AIRBORNE ATMOSPHERIC Hegg, Margaretcarg.atmos.washington.edu/sys/research/archive/grand... · 2004. 6. 10. · Anotherpowerplantofinterest, theNavajocoal-firedelectricpowerplantatPage,Arizona,is

AIRBORNE MEASUREMENTS OF ATMOSPHERICTRACE CONSTITUENTS IN THEGRAND CANYON REGION

Prepared by

Ronald J. Ferek, Dean A. Hegg, Peter V. Hobbsand Margaret Orphan

Prepared for

Southern California Edison Co.ATTN: R.J. Farber

and

Salt River ProjectATTN: P.S. Bhardwaja

Annual Report to Southern California Edison Company under P.O. Number C1505906and Final Report to the Salt River Project under P.O. Number VN03548DEK

December 1987

SUMMARY

Airborne measurements of trace constituents related to visibility were obtained during five

research flights in and around the Grand Canyon National Park in October 1985. The flights

originated in Las Vegas and generally traversed the Zion, Bryce and Grand Canyon National

Parks, as well as the Lower Colorado River Valley. In addition to continuous measurements in the

boundary layer during horizontal flight segments, vertical profile measurements were obtained over

Bryce Canyon, Page, Hopi Point and Spirit Mt. Filters were exposed along various horizontal

segments of each flight track, as well as over various ranges in altitude. The filters were analyzed

for inorganic species (SO^ and NOi) and organic and elemental carbon.

The vertical profiles of the light-scattering coefficient due to particles (bgp) and ozone

concentrations in southwesterly flow conditions show evidence of haze layers aloft in the morning.

Flights later in the day show less evidence of "layering". Measurements of b^r,, 03 and fine

particle volume in the horizontal were, on any one day, fairly uniform throughout the region.

However, from day to day, aerosol sulfate concentrations and bgp varied by factors of ten and

five, respectively, whereas, the concentrations of organic carbon varied by only a factor of two.

When sulfate aerosol concentrations were high, the accumulation mode in the aerosol size

distribution was enhanced and bgp was well correlated with the volume of fine particles (< 1.08

|im diameter). Calculations show that sub-micron particles were responsible for one-third to three-

quarters of the total light scattering due to particles and that most of the sub-micron mass

determined from size distribution measurements could be accounted for by sulfate.

-i-

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................2. RESULTS OF INDIVIDUAL FLIGHTS.......................................................... n3. EFFECTS OF FINE PARTICLES ON LIGHT SCATTERING...............................^4. COMPARISONS OF AIRBORNE AND GROUND-BASED MEASUREMENTS.........^?5. CONCLUSIONS.................................................................... 6o

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................... ^REFERENCES............................................................... ^2

APPENDIX: PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS .............................................64

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AIRBORNE MEASUREMENTS OF ATMOSPHERIC TRACE CONSTITUENTS

IN THE GRAND CANYON REGION

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION

Overview

The Cloud and Aerosol Research Group at the University of Washington has carried out a

number of airborne studies of panicles and trace gases in the plume of the Mohave coal-fired

electric power plant and its environs (Hobbs and Hegg, 1982; Glantz, 1982; Poteet, 1983; Schutt,

1984; Hegg et al., 1985). Emissions from the Mohave plant are of particular interest because it lies

upwind of the Grand Canyon, Bryce and Zion National Parks during the part of the year (most

commonly between April and.October) when these parks are frequented by the majority of visitors.

During October 1985, while the Mohave plant was shut down for repairs, we undertook a study of

visibility-related pollutants in the vicinity and downwind of the plant in order to assess regional

factors affecting visibility in this area and for comparison with past and future measurements with

the Mohave plant in operation.

Another power plant of interest, the Navajo coal-fired electric power plant at Page, Arizona, is

located at the eastern edge of the study region. This plant lies between Glen Canyon National

Recreation Area and the Grand Canyon National Park. Airborne measurements were made near

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-2-

the Navajo plant and its ground monitoring stations in order to investigate visibility-related

pollutants.

A number of investigators have studied the relationship between visibility and air quality in the

southwestern U.S. Macias et al. (1981a) found that light extinction was due mainly to fine

particles (which they defined as ^ 2 urn in diameter), which were composed primarily of sulfate

and organic carbon. Cahill et al. (1981) found that the poorest visibility in southern Utah was

usually associated with high levels of sulfate aerosol, although soil dust and emissions from forest

fires caused poor visibility on occasions. Macias sLaL. (1981b) and Pitchford eLaL (1981) found

that incidents of poor visibility in northern Arizona were associated with air trajectories from urban

and industrial sources in southern California and southern Arizona. Trajectories from southern

California were associated with high levels of secondary sulfate, organic carbon and ozone. Those

from southern Arizona were often associated with high sulfur and copper concentrations,

presumably due to smelter operations in that area.

In addition to the presence of fme aerosol sulfate and/or carbon, the size distribution of fine

particles irrespective of composition, should have an effect of visibility, since scattering exhibits a

strong dependence on particle size (e.g., Waggoner et al.. 1981). Fine particles in the range 0.2

1.0 (im diameter are the most effective at scattering light. Coarse particles have been shown to

contribute significantly to light scattering at ground level in the Grand Canyon (Malm and Johnson,

1984) but the concentrations of these particles fall off rapidly with altitude (Guest et al.. 1984).

