobility is

another prime consideration. Because ofterrain and, in some cases, weather,obstacles and barriers assume addedimportance.

Mountainous terrain offers distinctadvantages to attacking enemy aircraft.Aircraft can avoid radar and visual detectionby flying at low level through valleys andmountain passes. They strike their targetswith little or no warning. Heavy groundforces and combat support and servicesupport units are road-bound, providinglucrative air targets. Narrow mountain roadsare often restricted to one-way traffic with noroom for passing. One vehicle disabled by anair attack may stop an entire column. It thenbecomes an open target for field artillery,ground, or follow-up air attack.

Mountainous terrain favors the use ofsmall, lightly equipped maneuver elements.The nature of the terrain will normally affordthese elements good cover and concealment.However, they will at times be exposed to airattack. Stinger may be the only air defenseweapon that can accompany and provideclose-in air defense protection for these units.Dismounted Stinger operations are notuncommon in this environment.

Because of terrain masking of radarsand difficulty in establishing line of sightwith FAARs, early warning for Stingerteams may be limited. Continuous visualobservation must be maintained,particularly along likely low-level air attackroutes. Observation posts some distanceaway from Stinger firing positions may berequired for early detection of approachingaircraft.

Stinger sections and teams will relyprimarily on radios for communications. Hillmasses and forests will degrade distance andquality of FM radio transmission. Use oflong-wire antennas and relays can ease thisproblem.

Reference FM 90-6 for further details onmountain operations.

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JUNGLE OPERATIONS

Jungle areas are found in the wet tropics.They generally consist of treesinterconnected by a network of thick vines.Jungles do, however, vary greatly within thisgeneral description. High temperatures, highhumidity, and a heavy annual rainfall createlush vegetation. This can seriously impedemovement.

One thing is hard to overcome whenpreparing for operations in a jungle area. It isthe popular misconception in the minds ofpersonnel about the jungle. Mostunacclimatized personnel harbor a great fearof the jungle. They see it as a purgatory in theform of large trees, thick brush, swamps,heat, and humidity infested with thousandsof animals, snakes, and insects just waitingto get them. This fear can incapacitate somepersonnel. Fortunately, most eventually seethe jungle for what it actually is and learn tofunction with it. As with any otherenvironment, the jungle serves those whoknow it best.

There are, of course, unique hazards inthe jungle. As with anything else, propertraining and precautions greatly reducethese hazards.

Movement either by vehicle or foot isdifficult in jungle areas. Minor terrainfeatures can present major obstacles tomovement in combination with the densevegetation. Defensive action in jungle terrainis considerably aided by natural features.Small units are the essential element in alljungle operations.

The dense jungle offers goodconcealment for maneuver forces. Therefore,enemy air attacks may be directed primarilyagainst combat service support units, supplylines, and exposed field artillery units.However, air attack of maneuver units can beexpected when they cross open areas such asrice paddies or rivers.

Stinger firing positions that offer 360°observation and fields of fire will be difficult,if not impossible, to find. Stinger teamsdefending unit convoys will normally have tobe positioned within and move with theseconvoys. Stinger teams defending stationaryassets may have to clear trees andunderbrush to have adequate firingpositions. These positions should only beoccupied to engage aircraft. Then theyshould be vacated rapidly, as cleared areasare easily detected and attacked from the air.

Jungle conditions tend to reducedetection and identification ranges. Thismay require teams to be positioned closertogether. More teams than usual may berequired to defend a particular asset.

Thick vegetation, high humidity, andrugged, hilly terrain will reduce the range ofFM radios. Extensive use of wirecommunications may be necessary. Whenradio is used, special purpose one-fourthwavelength antennas should be provided.

Rust, corrosion, and fungus growth willrequire an additional maintenance effort.Repair parts, ammunition, and other itemsshould be kept in sealed containers until theyare needed. This will minimize damage fromrust and corrosion. Electronic equipmentshould always be kept on. The heat generatedby the equipment eliminates moisture whichcauses corrosion.

Personnel must be well-trained andacclimated to the jungle environment. Heatexhaustion and jungle diseases carried byinsects are common. Proper individualsanitation, wearing of protective clothing,and use of insect repellent will minimizethese health risks.

Reference FM 90-5 for detailedinformation on jungle operations.

DESERT OPERATIONS While most people see the desert as hot, greatly. The only common denominator is

arid, sandy land, actual conditions vary lack of water. The three different types of

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desert are mountain,rocky plateau, andsandy or dune deserts.

Mountain type deserts are characterizedby high, steep mountains. When it rains, itgenerally does so in high areas. This causessevere flash floods. Water from these floodscollects in depressions. This water usuallyevaporates rapidly. In some instances,however, the volume of water entering thedepression with each storm exceeds theevaporation rate, and a salt lake is formed.

Rocky plateau deserts are characterizedby relatively slight relief interspersed withlarge flat areas. Rock is usually at or near thesurface. Steeply eroded valleys are common.Flash floods often occur in these valleys.

Sandy or dune deserts are extensive,relatively flat areas covered with sand orgravel. Some areas contain sand dunes over1,000 feet high and 15 to 25 kilometers long.Other areas may be totally flat for distancesof 3 kilometers and beyond, As with othertypes of deserts, flash floods may be aproblem. Rain in mountains can cause flashfloods for hundreds of miles. High winds anddust storms are also common to these areas.

Water, of course, can be a major problemin any desert area. In desert areas with hightemperatures, a resting man may lose asmuch as a pint of water per hour. Sweatingmay not be noticeable as it evaporates so fastthat the skin may appear dry. To retain sweaton the skin, which aids in cooling the body,personnel must remain fully clothed.

Day/night temperature fluctuation canexceed 70° F in some areas. It is vital thatleaders check their personnel to insure thatthey have all the equipment they will needprior to starting a mission. The widedispersion of units common in desert warfarealso places a great deal of responsibility onjunior leaders.

The jungle and desert are very differentenvironments. Although it may seemstrange, many of the hazards present in ajungle environment are also present in adesert environment. The same key should beapplied in fighting these hazards. The list

includes: dehydration, heat injuries, coldinjuries, plague, typhus, malaria, denguefever, dysentery, cholera, typhoid, pollutedwater, loss of mental alertness, and socialdiseases.

In hot areas, acclimatization will beneeded. Two weeks should be allowed withprogressive degrees of heat exposure andphysical exertion. This will strengthen heatresistance, but it will not totally protectpersonnel.

The low, flat terrain found in desert areasnormally aids Stinger in detection of enemyaircraft at greater ranges. During windyseasons, blowing sand may, however,degrade aircraft detection. Because of ageneral lack of landmarks such as woodlines, buildings, and rivers, enemy aircraftoften will have problems finding and fixingtheir targets. This may require them to maketwo passes at a target; one to locate it and asecond to attack it. This will greatly improvethe chances of a Stinger team destroying theaircraft before it attacks the target.

Low, flat, desert terrain will requireforces to disperse to prevent detection andengagement at long ranges. This dispersionaids passive air defense. However, it maycause gaps in defenses where overlappingfires between Stinger teams are not possible.

Covered and concealed positions aredifficult to find in the desert. Vehicle tracksleading into firing positions must be erasedor covered since they are easily spotted fromthe air. Since concealment is difficult,Stinger teams should move often. Theyshould move to alternate positions every 1 or2 hours and after each firing. The dust orsand cloud created by missile backblast mayreveal the team’s position.

Stinger teams must be able to moverapidly to survive. They must also move tokeep up with the high-speed tactics used bymechanized maneuver elements. In mostdesert environments, track vehicles must beprovided to Stinger teams when movingcross-country. The assigned ¼-ton vehiclewill often bog down in loose sand or rocks.

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Fast-moving operations and greatdistances between units will be found in thedesert. These require reliance on radio, asopposed to wire, for communications. Line ofsight can usually be obtained. However, lackof moisture and extreme heat may cause FMradio ranges to be reduced by as much as 30percent. Dipole or other directional antennasshould be used where possible to increaserange of FM radios.

Dust and sand can be as deadly toequipment as enemy fire. Vehicle cooling andelectrical systems are vulnerable to the

extreme heat of the desert. Extra watershould be carried on all vehicles. Coolingsystems should be checked several times aday. The eroding effects of sand on movingmetal parts require more frequent cleaning ofindividual weapons and equipment airfilters. The preventive maintenance effort onall equipment must be increased in the desert.

The Stinger system has been qualifiedfor storage up to 160° and operation up to140° F.

Reference FM 90-3 for detailedinformation on desert operations.

NORTHERN OPERATIONS

The area of northern operations isgenerally defined as the area lying north ofthe temperate zone. The boundary isirregular because of the many factorsinfluencing climate in a given area. Ingeneral, the farther north from this boundarythe harsher the climate.

As a minimum, harsher winters andmilder summers will be encountered. In thefar north, permafrost is encountered. In thisarea, the ground never fully thaws. This canbe one of the trickiest areas in which to stageoperations. The chart summarizes theenvironment which can be expected in thedifferent seasons.

The most suitable time for conductingground operations is from mid-winter to earlyspring before the breakup period. During thisperiod, the ground remains frozen allowinggreater mobility. Care must be taken withoperations in the late spring or in the fall.They should only be undertaken whendaytime thaw and nighttime freeze leaveonly a thin layer of mud on deeply frozenground.