The present study was designed to obtain the following airborne measurements over a rangeof locations and altitudes in the Grand Canyon region:

Continuous measurements of the light-scattering coefficient due to particles (b.-), ozone"Pconcentrations and various meteorological parameters.

-3-

Semi-continuous (^ 2 min) measurements of aerosol size distributions over the size range

0.01 45 (im diameter.

Intermittent collection of aerosol samples for analysis of selected inorganic and organic

species.

Five research flights were carried out in and around the Colorado River Valley, between

Needles and Page. In addition to the measurements obtained during horizontal flight legs, vertical

spirals were generally made over Spirit Mountain (in the Lower Colorado River Valley), Hopi

Point (near the eastern end of the Grand Canyon), Page (at the Glen Canyon Dam) and Bryce

Canyon. The airflow was light and from the north during the first flight and from the southwest

during the other four flights.

Experimental Techniques

All of the measurements to be described were obtained aboard the University of Washington’s

Convair C-131A research aircraft. Most of the instrumentation aboard this aircraft has been

described elsewhere (Hobbs staL 1976; Hegg and Hobbs, 1980; Radke. 1983). Briefly, bârozone and various meteorological parameters were measured with continuous monitors; their

outputs were sent to an analog-to-digital converter and recorded at 13 Hz. Particle size

distributions from 0.01 to 45 p.m diameter were measured approximately every 2 min. using

several instruments sampling air from a common chamber. Aerosols for fine mode sulfate and

carbon analysis were collected by periodically filling a 1.5 m^ polyethylene bag with ambient air.

The inlet duct to the bag had a large Nucleopore filter (29 cm in diameter, 12 p.m pore size) in line

to remove particles ^ 4 p.m diameter. Air was drawn from the bag through one of two types of

filter arrangements. At various intervals of time, a filter pack, consisting of a teflon filter (2.0 urnpore size, Ghia Corp.) followed by a nylon filter (Nylasorb, 1 p,m pore size, Gelman Sciences

-4-

Inc.), was used to collect inorganic aerosols and nitric acid. This configuration allows

measurements of the lower limit of paniculate nitrate, the upper limit of HN03, and a reliable

measurement of total nitrate. At other times a single quartz-fiber filter was exposed for organic and

elemental carbon analysis (MuellereLaL 1982). A complete list of the instrumentation carried

aboard the UW research aircraft during these flights is contained in Table 1.

In the following section of this report, the results from each flight will be presented on a case-

by-case basis. Section 3 will present the effects of fine particles on light scattering during these

flights. Section 4 contains a brief comparison of airborne and ground-based measurements of light

scattering and fine-particle sulfate.

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TABLE 1. Instrumentation Aboard the University of Washington’s Aircraft

Parameter

Latitude andlongitude,ground speed andhorizontal winds

True airspeed

Heading

Pressurealtitude

Altitude aboveterrain

Aircraftposition andcourse plotter

Angle of attack

Pitch angle

Rate of climb

(b) Meteorolopcal

Total airtemperature

Instrument Type

(a) Navigational

VLF: Omeganavigator

Variablecapacitance

Gyrocompass

Variablecapacitance

Radar altimeter

Works off DMEand VOR (soon tobe integrated withVLF Omega system)

Potentiometer

Gyroscope

Variometer

Platinum wireresistance

Manufacturer

snd Flieht Characteristics

LittonLTN-3000

RosemountModel 831 BA

King KCS-55A

RosemountModel 830 BA

AN/APN22

In-house

RosemountModel 861

Sperry M12

Ball Engineering

Rosemount Model102CY2CG + 414 LBridge

Range (and error)

0 to 300m s’1(+/-l m s-1groundspeedand +/-1’ drift angle)

0 to 230 m s-1(<0.2%)

0 to 360(+/-0.5-)

150 to 1060 mb(<0.2%)

0 to 6 km5%)

180 km(1 km)

+/-23(<0.5)

+/-30

+/-12 m s-1

-70 to 30C(<0.1C)

(Continued)

-6-

TABLE 1. (Continued)

Parameter Instrument Type Manufacturer Range (and error)

(b) Meteorological (Continued

Stadc airtemperature

Dew point

Air turbulence

Pyranometer(s)(one downwardand one upwardviewing)

Ultravioletradiadon

Computer value

Dew condensadon

Differendal

Eppley thermopile

Barrier-layerphotoelectric cell

In-house

Cambridge SystemsModel TH73-244

MeteorologyResearch, Inc.Model 1120

Eppley Laboratory,Inc. Model PSP

-70 to 30C(< 0.5C)

-40 to 50’C(< 1C)

0 to 10 erne s’1(< 10%)

0 to 1400 W m-2(~ 1%)

r2 c-lEppley Laboratory, 0 70 J m’2 s’Inc. Model 14042 (< 5%)

(c) Cloud Physics

Liquid watercontent

Liquid watercontent

Ice accumuladonrate (supercooledwater collector)

Size spectrumcloud pardcles

Hot wire resistance

Hot wire resistance

Tuned oscillatorimpacdon rod

Forward lightscattering

Johnson-Williams 0 to 2 and 0 to 6 g m’3

King probe

Rosemount

0 to 5 g m’3

In calibration

Pardcle Measuring 2 to 47 pm*Systems Model FSSP

(Condnued)

"All panicle sizes refer to maximum pardcle dimensions.

-7-



fc) Cloud Physics (Continued^

Size spectrumcloud particles

Size spectrumcloud particles

Size spectrum ofprecipitationparticles

Images of cloudpanicles

Images ofprecipitationparticles

Ice particleconcentrations

Diode occultation

Diode occultation

Diode occultation

Diode imaging

Particle MeasuringSystemsModel OAP-200XParticle MeasuringSystemsModel OAP-200X

Particle MeasuringSystemsModel OAP-200Y

Particle MeasuringSystemsModel OAP-2D-P

In-house

Diode occultation imaging Particle MeasuringSystemsModel OAP-2D-C

Optical polarizationtechnique

20 to 30 \im*

20 to 300 nm*

300 to 4500 urn*

Resolution* 25 [im

Resolution* 200 urn

0 to 1000 ^ detectsparticles (> 50 (im)*

(d) Aerosol

Numberconcentrationsof particles

Numberconcentrationsof particles

Light transmission

Rapid expansion

General ElectricModel CNC H

Gardner

\02 to 106 cm’3(particles> 0.005 urn)*

2 x 102 to 107 cm-3*

Mass concentration Electrostatic deposition Thermal Systems,particles onto matched oscillators Inc. Model 3205

(Continued)

"All particle sizes refer to maximum particle dimensions.

0.1 to 3000 ng m-3(< 0.2 ng m-3)

-8-



(d) Aerosol (Continued

Size spectrumof particles






Light-scatteringcoefficient

Electric aerosol analyzer

90" lightscattering


Diffusion battery

35 120’ lightscattering


Integrating nephelometer

Thermal Systems, 0.0032 to 1.0 urn*Inc. Model 3030

Particle Measuring 0.5 to 11 p,m*System (LAS-200)

Royco 245 1.5 to 40 (im*(In-house modified)

Thermal Systems, 0.01 to 0.2 \im*Inc. Model 3040 within-house automaticvalves and sequencing

Particle Measuring 0.09 to 3.0 }imSystems (< 0.007 urn)*Model ASASP-X

Particle Measuring 2 to 47 p.m*Systems Model FSSP

O to l.O x lO^ m-1or

MeteorologyResearch, Inc.Model 1567 0 to 2.5 x 10-3 m-1(modified for increasedstability and betterresponse time)

(Continued)

"All particle sizes refer to maximum particle dimensions.

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(e) Cloud and Atmospheric Chernkfry

PaniculateS04, N03. Cr’

Na+ K-^, NH^S02

SO^

Ozone

NO, N02, NOx

HN03

Teflon filtersDionexion exchangechromatography

Impregnated filters

Pulsed fluorescence

Chemiluminescence(C2H4)

Chemiluminescence(03)

Nylon filters with teflonpre-filter followed byion chromatography (1C)

In-house

In-house

Teco SP43(modified in-house)

Monitor LabsModel 8410 A

Modified MonitorLabs Model 8840

Gelman filters andDionex 1C

0.1 to 50 (ig m’3(for 500 liter airsample)

S 20ppty(for 5 m-’ air sample)

1.0 ppb to 5 ppm

0 to 5 ppm (< 7 ppb)

0 to 5 ppm (~ 1 ppb)

Variable

(f) Data Processing and Display

Time

Time

Groundcommunication

Mightdataprocessing

Time code generator

Radio WWV

FM transceiver

Mini-computer

Systron DonnerModel 8220

Gertsch RHF 1

Motorola

h, min, s(1:105)min

200km

Computer AutomationLSI-m

(Continued)

-10-



(H Data Processing and Display frnnrinn^

Inflight color Micro-computer

Recording (digital) Micro-computer directedcartridge recorder

Recording (digital) Floppy disk

Recording Cassette recorder(analog voicetranscription)

Digital printout Impact printer

Apple n

3M

Calcomp Model 140C

Radio ShackModel 3C

Analog strip charts 6-channel Hi-speedink recorder

Brush Model 260

-1 1-

SECTION 2

RESULTS OF INDIVIDUAL FLIGHTS

Meteorological descriptions, flight paths and results from each flight are presented below.

Case l: 5 October 1985

Figure 1 shows the 700 mb weather map for 1700 Pacific Daylight Time (PDT) for 5 October

1985. Upper-air flow had been light and northerly during the previous two days. On the

5 October, winds were light and northerly at the 850 mb level due to a high-pressure center just

north of the area. Winds at 700 mb were predominately northerly but sdll quite light. The

pressure was falling slowly as an offshore low-pressure center moved in toward the West Coast.

The air was warm and dry with temperatures 20 25C at 850 mb; the dewpoint depression was

about 23’C. Skies were cloudless. The flight path and times are illustrated in Figure 2.