Vegetation varies from thick evergreentrees to moss and lichens. Forests are usuallyfound closer to the temperate zone. Moss andlichen are usually found in permafrost areas.In summer in permafrost areas, vegetationmay mat together over a pool of water. This is

called a bog. The matted vegetation maysupport a man but will not support any typeof vehicle. These areas can be extremelydangerous.

There are certain unique weatherconditions that are common in the northernenvironment.

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WHITEOUTWhiteout is a milky atmospheric

condition in which the observer appears to besurrounded by a uniform white glow.Shadows, the horizon, or clouds are notdiscernible. Whiteout is experienced in the airas well as on the ground. The observer’s senseof depth and orientation is completely lost.

GREYOUTGreyout occurs over unbroken snow at

twilight or when the sun is close to thehorizon. The observer is surrounded by anoverall greyness. When the sky is overcast,shadows cannot be seen, leading to a loss ofdepth perception. The difference between thisand whiteout is that the horizon can be seen,so orientation is not completely lost. Theeffect of greyout is greatest when a person isfatigued.

ICE FOGIce fog occurs around inhabited areas at

temperatures below -35° F. Air at thattemperature cannot hold the water vaporcreated by human activity. The excess watervapor freezes into ice particles and creates afog.

Perhaps the greatest danger to personnelin a northern area comes from the cold.Special clothing is required for both wet coldand dry cold. Bare hands will stick to metaland fuel in contact with the hands will resultin supercooling. If this occurs, the hands canbe painfully frozen in seconds. The buddysystem is essential in this environment.Overdressing may cause as many problemsas not wearing enough clothes. Exhaustion iscommon in cold climates, especially whenoperating at high elevations.

Stinger teams operating in extreme coldshould hold their breath during and afterfiring. The exhaust from the missile maycrystallize into a form of ice fog. If this fog isinhaled, toxic fumes may thaw out inside thelungs causing injury or death..

Several factors must be taken intoaccount when planning military operationsin a northern area. Mobility may be a

problem. Momentum is difficult to achieveand easily lost. Requirements for heat willplace a premium on fuel. Ice fog and tracks insnow can make camouflage difficult.Blending of features, lack of navigationalaids, fog, and blowing snow make navigationdifficult. Permafrost makes digging inpositions extremely difficult. Nightoperations are the rule rather than theexception.

Conditions which tend to restrictmovement on the ground have little or noeffect on enemy air operations. Roads, hills,and rivers found in northern regions providegood navigational aids for enemy aircraft.Road-bound maneuver and support units areeasily detected and attacked from the air.

Heavy snow in the winter and poorground conditions in other seasons mayrequire units to move on foot. AccompanyingStinger teams will be limited to one missileper team member. Other members of the unitmay carry additional missiles for them.Resupply may have to be made by air.

Missile warm-up time will be increased.The wearing of bulky, heavy clothing andgloves will increase the time necessary toperform the engagement sequence. Propertraining in operations in cold environmentswill reduce this time.

Extreme and prolonged cold has anadverse effect on all weapons and equipment.Sluggish operations, malfunctions, andbroken parts are common. Additional timeshould be provided to perform preventivemaintenance. Exteme cold can more thandouble the time it takes personnel to performeven the simplest maintenance task. Specialattention must be paid to batteries. Inextreme cold, batteries have decreased powerlevels and drain more quickly.

The Stinger weapon system has beenqualified for storage to -50° F and operationto -40° F.

Reference FM 90-11 for detailedinformation on northern operations.

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AIRBORNE AND AIR ASSAULT OPERATIONS

One phase of operations ends when theforce conducting either an airborne or an airassault operation is on the ground. Theprinciples and guidelines for the employmentof Stinger are essentially the same as forother operations. One major factor sets theseoperations apart, as far as Stingeremployment is concerned. This factor is thephasing of units, Stinger teams, and other airdefense support into the objective area.Command and control relationships betweenStinger teams and supported units must beclearly defined. This is modified, asnecessary, as the operation progresses.

AIRBORNE In a typical airborne operation, each

battalion secures a drop zone. Each battalion

then develops its portion of the airhead. Inthe initial phase, a maneuver company fromeach battalion makes a parachute assault tosecure a drop zone. Then the remainder of thebattalion is dropped.

The initial phase is decentralized and thesituation is likely to be very fluid. This is trueuntil the entire battalion is on the ground.The Stinger section chief attaches his teamsto the maneuver companies during theassault. Stinger thus provides air defense forthe maneuver companies as they develop theairhead. Stinger team members do not jumpwith weapon systems. The weapon systemsare palletized and dropped separately.

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Once the battalion is on the ground, itestablishes a TOC. The Stinger section chiefthen assumes control of his teams andcoordinates the air defense of the battalion.Stinger teams previously attached tomaneuver companies are relieved fromattachment. They are redeployed as requiredto support designated battalion priorities asthe airhead is established and expanded.

With the establishment of an airhead,the brigade is able to insert additionalcombat support and combat service supportelements. These are needed to sustain combatpower. As a part of the follow-up echelon,other air defense weapons may be air-landed.

A towed Vulcan battery is usuallyattached to the brigade for insertion into theairhead. Along with its three Vulcanplatoons, the battery may have two FAARs.However, the FAARs may not be insertedinto the airhead for several days and Stingerteams will have to operate without TADDS.

The Vulcan battery is responsible forproviding air defense information to theStinger sections. The Stinger section chiefenters the Vulcan battery command net andforwards early warning and other air defenseorders and information. Informationreceived from the Vulcan battery is relayed toStinger teams over the Stinger command net.When Vulcan and Stinger are supporting thesame company, Stinger teams operate in theVulcan platoon net. They receive air defenseorders and information over this net. Whenrequired, the Stinger section chief may passorders and information to the Stinger team(s)through the Vulcan platoon net.

Reference FM 7-30 and 71-101 fordetailed information on airborne operations.

AIR ASSAULT

A typical air assault operation is of concealed holding areas. These will be inbattalion size. The air assault task force proximity to primary and alternate pickup(AATF) will initially move to covered and zones (PZ). Stinger teams are attached to

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companies or, if necessary, platoons.Generally, two teams will go in the firsthelicopter to help secure the landing zone(LZ). The other teams follow later.

The teams are dependent upon thesupported unit for assistance in carrying theextra Stinger missile rounds. They areprovided no vehicle, and therefore aredependent upon the supported unit formobility. Mobility for the section equipmentand Stinger rounds is provided by a 1¼-tontruck and ¼-ton trailer.

Upon landing, troops disembark asrapidly as possible. They immediately moveinto tactical formations. Stinger teamsremain attached to companies. Stinger teamsimmediately provide air defense of the LZ assubsequent lifts of troops and equipment arebrought in.

Once on the ground, the AATF massesits combat power to engage in ground combatand attack its objective. The Stinger sectionchief assumes control of his teams. He alsocoordinates the air defense of the AATF.Stinger teams previously attached to themaneuver companies are relieved fromattachment. They are then redeployed asrequired to support the AATF’s priorities as itmaneuvers to attack its objective.

The operation may be expanded with theinsertion of additional maneuver andsupport elements, to include Vulcan unitsand FAARs. Control and coordination linkssimilar to those used in the airborneoperation are then established.

Reference FM 90-4 for detailedinformation on air assault.

REMEMBERONCE THE AIR ASSAULT FORCE IS ON THEGROUND, PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELJNES FORSTINGER EMPLOYMENT ARE AS DISCUSSEDIN CHAPTER 5.

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OPERATIONS AT NIGHT

During hours of darkness, the Stingerteam’s ability to perform its mission isseverely handicapped. Fortunately, the airthreat is not as great at night. However, thethreat of nighttime attack by helicopterassault forces cannot be ignored. Visualdetection, visual identification, anddetermining the range of an aircraft aredifficult, if not impossible. In addition, theStinger team consists of only two men. Thus,it is not manned for 24-hour operation. Thesection can perform only a limited air defensemission at night: a self-defense role, when thedefended unit or asset is under air attack, or ifa higher air defense authority declaresWeapons Free during hours of darkness.

★ The Stinger team has a limited cap-ability against jet aircraft at night. However,the team has a much better chance ofengaging a slower moving aircraft such as ahelicopter. Target detection is very difficulteven when stars are visible. The gunnerattempts to pick up the sound of the aircraftto determine its position and direction. Whenhe hears the noise, the gunner points thesight at the noise source and activates theweapon. The gunner attempts to acquire thetarget at this time even though he cannot seeit. He moves the weapon line of sight until he

receives ir acquisition signals (ir tone)indicating that the seeker has acquired thetarget. He maintains track and uncages thegyro. After uncaging, their tone gets strongerand louder. The gunner fires when he sensesthat the target is within range. The gunnerdoes not make a range ring-target sizeestimation. If he cannot see the target, hedoes not apply superelevation and lead. If hecan see the target, he should applysuperelevation and lead prior to firing.

Stinger teams normally use the hours ofdarkness to move, rest, resupply, andperform maintenance on their equipment.They may be supporting a unit in a staticposition or a stationary asset. At nightfallthey normally move from air defense firingpositions to positions affording bettersecurity against ground attack (e.g., withinthe perimeter of the supported unit).

★ If supporting a unit that is movingduring the night, Stinger teams normallymove with the unit. Remaining within theunit’s formation provides for Stingersecurity. Before first light, the teams deployto air defense firing positions. They are thenready to engage aircraft as soon as visibilitypermits. Stinger in night operations isfurther discussed in FM 44-11.