Table 2 lists the 5-minute average values of pressure-altitude, winds, ben, ozone and fine;>p

particle volume for this flight.* Measurements of bgp, 03 and fine particle volume (particle

diameter < 1.08 pm) showed fairly uniform values throughout the region, but bgp was somewhat

higher over the eastern half of the flight track. Several brush fires were observed north of Bryce

Canyon and Page; although the plumes from these fires were far to the north of the flight path, they

bsp, the light-scattering due to particles, is calculated from measurements ofbscat by subtractingthe value for Rayleigh scattering. Fine particle volume is calculated from 2 3 particle sizedistributions measured during each 5-minute period. Panicle size distributions averaged overseveral segments of each flight are presented in the Appendix.

-12-

Figure 1. 700 mb analysis of heights (solid lines labelled in decameters) and temperatures (dashed

lines labelled in C) for 5 October 1985 at 1700 PDT.

-13-

35N

Figure 2. Flight path (arrowed line) and times (PDT) at which the aircraft was located at specific

points on 5 October 1985. Circular symbols indicate the locations (Spirit Mt.. Hopi Pt., Page and

Bryce Canyon) where measurements in the vertical were obtained.

-14-

TABLE 2. Five-minute averages of continuous measurements obtained during the flight on5 October 1985.

Time^(PDT)

11:4511:5011:5512:0012:0512:1012:1512:2012:2512:3012:3512:4012:4512:5012:5513:0013:0513:1013:1513:2013:2513:3013:3513:4013:4513:5013:5514:0014:0514:1014:1514:2014:25

(Continued)

Pressur

(mb)

913858911958959959959954881818807761717782830921930893888883872803766764761758758758760760759760722

e Wind direction (deg)/Wind speed (m s’1)

36/3147/2217/2327/2343/4351/8

7/75/6

34/436/426/-

337/-351/-18/-

353/-27/6

354/726/636/578/4100/427/2

240/3229/5222/5220/2234/1250/3223/3213/3267/-310/-331/-

^P(lO^ m-1)

1.360.650.940.981.011.021.671.200.840.750.900.890.971.231.481.871.982.102.182.222.241.982.202.332.382.422.512.462.602.682.562.632.60

Ozon

(ppb

8588969176626558496172909490899085636263666160575858566157

e Fine particle volume

) (urn3 cm’3)*

0.300.43n ^8U.Jo

0 530.470.500.640.630.270.260.270.130.150.170.310.420.460.470.560.570.430.260.200.250.220.220.230.190.210.180.150.170.14

fTime is the midpoint of the 5-minute period from which 13 Hz data is averaged.1-T:

*Fine panicle volume represents the average calculated from the 2 or 3 particle size distributionmeasurements obtained during each 5-minute period.

-15-


Tune*(PDT)

14:3014:3514:4014:4514:5014:5515:0015:0515:1015:1515:2015:2515:3015:3515:4015:4515:5015:5516:0016:0516:1016:1516:2016:2516:3016:3516:4016:4516:5016:5517:0017:0517:1017:1517:2017:2517:30

Pressure(mb)

670704752757758755765797807799798792754695699774798797761698680680651624675680682687721742736737736738737759781

Wind direcri(

/Wind speed

303/-277/-315/-312/4327/6306/5338/276/572/496/542/-

-/--/-

293/-290/-1911-285/3312/3305/3298/3220/6339/6

-/--/--/--/-

283/5266/4258/5292/6293/6293/5297/7303/7282/3349/4333/5

MI (deg)

(m s-1)^P

(lO^ m-1)

2.502.542.582.512.472.412.562.672.692.622.622.552.452.292.312.602.592.492.412.392.242.172.092.022.021.971.951.992.052.011.861.751.601.641.641.641.73

Ozon^

(Ppb)

535562626061637180797878695353697674726157595755626260627172706660636768 0 \074

Fine particle volume(p.m3 cm"3)*

0.24

0.150.160.260.220.140.170.160.370.390.360.390.350 450.170.220.360.400.330.260.190.230.150.140.170.150.100.160.180.250.270.270.140.13

n i9

tTime is the midpoint of the 5-minute period from which 13 Hz data is averaged.

*Fine particle volume represents the average calculated from the 2 or 3 particle size distributionmeasurements obtained during each 5-minute period.

-16-

may have contributed to the elevated values of bgp and aerosol organic carbon along the

northeastern portion of the flight track.

Vertical profiles of b^p and 03 at Spirit Mt., Hopi Pt., Page and Bryce (Figures 3 and 4)

indicate a fairly uniform, well-mixed boundary layer. Temperature profiles did not indicate any

inversions and no haze layers were detected.

Aerosol sulfate concentrations (Table 3) were low at all locations, with the exception of

Marble Canyon where light northerly winds and the highest bg? value (2.7 x 10-5 m-1 between

1500 1515 PDT) of the entire flight was measured. This may indicate the influence of stagnant

conditions near Page. Measurements of paniculate carbon were made between the Lower

Colorado River Valley and Lake Mead. and from Page to Zion (Table 4). The concentration of

organic carbon measured between Page and Zion (3.04 [ig m-3) was the highest recorded of all the

flights. Given the low sulfate concentrations (-0.25 ^g m-3) measured in this area, organic carbon

may have been responsible for most of the light scattering by particles during this flight. Also, in

view of the light winds, it is likely that both paniculate carbon and sulfate were due to local

sources. The high ratio of organic to elemental carbon may indicate that the carbonaceous material

was not of recent urban origin.

Even though the airflow into the region on 5 October was from the "clean corridor" to the

nonhwest (Pitchford et al.. 1981), bgp values were not dramatically lower than those measured on

later flights when the airflow was from the southwest. This may have been due to the low wind

speeds, which allowed effluents from local emissions to build up within the region and to dominate

light scattering.

550

S 6502ÛJCC

^ 750U1LLJcc0.

850

9500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

550

S 6502;

LUcc

^ 750inLUCCQ.

850

950

r 5 OCT 85 550SPIRIT MOUNTAIN1236-1253 (PDT)

650

750"iiaS.R.W’V.1

850

ncn

r 5 OCT 85 550PAGE1524-1546 (PDT)

650

J’J 750

/

850

PRO

r 5 OCT 85HOPI POINT1422-1440 (PDT)

m;

i |’

r 5 OCT 858RYCE CANYON1617-1630 (PDT)

1-+

7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

bspdO^m-’) bspdO’V)0 1 2 3 4 5 6

k nn-5-

Figure 3. Vertical profiles of the light-scattering coefficient (bgp) on 5 October 1985. Plus signs

indicate surface measurements from a nearby SCENES site.

550

m 6505:

0)CE

^ 750iniucra

850

950

550

m 650ÛJCE

^ 750V)UJcra

850

9503

5 OCT 85 550SPIRIT MOUNTAIN1236- 1253 (PDT)

650

^k’-’.-

3-^ 750

^ 850

30 50 ’^"go l io 130 950,

r ^ 85

1524- 1546 (PDT)

650

’^^-fl’^W...% 750-^’-t’-.-^^-

850

0 50 70 90 1 10 130950

3OZONE (PPB)

r 5 OCT 85HOPI POINT1422- 1440 (PDT)

.^’>ife’

30 50 70 90 1 10 130

r 5 OCT, 85BRYCE CANYON1617-1630 (PDT)

.iC^^’’"’-’f.’^-’VM^’.,.

0 50 70 90 1 10 130OZONE (PPB)

Figure 4. Vertical profiles of ozone concentration on 5 October 1985.

-19-

TABLE 3. Airborne measurements of sulfate and nitrate concentrations.

Date(October1985)

5

6

7

8

Location [Spiral (S)or Horizontal (H)

flight path]

Lk. Mead to LowerColorado Valley (H)Spirit Mt. (S)Grand Canyon (H)Hopi Pt. (S)Marble Canyon (H)Page (S)Bryce (S)

Lake Mohave (H)Spirit Mt. (S)Grand Canyon (H)Hopi Pt. (S)Marble Canyon (H)Page (S)Bryce (S)

Bryce (S)Page (S)Marble Canyon (H)Hopi Pt. (S)Grand Canyon (H)Spirit Mt. (S)Lks. Mohave & Mead (H)

Page (S)Marble Canyon (H)Hopi Pt. (S)Grand Canyon (H)Lk. Mead to LowerColorado Valley (H)Spirit Mt. (S)

Bag Sample Times(PDT)

1 158, 1207, 12161235, 1244, 12531347, 1358. 14091421, 1430, 14391449, 1459, 15081524, 1536, 15451614. 1624, 1634

0833, 0841, 08480916, 0924, 09331007, 1018, 10321045, 1055, 11061 115, 1,125, 11331139. 1147, 11571232, 1242, 1253

1316, 1326, 13391403, 1411, 14211430. 1438, 14501500, 1509, 15191527, 1538, 15481700. 1709, 17191725, 1732

0908. 0917. 09270934, 0944, 09531002. 1011, 10181030, 1040. 1050

1152, 1200. 12361210, 1219, 1228

Pardci

SO^(Ug m-3)*

0.540.51

0.201.420.270.23

0.560.560.420.390.390.440.49

0.530.920.991.051.321.901.13

0.900.931.291.12

2.070.98

ulate

N03Qig m-3)!

0.100.240.100.150.12< dl0.22

0.090.330.140.120.060.1 10.49

< dl0.08< dl0.150.090.160.14

0.290.120.140.08

0.210.18

Gaseous

NOg(Ug m-^S

<dl0.15< dl< dl<dl0.170.12

<dl0.21<dl0.10<dl< dl0.10

< dl< dl< dl< dl<dl<dl< dl

< dl<dl< dl< dl

<dl< dl

"uncertainty: +/-0.1l Hg m’3detection limit (dl): 0.2 (J.g m’3

-3’uncertainty: +/- 0.06 (J.g mdetection limit (dl): 0.1 ng m-3

ûncertainty: +/- 0.05 ng m"3detection limit (dl): 0.1 [lg m’3

-20-

TABLE 4. Airborne measurements of paniculate carbon.