MILITARY OPERATIONS IN URBAN TERRAIN

The battalion task force will often haveto fight as part of a larger force. This may bein villages as a separate force or in towns andsmall cities. The defender has the advantagein built-up areas. He has instant fortifiedpositions, good cover and concealment, and adetailed knowledge of the terrain. Wherepossible, built-up areas will be bypassed andisolated by attacking forces.

ranges. The attacker usually attempts toclear the enemy from built-up areas onebuilding at a time. Coordination for close airsupport by jet aircraft, because of thecloseness of enemy and friendly units, isdifficult. Enemy attack helicopters may beused to attack exposed vehicles. They havethe ability to pop up from behind obstacles toengage targets and then hide behind

★ Because they are difficult to identify and buildings.hit, targets for enemy aircraft are few. City When supporting company teamsfighting is normally conducted at very close fighting in urban terrain, Stinger teams take

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up firing positions on rooftops. As company Stinger in defending the company teamsteams move through the built-up area, some when this occurs.of the Stinger teams remain ‘in position.Meanwhile, others move to take up new firing Reference FM 90-10 for detailedpositions on other rooftops. They maintain information on military operations in built-continuous overwatch against the air threat. up areas.Small arms and machine guns supplement

RIVER CROSSING OPERATIONS

River crossings can be conducted tocontinue an attack as a part of a delay orwithdrawal. River crossings can also be usedto concentrate forces for another offensive ordefensive operation. A battalion task forcenormally crosses a significant river obstacleas part of a brigade, division, or corps leveloperation.

A strong and well-planned air defense isnecessary for a successful river crossingoperation. A mix of ADA weapons —Chaparral, Vulcan, and Stinger — isemployed in mass to protect crossing sites.

★ If all company teams are crossing at thesame time, each should have dedicatedStinger support. The Stinger teams supportthe assault elements from good positions onthe near side of the river, They cross after theassaulting elements have extended theirbridgehead.

★ Priority for the Stinger section willnormally be the units making the assault.Stinger elements are deployed with theassaulting elements and should be includedin the early crossing forces.

★ Vulcan platoon may remain with thebattalion task force as it continues thecombat operation. Chaparral platoons willthen be brought forward. They support thecrossing of the rest of the brigade or division.Stinger teams will again be deployed withcompany teams when all elements of the taskforce have completed crossing the river.

From positions to the rear, Hawk units pro-vide continuous overmatching coverageduring the river-crossing operation.

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★ The following illustration shows a the crossing. The integrated Vulcan/StingerVulcan gun battery-in support of a brigade in defense is shown below.

★ As elements of the brigade expand the thicken the defense of the crossing site andbridgehead, the Vulcan battery commander also to support the forward maneuvermoves additional elements of the battery to elements.

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CHAPTER 10Combat Service Support

Combat service support (CSS) is that support provided to a unit from outside sources. Thischapter describes how Stinger platoons and sections are provided the supply, maintenance,medical, and administrative support necessary to sustain them in combat. Except for theperformance of operator maintenance and IFF reprograming, the Stinger platoon has nocapability to provide combat service support to its teams. This responsibility must be assumedby the parent ADA battery. Stinger personnel must be fully aware of the procedures to follow, sothat requests for and distribution of supplies and maintenance support are handled routinelyand without delays.

CSS must begin with the actions of the platoon leader, platoon sergeant, and section chiefs.They must know the status of vehicle, and Stinger maintenance; of the supply of rations,ammunition, equipment, and POL in the platoon. Also, they must know the personal needs oftheir men. They must do all within their capabilities to improve conditions in these areas andseek assistance from the battery commander, XO, and first sergeant. Overall responsibility forplatoon CSS belongs to the platoon leader.

STINGER-PECULIAR ITEMSThe Stinger weapon system is simple to

maintain. Operator and organizationalmaintenance have been kept to a bareminimum. The requirements include visualinspection of system-peculiar equipment andcorrection of minor faults. Specificrequirements can be found in TM 9-1425-42912. The TL-29 electrician’s knife is the onlytool issued to Stinger personnel. Certainrepair parts are necessary to performoperator/organizational maintenance.These are maintained in the prescribed loadlist (PLL) of the unit to which Stinger isassigned.

WEAPON ROUND/MISSILE ROUND★ Both the weapon round and missile

round are certified rounds of ammunitionand each is sealed in a launch tube. Mainte-nance of certified rounds consists of the

replacement of minor exterior components,visual inspection of the exterior for damage,and visual inspection of the humidityindicator for excessive moisture.

No special maintenance is required tomake the missile itself work. As long as theround is sealed, there is no exterior damage,and the humidity inside the sealed launchtube is at the correct level, the round shouldfunction properly.

Damage on the exterior of the launchtube or a bad humidity reading may be noted.If so, the, referenced TM should be consultedto determine if the round should be turned infor a new one. The same applies to theseparable gripstock assembly which is partof the weapon round.

A weapon round may malfunctionduring an engagement. In this case, both themissile round and the gripstock must be

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considered unserviceable. The weapon roundis a controlled item and every effort should bemade to turn it in to the ammunition supplypoint (ASP), if the situation allows. If theweapon round is destroyed, the serialnumber should be recorded and reportedthrough command channels. The missileround can be exchanged for a new one at theASP. It can also be exchanged at the theaterdepot where the theater stock is located. Inmost cases, some missile rounds will bepresent at the ASP to insure ease of supply.The gripstock assembly may be exchangedfor a new one at the missile support unit(MSU) or the post/station maintenancesupport unit. This unit is usually in thedivision rear area. All exchanges aregoverned by the direct exchange (DX)procedures in AR 710-2.

In some cases, the Stinger section may besupported by the rocket and missile supportteams, rather than an MSU. This unitconsists of ordnance detachments in acellular organization. The entire unit ordetachments of the unit may be found attheater, corps, or division level. This dependson where requirements exist. The sectionleader must determine which type of unitsupports him and where it is located. He mustdo this before the need to exchange itemsarises.

SHIPPING ANDSTORAGE CONTAINERS

Operator and organizational mainte-nance consists of visual inspection andcorrection of minor faults. Again, TM 9-1425-

429-12 should be consulted to determine if thecontainers should be exchanged or repaired.Containers which cannot be repaired at theorganizational level should be returned to theASP with the weapon. A new container/weapon combination will then be issued.

BATTERY/COOLANT UNITSDuring peacetime, BCUs will be sample

tested by a quality team from CONUS. Thisquality team will replace faulty BCUs. BCUsused in the field that do not activate will bediscarded. Those BCUs which have beenexpended will also be discarded. InactivatedBCUs will be turned into the ASP for returnto the supply system.

IFF SYSTEMSUnserviceable IFF programmers and

interrogators will be exchanged at the MSU.The Stinger section maintains operationalfloat interrogators for exchange with theteams.

TADDSNonoperational TADDS will be returned

to the MSU for exchange.

TRAINING EQUIPMENTFaulty training equipment (Training

Set, M134 and field handling trainers) will beexchanged at the MSU. Limited organiza-tional maintenance is authorized.

The following chart summarizes main-tenance support for Stinger-peculiar items.

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Cl, FM 44-18

COMMONCOMSEC

Although not Stinger-peculiar items,COMSEC equipment does requiremaintenance support. The Stinger sectionheadquarters will perform operatormaintenance required by the appropriateTMs, Some items may require additionalmaintenance. These will be evacuatedthrough normal signal COMSEC channels toa maintenance facility.

EQUIPMENTOTHER COMMON EQUIPMENTOperator and organizational mainte-

nance required on other common equipmentwill be performed by the Stingersection/teams. Maintenance support forthese items will normally be provided by thesupported unit.

SUPPLY The supplies most often needed by the

platoon are food, fuel, ammunition, andspare parts.

Maintaining an adequate level ofsupplies within the platoon is mainly amatter of timely request for resupply. If theplatoon leader waits for ammunition levelsand other basic loads to become very lowbefore requesting resupply, then the platoonwill not have enough. Resupply and refuelingmust be accomplished at every opportunity.

Supplies for Stinger sections will behandled through the S4 of the parent unit. Inrare instances, a section may be attached toanother unit, or may be deployed in a mannerthat is not supportable by the parent unit. Ifthis occurs, provisions for maintenance andlogistics support should be made by thecommander assigning the mission.

As mentioned previously, ammunitionresupply is usually available at an ASP.

However, in some theaters, it may benecessary to go to a theater depot.

If avoidable, Stinger sections should nothave section personnel or vehicles ferry partsor transport supplies. This is because of thelimited number of personnel and vehicles in asection. Doing so may degrade the section’scapability to perform its air defense missionor to react to a change in mission.

Other classes of supplies are provided tothe Stinger platoon by request from theplatoon leader to the battery supply sectionslocated in battalion trains. Stinger teamssupporting companies, batteries, or troopsrequest rations, POL, clothing, spare parts,and personal health items through thatunit’s supply section. The Stinger platoonleader/section chief will prearrange thissupport when he orders his teams to supportthese units.

OTHER LOGISTICAL SUPPORT The platoon leader makes recommenda- commanders maintain morale. The platoon

tions to the battery commander for leader is responsible for having thesepromotions, awards, and disciplinary services fairly and impartially provided toactions. He promptly reports casualties and his soldiers.other losses. Personnel services — leaves and

★ Medical support for the Stinger platoonpasses, command information, postalservice, religious activities, exchanges, is provided by the parent medical section.financial services, legal services, welfare, However, depending on the situation, thebath and laundry services, and rest and platoon leader may arrange for the medicalrelaxation — are designed to help support from the unit being supported.