Date Location Bag Sample Times(October (PDT)1985)

Organic ElementalCarbon Carbon

(Hg C m-3)* (ng C m-3)*

5 Lower Colorado Valleyto Lake Mead

5 Page to Zion

6 Lower Colorado Valleyto Lake Mead

6 Page to Zion

7 Las Vegas to Bryce7 Lake Mead to Lower

Colorado Valley

8 Bryce to Page8 Lk. Mead to Lower

Colorado Valley

9 Lk. Mead to LowerColorado Valley

9 Lower Colorado Valley9 Lake Mead9 Grand Canyon

12 Las Vegas to Bryce12 Marble Canyon12 Grand Canyon12 Lk. Mead to Lower

Colorado Valley

1225, 1300, 1313, 1333 2.30 0 0261551, 1644. 1703 3.04 0;030

0854, 0906, 0941, 09521205, 1220, 1302. 1318, 1333

1217. 1232, 1247, 1347

1557, 1613, 1628, 1640

0808, 0822, 0835, 0900

1058, 1115, 1131, 1143

1303, 1321, 1430, 14411334, 1353, 14111506. 1524, 15391540, 1613, 1630

0823, 0841, 0859, 0915, 09280950, 1007, 1024, 10451104, 1123, 1 140

1200, 1215, 1231, 1253, 1314 1.81 0.083

2.972.49

2.61

2.36

1.97

2.28

1.482.152.282.06

1.221.882.25

0.0910.061

0.057

0.050

0.039

0.067

0.0420.0280.0150.018

0.0430.0510.053

’"uncertainty: +/- 10%detection limit (dl): 0.006 ng m’3

-21-

Case 2: 6 October 19R5

Strong southwesterly winds were present at both the 850 and 700 mb levels for the entire

flight (Figure 5). Winds increased from 25 knots at 0500 PDT on 6 October to 35 knots at 1700

PDT on October 6. Pressure was falling and the air was cooler than on the previous day.

Scattered rain showers were present across the region.

The flight path (Figure 6) was similar to that of the previous day, but takeoff was

approximately three hours earlier. Measurements of b~ were quite variable during the early panof the flight in the Lower Colorado River Valley but fairly uniform after approximately 1030 PDT(Table 5). The vertical profiles of bgp and 03 (Figures 7 and 8) show substantial "layering"

during the early sounding at Spirit Mt. More uniform mixing in the vertical was evident at the

other sites, which were sampled later in the day. Temperature profiles (Figure 9) support this

result, in that a slight temperature inversion is present at Spirit Mt. at approximately 800 mb (the

same level at which bgp and 03 reach maximum values). The temperature profiles measured later

in the day at the other three sites at which vertical profiles were made are more uniform, indicating

that mixing in the vertical had taken place.

The sulfate aerosol (Table 3) and paniculate carbon concentrations (Table 4) were fairly

uniform through out the region and similar to the concentrations measured on the previous day

when the airflow was from the north. Southwest flow and upwind sources may have been

responsible for the haze layers being transported into the Lower Colorado River Valley, and for the

relatively high concentrations of elemental carbon that we measured on this day in the Lower

Valley. The fact that concentrations elsewhere in the region on this day were similar to those

measured on the previous day indicates that the southwest flow had not yet transported a great deal

of haze into the region beyond the Lower Colorado Valley.

-22-

Figure 5. 700 mb analysis of heights (solid lines labelled in decameters) and temperatures (dashed

lines labelled in C) for 6 October 1985 at 1700 PDT.

-23-

Figure 6. As for Figure 2, but for 6 October 1985.

-24-

TABLE 5. Five-minute averages of continuous measurements obtained during the flight on6 October 1985. f &

Timef(PDT)

08:5509:0009:0509:1009:1509:2009:2509:3009:3509:4009:4509:5009:5510:0010:0510:1010:1510:2010:2510:3010:3510:4010:4510:5010:5511:0011:0511:1011:1511:2011:2511:3011:35

(Continued)

Pressure(mb)

925926897826785745697760838903920877864843804762754756755755754755746716665698755759759761785798791

Wind direction (deg)/Wind speed (m s’1)

213/7230/4200/4171/4164/4197/-205/-229/-219/-198A181A170/13173/11172/9182/9213/9227/10225/10209/8223/6210/11228/11230/-

-/--/--/--/-

200/3213/7213/8238/3182/3157/4

^P(lO-^ m-1)

1.382.031.311.493.762.062.583.002.632.571.852.212.321.671.1 11.151.291.351.431.541.942.142.302.262.232.402.572.532.442.412.282.322.28

Ozone(Ppb)

96991011001139790971081049297959591808891928981787976767783848383757474

Fine panicle volumf(Urn3 cm’3)*

0.971.511.1 10.852.101.180.911.032.761.570.690.850.930.670.540.780.690.730.720.570.530 78Zo

0.330.310.310.400.510.520 420.390.330.340.40

$Time is the midpoint of the 5-minute period from which 13 Hz data is averaged-

*Fine particle volume represents the average calculated from the 2 or 3 particle size distributionmeasurements obtained during each 5-minute period.