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FM 44-18

Administrative support is provided by The platoon leader’s problems ofthe parent battalion/squadron S1 sections. insuring continuous CSS for his unit isThe parent battery of the Stinger platoon will compounded when his sections are deployed.handle most of the routine administration Sections at different locations may bepertaining to Stinger personnel. separated by considerable distances.

Logistical support for nondivisional Experience has shown, however, that allStinger platoons will be handled by their these problems can be overcome throughparent organization. careful planning and coordination.

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C1, FM 44-18

★ APPENDIX A

References

REQUIRED PUBLICATIONSRequired publications are sources which users must read to understand or to comply with

FM 44-18.

FIELD MANUALS (FM)44-18-1 Stinger Team Operations

RELATED PUBLICATIONSRelated publications are sources of additional information. Users do not have to read them

to understand FM 44-18.

ARMY REGULATIONS (AR)310-25 Dictionary of United States Army Terms310-50 Catalog of Abbreviations and Brevity Codes (Available in microfiche)710-2 Supply Policy Below the Wholesale Level

FIELD MANUALS (FM)3-12 Operational Aspects of Radiological Defense3-22 Fallout Prediction5-20 Camouflage5-36 Route Reconnaissance and Classification6-20 (HTF) Fire Support in Combined Arms Operations7-7 (HTF) The Mechanized Infantry Platoon and Squad7-10 (HTF) The Infantry Rifle Company (Infantry, Airborne, Air Assault,

Ranger)7-20 (HTF) The Infantry Battalion (Infantry, Airborne, Air Assault, Ranger)7-30 (HTF) Infantry, Airborne and Air Assault Brigade Operations11-50 (HTF) Combat Communications Within the Division17-47 (HTF) Air Cavalry Combat Brigade17-50 Attack Helicopter Operations17-95 (HTF) Cavalry

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C1, FM 44-18

21-11 (Test)21-3021-4021-6024-1 (HTF)24-1824-2024-2430-10231-7132-644-1 (HTF)44-1-244-344-844-3044-90 (HTF)71-1 (HTF)71-2 (HTF)71-101 (HTF)90-2 (HTF)90-3 (HTF)90-4 (HTF)90-5 (HTF)90-6 (HTF)90-10 (HTF)90-13 (HTF)100-5 (HTF)100-28100-42101-5

First Aid for SoldiersMilitary SymbolsNBC (Nuclear, Biological and Chemical) DefenseVisual SignalsCombat CommunicationsField Radio TechniquesField Wire and Field Cable TechniquesRadio and Radar Reference DataOpposing Forces: EuropeNorthern Operations (To be revised as FM 90-11)SIGSEC TechniquesUS Army Air Defense Artillery EmploymentAir Defense Artillery Reference HandbookAir Defense Artillery Employment, Chaparral/Vulcan/StingerSmall Unit Self-Defense Against Air AttackVisual Aircraft RecognitionUS Army Air Defense Artillery Employment, HawkTank and Mechanized Infantry Company TeamThe Tank and Mechanized Infantry Battalion Task ForceInfantry, Airborne, and Air Assault Division OperationsTactical DeceptionDesert OperationsAirmobile OperationsJungle OperationsMountain OperationsMilitary Operations on Urbanized TerrainRiver Crossing OperationsOperationsDoctrine and Procedures for Airspace Control in the Combat ZoneUS Army/US Airspace Management in an Area of OperationsStaff Organization and Operations

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C1, FM 44-18

TECHNICAL MANUALS (TM)3-216 Technical Aspects of Biological Defense3-220 Chemical, Biological, and Radiological (CBR) Decontamination9-1425-429-12 Operator’s and Organizational Maintenance Manual for Intercept-

Aerial, Guided Missile System: Stinger, Trainer, GM Launcher, Inter-rogator and IFF Programmer

11-5805-201-12 Operator’s and Organizational Maintenance Manual Telephone SetTA-312/PT

11-5805-243-12 Operation and Organizational Maintenance Manual: TelephoneSet TA-1/PT

11-5820-477-12 Operator’s and Organizational Maintenance Manual: Radio SetControl Groups AN/GRA-39 (A,B)

11-5820-498-12 Operator’s and Organizational Maintenance Manual: Radio SetAN\GRC-160

TECHNICAL BULLETIN (TB)(C) 380-41 Procedures for Safeguarding, Accounting, and Supply Control of

COMSEC Materiel (U)

PROJECTED RELATED PUBLICATIONSThese are publications that are scheduled for printing. Upon print, they will be distributed

automatically via pinpoint distribution and will not be available for requisition from USAPublications Center, Baltimore, MD, until indexed in DA Pam 310-1.

FIELD MANUALS (FM) (Cent)3-4 NBC Protection (Supersedes TM 3-221 and TC 3-2)3-5 NBC Decontamination (Supersedes TM 3-220)3-100 NBC Operations (Supersedes FM 21-40)(SNF) 44-1A US Army Air Defense Artillery Operational Planning Data (U)44-11 Air Defense Artillery Employment, SGT York Gun/Stinger90-11 Winter Operations (To supersede FM 31-71)

A-3

APPENDIX B

Operations SecurityOperations security (OPSEC) includes essential security measures. These are used to deny

the enemy information about planned, ongoing, and completed operations. Threat forces willuse many intelligence sources in an effort to get information. They try to determine the location,capabilities, and intentions of US units. Their sources include ground reconnaissance, aerialreconnaissance, and signal intelligence elements. US forces, including Stinger sections, musttherefore use OPSEC techniques and procedures. They try to neutralize the Threat intelligencecollection effort. These techniques and procedures include deception, information security,physical security, signal security and electronic counter-countermeasures. This appendixcovers OPSEC procedures used by Stinger units.

THREAT INTELLIGENCE COLLECTION MEASURES

The Threat knows that he must firstdestroy or neutralize our air defenses beforehe can successfully use his airpower. Airdefense suppression is an effort to destroy orreduce the effectiveness of AD weapons sothat coordinated air-ground operations canbe completed. Before the Threat can attemptto suppress our AD weapons, includingStinger, he must first determine where theyare located. He has many methods in whichto do this.

HUMAN INTELLIGENCEHuman intelligence (HUMINT) is the

use of people to gather information. Thesepeople can be members of the local

population, or enemy ground and airobservers. They can also be enemyintelligence agents disguised as friendlytroops or civilians. Loose talk, informationposted on maps and vehicle windshields, andwritten materials improperly safeguardedare all collected through HUMINT.

SIGNAL INTELLIGENCESignal intelligence (SIGINT) is the use of

devices to intercept and monitor ourcommunications-electronics (C-E) systems.This includes both radio and radar systems.SIGINT is done in peacetime as well aswartime.

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FM 44-18

PHOTOGRAPHIC INTELLIGENCEPhotographic intelligence (PHOTINT) is

the use of photographic equipment aboardairborne platforms to gain information.PHOTINT, to include infrared imagery, isthe most widely used detection method. Itprovides a permanent record of the exactdetails of an area. It also permits long-termcomparisons to find changes in detail.PHOTINT is the most accurate means ofpinpointing target locations.

ELECTRONIC WARFARESUPPORT MEASURES

Electronic warfare support measures(ESM) are one of the three classes of elec-tronic warfare (EW). The other two classes ofEW are electronic countermeasures (ECM)and electronic counter-countermeasures(ECCM).

ESM entails the search, interception,identification, and location of C-E emitters.ESM is often confused with SIGINT, which isconcerned with monitoring of C-E emittersfor intelligence information. ESM, however,is concerned with identifying and locatingthe emitters, and includes both ground andairborne radio direction finding (RDF).

The enemy can pinpoint radio/radartransmitter locations by using directionfinding equipment. The enemy’s RDFequipment can locate any radio thattransmits. That is, if there is line of sightbetween the RDF and the radio.

This appendix describes only thoseaspects of electronic warfare which affectStinger communications and those OPSECmeasures which Stinger personnel can use tooperate on the electronic warfare battlefield.

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FM 44-18

SUPPRESSIVE ATTACKSAfter the Threat has located and to destroy a position without risking his own

identified a site, he will try to suppress that troops.site. Remember, AD suppression includes all Ground attack. The Threat mayefforts designed to either reduce ADeffectiveness or destroy ADA systems. The attempt to destroy a position from the groundThreat will try to do this through physical by using guerrillas, saboteurs, insertion

teams, or other elements operating behindsuppressive attacks and electronic warfare. friendly lines.The Threat can physically attack an Air attack. Finally, the Threat may

ADA system in three ways — decide to attack with high-performanceaircraft or attack helicopters. These aircraft

Indirect fire. This includes artillery, may use conventional ordnance (bombs,mortars, rockets, and surface-to-surface rockets, cannon, or machine gun fire) ormissiles. The Threat can use these weapons precision-guided munitions (smart bombs

and ASMs).

RADIO ELECTRONIC COUNTERMEASURESElectronic countermeasures are all

actions taken to reduce an enemy’s use of theelectromagnetic spectrum. ECM describedherein are those applied to radios.

The two ECM means that the Threat willuse to do this are deception and jamming.Deception is the introduction of signals into aradio to deceive the operator. Jamming is theintroduction of signals into a radio to hide oroverride actual information.

Once the Threat has a clear picture offriendly communications networks, he willtry to enter certain nets disguised as afriendly station. This is known as “imitativecommunications jamming (ICD).” TheThreat will use language experts who speakwith the latest slang and accent, and arethoroughly drilled in communications

procedures. ICD agents are good and they arebelievable, If they are accepted into a Stingernet, they will direct you to fire at friendlyaircraft, drive into ambushes, and displace tothe wrong position.

All the Threat needs to jam a radio is atransmitter tuned to the frequency of theStinger net, with enough power to overridethe signal at the receiver. Threat can usemany types of jamming signals againstStinger team radios. The more common ofthese are described below. Don’t try tomemorize them; just be aware that they andothers exist. When reporting jamming, it’smore important to describe it accurately thanto identify it by name. Following are types ofjamming signals that may be used againstyou.

TYPES OF JAMMING SIGNALSAlthough any transmitter can serve as a such as those shown on following pages have

jammer, certain types of jamming signals been considered more effective.

BABBLED VOICETHIS SIGNAL IS COMPOSED OF MIXED VOICES ENGAGEDIN SIMULTANEOUS CONVERSATIONS, PREFERABLY INTHE SAME LANGUAGE, WITH VOICE CHARACTERISTICSSIMILAR TO THOSE FOUND IN THE VICTIMCOMMUNICATIONS NET.*Signal can also be unintentional.

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FM 44-18

TONE

THIS JAMMING SIGNAL IS A SINGLE FREQUENCY OFCONSTANT TONE. IT IS USED TO JAM MANUALLY KEYEDMORSE CODE, VOICE, AND RADIO CARRIER CIRCUITS.*

PULSE

THIS SIGNAL RESEMBLES THE MONOTONOUS RUMBLEOF ROTATING MACHINERY. PULSE JAMMING SIGNALSPRODUCE A NUISANCE EFFECT ON VOICECOMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS.*

RECORDED SOUNDS

ANY AUDIBLE SOUND, ESPECIALLY OF A VARIABLENATURE, THAT CAN BE USED TO DISTRACT OPERATORSAND DISRUPT COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS. MUSIC,SCREAMS, APPLAUSE, WHISTLES, MACHINERY NOISE,AND LAUGHTER ARE EXAMPLES.

RANDOM-KEYED MORSE CODE

THIS JAMMING SIGNAL IS PRODUCED BY KEYING AMORSE SIGNAL AT RANDOM AND MIXING THE KEYEDSIGNAL WITH SPARK NOISE. IT IS EFFECTIVE AGAINSTVOICE AND MORSE CODE COMMUNICATIONS.*

SPARK

THIS SIGNAL IS EASILY PRODUCED AND IS ONE OF THEMOST EFFECTIVE FOR JAMMING. BURSTS ARE OFSHORT DURATION AND HIGH INTENSITY, REPEATED AT ARAPID RATE. THE TIME REQUIRED FOR RECEIVERCIRCUITRY AND THE HUMAN EAR TO RECOVER AFTEREACH SPARK BURST MAKES THIS SIGNAL EFFECTIVE INDISRUPTING ALL TYPES OF RADIO COMMUNICATIONS.

GULLS

THE GULL SIGNAL IS GENERATED BY A QUICK RISE ANDSLOW FALL OF A VARIABLE AUDIO FREQUENCY AND ISSIMILAR TO THE CRY OF A SEA GULL. IT PRODUCES ANUISANCE EFFECT ON VOICE CIRCUITS.

*Signal can a1so be unintentional.

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FM 44-18

RANDOM NOISE

THIS IS SYNTHETIC RADIO NOISE WHICH IS RANDOM INAMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY. IT IS SIMILAR TO THENORMAL BACKGROUND NOISE AND CAN BE USED TODEGRADE ALL TYPES OF SIGNALS; HOWEVER, A GREATAMOUNT OF POWER IS NECESSARY TO JAM VOICECOMMUNICATIONS.

STEPPED TONES

THESE ARE TONES TRANSMITTED IN INCREASING PITCH,PRODUCING AN AUDIBLE EFFECT SIMILAR TO THESOUND OF BAGPIPES. STEPPED TONES ARE NORMALLYUSED AGAINST SINGLE-CHANNEL AM AND FM VOICECIRCUITS.

WOBBLER

THE WOBBLER SIGNAL IS A SINGLE FREQUENCY VARIEDBY A LOW AND SLOWLY VARYING TONE. THE RESULT ISA HOWLING SOUND WHICH CAUSES A NUISANCEEFFECT ON VOICE COMMUNICATIONS.

RANDOM PULSE

PULSES OF VARYING AMPLITUDE, DURATION, AND RATEARE GENERATED AND TRANSMITTED TO DISRUPTTELETYPEWRITER, RADAR, AND ALL TYPES OF DATATRANSMISSION SYSTEMS.

ROTARY

THE ROTARY SIGNAL IS PRODUCED BY A LOW-PITCHED,SLOWLY VARYING AUDIO FREQUENCY, RESULTING INGRUNTING SOUNDS. IT IS USED AGAINST VOICECOMMUNICATIONS.

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FM 44-18

JAMMING TECHNIQUESJamming is an effective way to disrupt The enemy normally will employ three

control of the battle. types of jamming:

1 SPOT JAMMING

SPOT JAMMING CONCENTRATES MOST OF THEJAMMING POWER ON ONE SELECTED FREQUENCY. IT ISUSEFUL FOR ACCURATE, EFFECTIVE, CONTROLLEDJAMMING OF A SELECTED FREQUENCY; POWER IS NOTWASTED ON FREQUENCIES OTHER THAN THE SELECTEDONE. IN THIS MANNER, SPOT JAMMING CAN BE USEDWITHIN A FREQUENCY BAND WITHOUT INTERFERINGWITH OTHER TRANSMISSIONS.

2 BARRAGE JAMMING

BARRAGE JAMMING SPREADS THE TRANSMITTEDPOWER OVER A WIDE BAND OF FREQUENCIES. ITAFFECTS ALL FREQUENCIES WITHIN BOTH THE BANDAND THE TRANSMISSION RANGE. SINCE THETRANSMITTED POWER IS SPREAD OVER A WIDE RANGEOF FREQUENCIES, BARRAGE JAMMING DOES NOTSATURATE ANY SINGLE FREQUENCY. ITS ADVANTAGE ISTHAT LITTLE NEED BE KNOWN ABOUT THE RECEIVERSTHAT ARE BEING JAMMED. ITS DISADVANTAGES ARETHAT IT WASTES POWER, SINCE IT JAMS FREQUENCIESTHAT ARE NOT BEING USED, AND IT INTERFERES WITHALL TRANSMISSIONS – BOTH ENEMY AND FRIENDLY.

3 SWEEP JAMMING

SWEEP JAMMING IS TYPIFIED BY RAPID CHANGES IN THEJAMMING FREQUENCIES THROUGH A WIDE BAND.SWEEP JAMMING IS SIMILAR TO BARRAGE JAMMING INTHAT IT COVERS A WIDE FREQUENCY BAND, IT ISSIMILAR TO SPOT JAMMING IN THAT MOST OF ITSAVAILABLE POWER IS CONCENTRATED ON A SINGLEFREQUENCY, THOUGH ONLY FOR A SHORT TIME, AS THEJAMMER REPEATEDLY SWEEPS BACK AND FORTHACROSS THE BAND. AS THE SWEEPER MOVES ACROSSTHE BAND, EACH FREQUENCY GETS ALMOST ALL THEPOWER OF THE JAMMING SIGNAL. ALTHOUGH THEPOWER OF THE JAMMER IS ONLY BRIEFLYCONCENTRATED ON A FREQUENCY, IT TAKES TIME FORTHE RECEIVER CIRCUITRY TO RECOVER FROM THEEFFECTS OF THE JAMMING SIGNAL.

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FM 44-18

OPERATING ON THE EW BATTLEFIELD

You can use five classes ofcountersuppression measures to increaseyour survivability and operate on the EWbattlefield.

DECEPTIONDeception includes measures which

prevent the Threat from spotting a pattern ina unit’s actions. Examples of deceptiontechniques are —Camouflaging Equipment and Person-nel. The most important means of avoidingvisual detection is through camouflage andconcealment of equipment and personnel.FM 5-20 provides a complete reference forall aspects of camouflage. However, thekey points to remember are to break upthe silhouette or pattern of equipment,and reduce glare.

The pattern of the equipment can bebroken up by pattern painting, using naturalvegetation, and by using the current series ofcamouflage nets. These nets will break upboth the visual and the IR patterns of theequipment. Keep the camouflage naturallooking. In fast moving operations, watch forchanging vegetation and change yourcamouflage accordingly.

Glare can also be reduced by patternpainting and by covering reflective surfaces.Windshields, mirrors, lights, and light-colored surfaces all reflect sunlight to someextent and can be seen by the enemy at fardistances.Displacing Frequently. Movement is themost important means for Stinger teams todefeat AD suppression. Teams should selectalternate positions at least 200-300 metersfrom the primary position and displace tothem when necessary. Whenever possible,teams should move at night and duringperiods of reduced visibility. This willmaximize concealment and capitalize ondecreased enemy air activity.Preparing False Positions and UsingDecoys. The Threat can be fooled ifsomething can be made to look like a real

item of equipment. Stinger equipment isrelatively small, therefore, decoys can besimple. Anything resembling a ¼-ton truckcan be used: boxes, framework and nettingnailed together so that from a distance theoutline of the vehicle is seen. Decoys can be assophisticated as inflatable ¼-ton trucks,complete with false RF emitters. When usingdecoys, leave one or two items partiallyexposed to attract the attention of the Threat.Dummy positions will work only if the realposition is well camouflaged.