-25-

TABLE S. (Continued)

Timef(PDT)

11:4011:4511:5011:5512:0012:0512:1012:1512:2012:2512:3012:3512:4012:4512:5012:5513:0013:0513:1013:1513:2013:2513:3013:3513:4013:4513:5013:5514:0014:05

Pressure(mb)

789738666696776815794761725687684664601572627695748717677675702720733745745746741739741769

Wind directic/Wind speed

162/-199/-

-/--/--/-

299/-234/3247/6268/7272/7254/9230/-211/-226/-236/-232/-231/-223/7227/11224/15238/13244/15233/14236/13229/13223/13224/15215/16211/20210/20

?n (deg)(m s-1)

b<p(lO-^ m-1)

2.342.402.192.372.432.492.602.502.392.192.132.192.171.882.112.191.971.992.021.992.022.071.962.202.172.332.332.462.092.57

Ozone(Ppb)

777565657571777474666563514553687372676568737780798178777284

Fine particle volume(Urn3 cm"3)*

6.85

0.350.320.240.430.440.420.550.490.440.230.280.180.160.150.250.290.290.240.310.370.390.480.490.570.580.630.670.770.70

tTime is the midpoint of the 5-minute period from which 13 Hz data is averaged.

*Fine particle volume represents the average calculated from the 2 or 3 panicle size distributionmeasurements obtained during each 5-minute period.

550

6502:

UJ(X

^ 750inLLIcrQ-

850

9500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

550

650

UJ(T

^ 750inLU0:0-

850

9500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

bspOO^m-’) bspdO^ m-’)

r 6 OCT 85 550SPIRIT MOUNTAIN917- 938 (PUT)

650

-s-,’. ’’’v-

^-" "-^’ 750\/t’*T.

+fe’ 850’.i--...’ ?<

QFÔ

r 6 OCT 85 550PAGE1 149- 1205 (PDT)

y; 650’(<’:’i;-’

’%{ 750:"".’.’.

"!^+ 850

-.-i-.-i-,-1 QKn

r 6 OCT 85HOPI POINT1046- 1 105 (PDT)

%-It-i’>

+

r 6 OCT 85"y BRYCE CANYON

^ 1233- 1307 (PDT)wS"^fW3j[.-

’li- *?’A?t’*’%*

+.,^^

Figure 7. Vertical profiles of bgp on 6 October 1985. Plus signs indicate surface measurements

from a nearby SCENES site.

SPIRIT MOUNTAIN550

917-938 (POT)

650

6 OCT 85HOPI POINT1046- 1 105 (PDT)

i.<;

750

850

30 50 70 90 1 10 130950

30 50 70 90 1 10 130

s...

6 OCT 85PAGE1 149-1205 (PDT) ^.,

,^’---

-^-.6 OCT 85BRYCE CANYON1233-1307 (PDT)

550

650

750

.x..*^--;--.:’.-

850

30 50 70 90 1 10 130OZONE (PPB)

950 L-^_^_^_j_.30 50 70 90 1 10 130

OZONE (PPB)

Figure 8. Vertical profiles of 03 of 6 October 1985.

6 OCT 85SPIRIT MOUNTAIN924-938 (POT)

6 OCT 85HOPI POINT1046- 1056 (PDT)

m 6502: 650

UJGC

c7? 750inUJcra

850

750

850

95010 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

950 ----10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

6 OCT 85PAGE1 152- 1204 (PDT)

550 6 OCT 85BRYCE CANYON1244-1301 (PDT)

m 650z. 650

UJcr(T? 750wusa:a.

850

750

850

95010 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

TEMPERATURE (DEG C)

95010 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

TEMPERATURE (DEG C)

Figure 9. Vertical profiles of temperature on 6 October 1985.

-29-

Case 3: 7 October 1985

Synopdc How was generally westerly at the 700 mb level (Figure 10) but winds measured

from the aircraft were more southwesterly (Table 6). Temperatures were slightly lower than the

previous day (high of 17’C at 850 mb), and the pressure was sdll falling slowly. The flight path

(Figure 11) was similar to that flown on 5 October, but in the reverse direction (so the vertical

profile at Bryce was made first and that at Spirit ML was made last) and the flight was in the

afternoon. The bgp values (Table 6) were more variable than on the previous flights and

substantially higher in the Lower Colorado Valley. Profiles of b~ and 03 at Bryce, Page, HopiPoint and Spirit Mt. (Figures 12 and 13) show little evidence of layering, although the uniform

temperature profiles (Figure 14) late in the day suggest that mixing had already obscured any layers

that might have been present earlier. Considerable haze and high 03 at Spirit Mt., and throughout

the Lower Colorado Valley, indicate the impact of transport from the southwest The sulfate

concentrations (Table 3) were two to four times greater than on the previous day at all locations

except Bryce. However, the particulate carbon measurements (Table 4) were similar to those

measured on the previous day. The vertical profiles of b^p (Figure 12) show lower values at

Bryce. It appears that the pollutants transported into the region under these conditions did not

impact Bryce Canyon, since sulfate, bgp and 03 were substantially lower at this location.


A low-pressure center moved over the area in the early morning of 8 October. Winds were

light and variable at the 850 mb level. Winds were southwesterly at the 700 mb level (Figure 15)

and they increased in strength as the day progressed. The air was cool and skies were overcast.