INFORMATION SECURITY.Information security measures are taken

to prevent disclosure of operationalinformation through written, verbal, orgraphic means. The most importantinformation security measures to take are torestrict personnel entry into operationalareas and to restrict the release ofoperational documents and information.These measures will safeguard againstunintentional release of data important tothe enemy. Other information securitytechniques to be used are —

Brief all platoon personnel on SAEDA.Brief all personnel about an operation

at the latest possible moment.Limit “shotgun” message traffic.Limit operational information to

persons with a need to know.Refrain from posting operational

information (to include radio frequencies andcall signs) on vehicle windshields and othernonsecure areas.

Clear all signs of vehicular movementinto and out of positions. Use existing roadsand trails whenever possible; keep newtracks to a minimum.

Enforce noise and light discipline.Destroy all classified material after use

or when no longer needed.Police all areas thoroughly prior to

departure.

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FM 44-18

PHYSICAL SECURITYStinger sections and teams take all

available active and passive securitymeasures consistent with the enemy threat.Active measures include establishinglistening posts, observation posts, andminefield. Passive measures include the useof cover, concealment, and fieldfortifications. Deployed teams rely primarilyon passive measures. This is because theylack enough personnel to independentlyimplement active measures. Stinger teamsshould assume positions which are offsetfrom the supported unit to the maximumextent possible. The positions should beconsistent with the tactical and technicalrequirements of the Stinger weapon system.The purpose of this dispersion is to avoidbeing targeted by association when thedefended force comes under direct or indirectfire. In addition, each Stinger section andteam uses challenge and password, foxholes,sandbags, and defilade positions.

Remember when constructing fortifi-cations, not to violate the principles ofcamouflage and concealment. Make yourfortifications blend into the terrain bydisposing of freshly dug earth and coveringthem with foliage or netting.

SIGNAL SECURITYSignal security (SIGSEC) protects

operational information through the practiceof communications security (COMSEC) andelectronic security (ELSEC) techniquesCOMSEC techniques include the use ofcommunications codes, secure radioequipment, and proper RATELO procedures.ELSEC techniques include radio and radaremission control (EMCO) measures. SpecificCOMSEC and ELSEC techniques you canuse are —

Disperse radio antennas rather thanconcentrating them in a group around acommand post (CP). A large antennagrouping indicates a high-value asset.

Use directional antennas wheneverpossible.

Use the lowest possible transmitterpower output. This will allow only minimumradiated power to reach the Threat.

Avoid significant increases or surges ofradio traffic on your nets. Traffic volumeindicates the relative importance of your unitand mission, or the urgency of the situation.On the other hand, don’t completely silenceyour nets. Radio silence on normally activenets will also indicate an upcoming operationto the Threat.

Minimize the message length. Preplanyour transmissions and keep messages shortand to the point.

Eliminate unnecessary equipmentchecks and. discourage operator chatter.Always assume your equipment isoperational, not nonoperational. Don’tcontact another station for an equipmentcheck just because you haven’t heardanything over the net for a long time.

Move radio operators from section tosection on a random basis. Just as yourecognize certain voices on the telephone,Threat agents at monitoring stations canidentify people by their voice and speechpatterns.

Use couriers, messengers, and wirewhenever possible, instead of using radio.

Change radio transmission sites often.If a transmitter stays several hours at onelocation, threat targeting is inevitable.

Operate radios on a random schedule,rather than on a fixed pattern. Randomtransmission will increase the Threat’scollection problems.

Use terrain features such as hills,vegetation, and buildings to mask yourtransmissions.

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FM 44-18

ELECTRONIC COUNTER-COUNTERMEASURES (ECCM)ECCM are methods used to reduce or

eliminate the effects of an enemy’scountermeasures, or ECM. How effectivethese methods are depends on the operator aswell as his equipment. Good equipment isuseless in the hands of untrained personnel.Remember, “surprise and panic are thegreatest threats in the area of electronicwarfare.” Only through constant trainingand drill can an operator gain confidence andrealize the full capabilities of his equipment.

Radio ECCM are countermeasures forimitative communications deception (ICD)and radio jamming. Message authenticationis the best way to prevent imitativecommunications deception. Radio operatorsare required to authenticate when —

They suspect the Threat is on the net.Someone challenges them to

authenticate.Directing a station to go to radio silence

or to break that silence. (Self-authenticationcan be used if authorized.)

Talking about enemy contact or issuinga follow-up report.

Transmitting directions which affectthe tactical situation, such as: “Move to. . .“or “Turn off your radio.” Also, radiooperators challenge any directives like thesewith a request to authenticate.

Canceling a message.Opening the net or when they resume

transmitting after a long period of silence.Transmitting a classified message in

the clear.

If an operator is not sure thatauthentication is required, he shouldchallenge! If a station takes more than 20seconds to authenticate, rechallenge! Why 20seconds? Because a Threat agent will try tocontact some other station and have itrespond to that same challenge. Once he getsthe answer, he’ll call back and blame thedelay on some equipment failure.

The first thing for Stinger radiooperators to do when they experience radiointerference is to determine its source. Is theinterference unintentional, or is it radiojamming?

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C1, FM 44-18

Interference may be caused byatmospheric disturbances, local interference,weak signals, or enemy jamming.

Jamming may take many forms andmay, therefore, be undiscernible to theuntrained operator. All potential radiooperators should be trained in threatjamming techniques and to determine ifjamming is actually taking place. Nocounter-countermeasures should be takenuntil it has first been determined if jammingis taking place.

The operator should use the followingsteps to determine if his radio is beingjammed.Detach The Radio Antenna. If theinterference continues, it means there is aproblem with your radio. If the interferencestops, it has to be coming from a sourceoutside the radio — either jamming or aproblem in the antenna.Check The Frequencies On Either SideOf The Operating Frequency. Because ofthe crowded frequency spectrum, the Threatwill normally work against selected targets(spot jamming) in order to protect his owncommunications. If the interference falls offon either side of the operating frequency,then one operator is probably beingspot-jammed.Move The Radio To A New Location. Ifthe interference varies greatly, your radio

may have been too close to a generator orpower line. If the interference doesn’t vary,you’re probably being jammed.

Once the radio interference has beenidentified as jamming, take the followingsteps —

Report the jamming, using a different(and secure, if possible) means ofcommunications. Don’t announce overnonsecure means that you are being jammed,because this will tell the Threat howsuccessful he is in jamming you.

★ Try to work through the jamming byincreasing transmitter power. Move theantenna to a position where it is masked fromthe Threat and slow down your rate oftransmission. Repeat each word and use thephonetic alphabet as necessary. Don’t yellinto the microphone — this will only createadditional side noises.

Build and use a horizontally polarized,directional antenna. This will increase theeffective radiated power of your radio. Forbest results, however, antenna polarizationshould be the same for all the stations on yournet. FM 24-1 shows how to build fieldexpedient antennas.

Finally, if all your attempts to evade orwork through the jamming fail, switch yourmode of communications. Wire systems andmessengers are always reliable asalternative means of communications.

★ COMMUNICATIONS-ELECTRONICS OPERATION INSTRUCTIONS (CEOI)

DESCRIPTIONThe CEOI is a document designed to Index.control communications. Each edition

contains the necessary material and Suffixes.information for 1 month. The following listshows the various items which may be found Radio call signs and frequencies.in a CEOI: Item number identifiers.

Handling instructions. Sound signals.

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FM 44-18

Panel signals.Wire tagging system.Interference reports.Message reference numbers.Field telephone instructions.Telephone switchboard designators.Pyrotechnic and smoke signals.Signs and countersigns.Transmission security instructions.Key list.Operations code.Authentication instructions.Transmission authentication tables.Numeral cipher/authentication system.

This appendix will not explain the use ofall of these items. Further information can befound in FM 24-1.

PHYSICAL SECURITY ANDCOMPROMISE

The CEOI is classified if its contentsrequire it. Normally, operational andcontingency CEOIs are classifiedCONFIDENTIAL. Administrative ortraining CEOIs are usually classified tomake their handling easier.

Classified CEOIs must be handled withall the precautions associated with anyclassified document. The CEOI possibly canbe compromised. As a precaution, thecomplete CEOI will not be taken forward of abattalion headquarters. Only a 10-daysegment of the CEOI is issued to the user atany one time.

If compromise occurs, it must be reportedthrough the chain of command immediately.A CEOI is considered compromised whenany portion of it is lost, captured, or exposedto unauthorized personnel. Another case iswhen the contents are so misused they

endanger the security of the communicationssystem.

CALL SIGNSA call sign is a letter-number-letter

combination assigned to a unit. Every unit inan organization has a different call sign.

The complete call sign is used under thefollowing conditions:

When opening a net.When entering a net in which you do not

normally operate.When responding to a net call.When requested by NCS or any other

station.When radio reception is poor.

At other times the last letter of the callsign with the suffix can be used. The lastletter will be different for all stations in a net.

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FM 44-18

SUFFIXESCall sign suffixes are two-number groups

assigned to positions or activities within aunit. In a training CEOI, these are usuallyfixed. In an operational CEOI, they arerandomly assigned on a daily basis. Anexpander letter can be attached to the basic

FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTSEach radio net is assigned a primary

frequency and an alternate frequency. Thesefrequencies change daily unless otherinstructions are given by the CEOIcontrolling authority. The daily change timeis in the CEOI special instructions.

suffix for further identification of positionsor activities if required. The call sign andsuffix together identify the sender andreceiver of a radio message.

OPERATIONS CODE,AUTHENTICATION INSTRUCTIONS,

AND TRANSMISSIONAUTHENTICATION ASSIGNMENTS

These items explain the use of operationscodes, the circumstances under whichauthentication is mandatory, and the use oftransmission authentication tables.Columns in the transmission authenticationtable are also assigned to specific units. Thenumeral cipher/authentication system isexplained as a separate item. Proper use ofthese items is critical to communicationssecurity.

REMEMBERTHIS APPENDIX 0NLY GIVES A BRIEFORIENTATION TO THE CEOI. TO BEPROFICIENT, STINGER PERSONNEL MUSTSTUDY AND PRACTICE USING THE CEOI ATEVERY OPPORTUNITY.

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C1, FM 44-18

★ APPENDIX C

Emergency Warning Signals

Air attacks will be swift and often unexpected. Therefore, early warning of a probableattack is necessary to give troops a chance to take cover. This warning may be passed throughnormal command channels, or given by local observation posts, Stinger teams, or air sentries.All observation posts should have air watch included in their duties and alertness for enemyaircraft required as part of normal observation. They will not always have a good view of the airaround them, in which case a special air guard must be detailed. All vehicles should have an airguarded detailed.

Hostile, low-flying aircraft may appear suddenly from behind low hills, belts of trees, orhaze. To gain surprise, they will try to attack you with the sun behind them.

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C1, FM 44-18

The alarm must be given immediately, if troops working in the open are to have any chanceof taking cover. This warning is the responsibility of every man in the area and will be passed bywhistle, voice, radio, or any other method. When the alarm is given, all troops except those inclose contact with the enemy must immediately take cover, if possible, below ground level, andremain there until the all-clear is given.

Evasive maneuver is the initial reaction of mounted units under air attack. Each vehicleturns away from an airplane’s axis of attack and seeks cover and concealment. They then shootat attacking aircraft as appropriate.

STINGER PERSONNEL MUST UNDERSTAND ALL WARNINGSIGNALS AS PRESCRIBED IN UNIT STOP

To provide a standard method of disseminating emergency warnings within NATO forcesoperating on land, the United States Armed Forces have concurred in the provisions ofSTANAG 2047 Emergency Alarms of Hazard or Attack, in NBC and air attack only. Pertinentextracts from STANAG 2047 suitable for use by Stinger personnel are listed in the EmergencyAlarms and Warning Signal illustration.

C-2

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★ APPENDIX D

Small Arms in the Air Defense Role

Many of a unit’s non-air-defense weapons (small arms and machine guns) are normallyused against the enemy’s ground forces. When the unit comes under air attack, these should betemporarily diverted to destroy or drive off attacking aircraft. Fires from air defense artilleryweapons, small arms, and machine guns must be massed against the air threat. Stingerpersonnel are air defense artillerymen. As such, they advise and assist supported unit personnelin learning when and how to fire at enemy aircraft.

All units must be able to use small arms and machine guns to counter enemy air attacks.

WHEN TO FIRE

The decision to engage aircraft withsmall arms and machine guns is normallymade by the unit commander. The rule for hisdecision is simple — if aircraft attack theunit, return fire.

If the aircraft is not attacking the unit,the unit commander makes the decision ofwhether to engage or not to engage theaircraft. The commander may not want toengage the aircraft and disclose his unit’sposition. If he decides to engage, he must beable to positively identify the aircraft as

hostile. The unit commander must rememberthat if his unit is not being attacked, he mustgive the order to fire.

D-1

C1, FM 44-18

HOW TO FIREStart by looking at how one man should fire at one aircraft. If the aircraft is attacking, he

will probably see a head-on view or crossing view of the target as shown below.

SOLDIER’S VIEW OF THE TARGET

AN INDIVIDUAL SOLDIER FIRING A RIFLE OR A MACHINEGUN CAN ACHIEVE HITS ON AN ENEMY AIRCRAFT WHENHE LEADS THE TARGET. DEPENDING ON HIS POSITION,THE SOLDIER WILL VIEW THE TARGET AS EITHER HEAD-ON (POSITION B) OR CROSSING (POSITIONS A AND C).

ENGAGING AN AIRCRAFT HEAD-ON

THE SOLDIER SHOULD AIM SLIGHTLY ABOVE THEAIRCRAFT’S NOSE AND FIRE. THE OBJECTIVE IS TO PUTAS MANY ROUNDS AS POSSIBLE INTO THE AIR FOR THEAIRCRAFT TO FLY INTO.

ENGAGING A CROSSING AIRCRAFTTHE SOLDIER ENGAGES CROSSING AIRCRAFT BYJUDGING THE DIRECTION OF FLIGHT OF THE TARGETAND LEADING IT. THE CORRECT AIMING POINT CAN BEDETERMINED IN TERMS OF A NUMBER OF FOOTBALLFIELDS. FOR JET AIRCRAFT THE SOLDIER AIMS AT LEASTTWO FOOTBALL FIELDS IN FRONT OF THE TARGET. FORHELICOPTERS AND PROPELLER-DRIVEN AIRCRAFT THELEAD DISTANCE IS ONE-HALF FOOTBALL FIELD. IF AHELICOPTER IS HOVERING, THE SOLDIER, WOULD, OFCOURSE, AIM DIRECTLY AT THE TARGET. EACHINDIVIDUAL WILL PERCEIVE THIS LEAD DIFFERENTLY.THEREFORE, A WINDOW, MUCH LIKE A SHOTGUNPATTERN, WILL BE ESTABLISHED WHICH THE TARGETMUST FLY THROUGH.THE FIRER SHOULD NOT ATTEMPT TO TRACK THETARGET; THAT IS, TO MAINTAIN THE SAME LEAD ON THETARGET THROUGHOUT FIRING. THE FIRER SHOULDESTABLISH HIS AIMING POINT AND FIRE ALL OF HISROUNDS AT THAT POINT. RIFLEMEN SHOULD FIRE ANENTIRE MAGAZINE AT THE AIMING POINT. MACHINEGUNNERS SHOULD FIRE AT LEAST A 50-ROUND BURST.

D-2

C1, FM 44-18

The best small arms protection against (visualizing football fields). However, someattacking aircraft is volume fire. It is will fire with too much lead and some with tooeffective. With everyone shooting at once, a little. But with everybody shooting, enoughlarge volume of airspace will be covered. All rounds will go to the right place in front of thesoldiers will use their projected lead aircraft.

INTERACTION WITH STINGERIn combat, the Stinger team will receive

an alert warning of unknown aircraftapproaching the unit’s position. Thewarning alerts the unit of a possible airattack. This is done by using the unit’scommand net and/or signals prescribed bythe unit SOP. The unit personnel withequipment can take appropriate action. Theyseek cover and concealment, disperse, and/ortake other measures as the situation requires.They then prepare to return fire, if attackedby enemy aircraft.

Together, Stinger, small arms, andmachine guns can destroy, drive away, orreduce the effectiveness of attacking aircraft.They put a volume of fire from the unit’sorganic weapons and Stinger missiles in theair. Even if the aircraft is not destroyed, thepilot’s ordnance delivery probably will beinaccurate. It is even more probable that hewon’t return for a second attack on the unit.

Reference FM 44-8 for information on useof small arms against air attack.

REMEMBERTHE COMMANDER CAN MAKE JUDICIOUS USE OF AVAILABLE AIR DEFENSE RESOURCES ANDSMALL ARMS AND MACHINE GUNS IN THE AIR OFFENSE ROLE. HE MAY ACHIEVE SUCCESS ON ABATTLEFIELD WHICH OTHERWISE MIGHT BE DOMINATED BY SUPERIOR AIR FORCES. HE MAY NOTCOMPLETELY DESTROY THE THREAT. HOWEVER, HE CAN, IN FACT, DEFEAT IT OR REDUCE ITSEFFECTIVENESS. PERSONNEL CAN FIRE TRACERS AND MISSILES WHICH THE PILOT CAN SEE.FREQUENTLY, THESE CONVINCE HIM TO INITIATE ESCAPE MANEUVERS OR CAUSE A REDUCEDACCURACY OF ORDNANCE DELIVERY.

D-3

APPENDIX E

Small Arms in the Air Defense Role

Many of a unit’s non-air-defense weapons (small arms and machine guns) are normallyused against the enemy’s ground forces. When the unit comes under air attack, these should betemporarily diverted to destroy or drive off attacking aircraft. Fires from air defense artilleryweapons, small arms, and machine guns must be massed against the air threat. Stingerpersonnel are air defense artillerymen. As such, they advise and assist supported unit personnelin learning when and how to fire at enemy aircraft.

All units must be able to use small arms and machine guns to counter enemy air attacks.

WHEN TO FIRE

The decision to engage aircraft with whether to engage or not to engage thesmall arms and machine guns is normally aircraft. The commander may not want tomade by the unit commander. The rule for hisdecision is simple —

engage the aircraft and disclose his unit’sif aircraft attack the position. If he decides to engage, he must be

unit, return fire. able to positively identify the aircraft ashostile. The unit commander must remember

If the aircraft is not attacking the unit, that if his unit is not being attacked, he mustthe unit commander makes the decision of give the order to fire.

E-1

FM 44-18

HOW TO FIREStart by looking at how one man should fire at one aircraft. If the aircraft is attacking, he

will probably see a head-on view or crossing view of the target as shown below.

SOLDIER’S VIEW OF THE TARGET

AN INDIVIDUAL SOLDIER FIRING A RIFLE OR A MACHINEGUN CAN ACHIEVE HITS ON AN ENEMY AIRCRAFT WHENHE LEADS THE TARGET. DEPENDING ON HIS POSITION,THE SOLDIER WILL VIEW THE TARGET AS EITHER HEAD-ON (POSITION B) OR CROSSING (POSITIONS A AND C).

ENGAGING AN AIRCRAFT HEAD-ON

THE SOLDIER SHOULD AIM SLIGHTLY ABOVE THEAIRCRAFT’S NOSE AND FIRE. THE OBJECTIVE IS TO PUTAS MANY ROUNDS AS POSSIBLE INTO THE AIR FOR THEAIRCRAFT TO FLY INTO.

ENGAGING A CROSSING AIRCRAFT

THE SOLDIER ENGAGES CROSSING AIRCRAFT BYJUDGING THE DIRECTION OF FLIGHT OF THE TARGETAND LEADING IT. THE CORRECT AIMING POINT CAN BEDETERMINED IN TERMS OF A NUMBER OF FOOTBALLFIELDS. FOR JET AIRCRAFT THE SOLDIER AIMS AT LEASTTWO FOOTBALL FIELDS IN FRONT OF THE TARGET. FORHELICOPTERS AND PROPELLER-DRIVEN AIRCRAFT THELEAD DISTANCE IS ONE-HALF FOOTBALL FIELD. IF AHELICOPTER IS HOVERING, THE SOLDIER, WOULD, OFCOURSE, AIM DIRECTLY AT THE TARGET. EACHINDIVIDUAL WILL PERCEIVE THIS LEAD DIFFERENTLY.THEREFORE, A WINDOW, MUCH LIKE A SHOTGUNPATTERN, WILL BE ESTABLISHED WHICH THE TARGETMUST FLY THROUGH.THE FIRER SHOULD NOT ATTEMPT TO TRACK THETARGET; THAT IS, TO MAINTAIN THE SAME LEAD ON THETARGET THROUGHOUT FIRING, THE FIRER SHOULDESTABLISH HIS AIMING POINT AND FIRE ALL OF HISROUNDS AT THAT POINT. RIFLEMEN SHOULD FIRE ANENTIRE MAGAZINE AT THE AIMING POINT. MACHINEGUNNERS SHOULD FIRE AT LEAST A 50-ROUND BURST.

E-2

FM 44-18

The best small arms protection against (visualizing football fields). However, someattacking aircraft is volume fire. It is will fire with too much lead and some with tooeffective. With everyone shooting at once, a little. But with everybody shooting, enoughlarge volume of airspace will be covered. All rounds will go to the right place in front of thesoldiers will use - their projected lead aircraft. -

INTERACTION WITH STINGERIn combat, the Stinger team will receive

an alert warning of unknown aircraftapproaching the unit’s position. Thewarning alerts the unit of a possible airattack. This is done by using the unit’scommand net and/or signals prescribed bythe unit SOP. The unit personnel withequipment can take appropriate action. Theyseek cover and concealment, disperse, and/ortake other measures as the situation requires.They then prepare to return fire, if attackedby enemy aircraft.

Together. Stinger. small. arms, andmachine guns can destroy, drive away, orreduce the effectiveness of attacking aircraft.They put a volume of fire from the unit’sorganic weapons and Stinger missiles in theair. Even if the aircraft is not destroyed, thepilot’s ordnance delivery probably will beinaccurate. It is even more probable that hewon’t return for a second attack on the unit.

Reference FM 44-8 for information on useof small arms against air attack.

REMEMBERTHE COMMANDER CAN MAKE JUDICIOUS USE OF AVAILABLE AIR DEFENSE RES0URCES ANDSMALL ARMS AND MACHINE GUNS IN THE AIR DEFENSE ROLE. HE MAY ACHIEVE SUCCESS ON ABATTLEFIELD WHICH OTHERWISE MIGHT BE DOMINATED BY SUPERIOR AIR FORCES. HE MAY NOTCOMPLETEY DESTROY THE THREAT. HOWEVER, HE CAN, IN FACT, DEFEAT IT OR REDUCE ITSEFFECTIVENESS. PERSONNEL CAN FIRE TRACERS AND MISSILES WHICH THE PILOT CAN SEE.FREQUENTLY, THESE CONVINCE HIM TO INITIATE ESCAPE MANEUVERS OR CAUSE A REDUCEDACCURACY OF ORDNANCE DELIVERY.

E-3

C1, FM 44-18

Glossary

AATFACAADADO

ADCADCO

ADCS

ADIZADOAADWAHAIM

AMASMASPATCHATGMBCCBCOBCUCASCBUC-ECEOI

CFACOMSECCPCRCCRP

Air assault task forceAirspace control authorityAssistant division air defense

officerAir defense commandAir defense coordination

officerAir defense coordination

sectionAir defense identification zoneAir defense operations areaAir defense warningsAttack helicopterArmored, infantry,

mechanized (infantrydivisions)

Amplitude modulatedAir-to-surface missileAmmunition supply pointAttachmentAntitank guided missileBattery control centralBattery control officerBattery/coolant unitClose air supportCluster bomb unitCommunications-ElectronicsCommunications-Electronics

Operating InstructionsCovering force areaCommunications securityCommand postControl and reporting centerControl and reporting post

CSSCWDAME

DIVADDSDXECCM

ECMELINTELSECEMCONEMPEWEWBNFAARFACFACPFEBAFEZFLOTFMFRAGOGSGS-RHIDACZ

HIMEZ

HUMINTIAWICD

Combat service supportChemical weapons/warfareDivision airspace

management elementDivision air defenseDirect supportDirect exchangeElectronic counter-

countermeasureElectronic countermeasureElectronic intelligenceElectronic securityEmission controlElectromagnetic pulseElectronic warfareEarly warning broadcast netForward area alerting radarForward air controllerForward air control postForward edge of the battle areaFighter engagement zoneForward line of own troopsFrequency modulationFragmentary orderGeneral supportGeneral support-reinforcingHigh-density airspace control

zone.High-altitude missile

engagement zoneHuman intelligenceIn accordance withImitative communications

deception

Glossary-1

C1, FM 44-18

IDirIRCMkmKT★ LADS

LLTRLOMEZ

LZMANPAD

MBAMOPP

mphMRRMSCS

MSUMTNATO

NBCNCSOPCOMOPCONOPORDOPSEC★ ORLPCPPHOTINTPLLPOL

Glossary-2

IdentificationInfraredInfrared countermeasuresKilometerKilotonLight Air Defense SystemLow-level transit routeLow-altitude missile

engagement zoneLanding zoneManportable air defense

(system)Main battle areaMission oriented protective

postureMiles per hourMinimum risk routeManual SHORAD control

systemMissile support unitMegatonNorth Atlantic Treaty

OrganizationNuclear, biological, chemicalNet control stationOperational commandOperational controlOperations orderOperations securityOrdnance release linePlatoon command postPhotographic intelligencePrescribed load listPetroleum, oil, and lubrication

PPIPSFPTLPZRRadRATELORDFRFRFDLROERPRSOP

SAMSARSHORAD

Plan position indicatorPrimary sector of firePrimary target linePickup zoneReinforcingRadiation dose levelsRadiotelephone operatorRadio direction findingRadio frequencyRadio frequency data linkRules of engagementRelease pointReconnaissance, selection, and

occupation of positionSurface-to-air missileSearch and rescueShort-range air defense

SHORADEZ Short-range air defense

SIGINTSITREPSMPTADDSTCOTFTOCTOE

TOW

TSOP

WCSWEZ

engagement zoneSignal intelligenceSituation reportSensor management planTarget alert data display setTactical control officerTask forceTactical operations centerTable(s) of organization and

equipmentTube (launched), optically

(tracked), wire (guided)(antitank missile)

Tactical standing operatingprocedure

Weapons control statusWeapons engagement zone

C1, FM 44-18

Index-1

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Index-2

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Index-3

Cl, FM 44-18

Index-4

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Index-5

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Index-6

Cl, FM 44-18

Index-7

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Index-8

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Index-9

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Index-10

FM 44-18

30 SEPTEMBER 1981

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

E. C. MEYERGeneral, United States Army

Chief of Staff

Official:

ROBERT M. JOYCEBrigadier General, United States Army

The Adjutant General

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army, ARNG, and USAR: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11A & B,Requirements for REDEYE Guided Missile System (Qty rqr block no. 192); US Army Air DefenseArtillery Employment (Qty rqr block no. 348); Operations of Army Forces in the Field (Qty rqrblock no. 405); and Army Airspace Control Doctrine (Qty rqr block no. 426).

Additional copies may be requisitioned from the US Army Adjutant General Publications Center,2800 Eastern Boulevard, Baltimore, MD 21220.

★ U.S. Government Printing Office: 1993 — 342-421/80614

PIN: 049835-001