The flight track was very similar to that on 7 October, except that the vertical soundings at Bryce

and Hopi Point were eliminated due to clouds and precipitation at those sites. The flight was

-30-

Rgure 10. 700 mb analysis of heights (sofid hoes labelled in decameters) and temperatures (in Qfor 7 October 1985 at 1700 PDT.

-31-

Figure 1 1. As for Figure 2, but for 7 October 1985.

36^ |2|5 ’-

NEEDLES "^115W

1650

14W ||3W ||2W

-32-


Timet(PDT)

12:1512:2012:2512:3012:3512:4012:4512:5012:5513:0013:0513:1013:1513:2013:2513:3013:3513:4013:4513:5013:5514:0014:0514:1014:1514:2014:2514:3014:3514:4014:4514:50

Pressure(mb)

824761754749749756768765756748739711692664611595604663701707715753776732687750810793778761746738

Wind direction (deg)/Wind speed (m s’1)

186/4177/436/329/5

231/6194/7213/6228/5228/5210/7226/7228/6245/9246/-265/-258/-266/-1111-264/-257/12243/16246/121311-1391-241/-1611-1311-237/12240/13235/13229/13243/13

bsp(lO-^ m

2.351.922.032.412.772.712.342.162.382.312.141.841.341.110.951.070.991.321.541.812.191.881.891.851.751.942.011.701.851.751.671.64

1)Ozone(Ppb)

7172767572696358545151576568707278726674817974706969

Fine particle(p.m^ cm

1.361.120.801.171.441.361.381.101.141.131.050.680.450.310.300.300.220.530.480.690.961.060.780.750.680.970.920.790.780.640.560.53

(Continued)

volume

-3)*

^Time is the midpoint of the 5-minute period from which 13 Hz data is averaged.*r"Fine particle volume represents the average calculated from the 2 or 3 particle sizedistribution measurements obtained during each 5-minute period.

-33-


Timet(PDT)

14:5515:0015:0515:1015:1515:2015:2515:3015:3515:4015:4515:5015:5516:0016:0516:1016:1516:2016:2516:3016:3516:4016:4516:5016:5517:0017:0517:1017:1517:2017:2517:3017:3517:4017:45

Pressure ^(mb) /V

742736680649730742742758770768768772778788793804808831871935944944944935843783734680718834928896862848855

înd direction (d(Vind speed (m s’

254/12258/-249/-262/-261/-256/10249/7254/9260/9238/10231/7229/10251/10240/9230/8223/9221/11220/12214/12218/12223/11223/8203/9197/6210/4237/4239/-234/-222/-232/-246/13233/10232/8234/8222/11

?g) bspl) (lO^ m-1)

1.771.581.661.541.841.972.091.842.212.452.442.372.412.042.512.602.682.722.663.003.213.303.132.892.942.812.762.482.833.212.743.143.012.972.98

Ozone F(Ppb)

68696158697173767878777777828688878898107113115105101929585748110010498908880

ine particle volume(p-m3 cm’3)*

0.640.630.450.640.650.640.730.931.030.991.030.951.001.101.071.111.281.271.641.481.591.681.511.271.151.360.860.691.121.601.201.081.051.051.10

+T;Time is the midpoint of the 5-minute period from which 13 Hz data is averaged.

*-Fine particle volume represents the average calculated from the 2 or 3 panicle sizedistribution measurements obtained during each 5-minute period.

550 r

CD 6502:

t’"

7 OCT 85BRYCR CANYON1317- 1330 (PDT)

550

650

7 OCT 85PAGF-;40/1- 1 4?3 (PUT)

UJcc

^ 750inIUcca.

850

750

850

950 L-0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

550 r 7 OCT 85HOPI POINT1501-1515 (PDT)

550 7 OCT 85SPIRIT MOUNTAIN170 1- 1724 (PDT)

m 650 %650 [

UJoc

^ 750enUJcr0-

850

X,.750

850

^’Vs..

^’-’’!*^’:^^’

950 L.^.9500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

K nn-5 ^-i0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

b3^0 m bspOO^m-’)Figure 12. Vertical profiles ofb^ on 7 October 1985. Plus signs indicate surface measurementsfrom a nearby SCENES site.

55C

m 6502:

HJa.

^ 750inIDora

850

95030 50 70 90 1 10 130

950

550

650âja

^ 750majQ:a

850

95030 50 70 90 1 10 130 950-,

OZONE (PPB)

r 7 CT 85 5RnBRYCE CANYON-A 1317- 1330 (PDT)v

o^-’t 650

^750

850

----’-----1----------L

7 OCT 85 550HOPI POINT1501- 1515 (PDT)

":.’-.^’--

% 650

’^%.

750

850

r 7 OCT 85PAGE1-104-1423 (PDT)

^Sr-^.-at;

’.’’

30 50 70 90 1 10 130

r 7 OCT 85SPIRIT MOUNTAIN1701-1724 (PDT)

"^::;

^*(?’’.-&’.

’’’>’’<’i..^.’.

’.’..A’..0 50 70 9(TTlO 130

OZONE (PPB)

Figure 13. Vertical profiles of 03 on 7 October 1985.

<.

550

m 650

7 OCT 85BRYCE CANYON1328- 1342 (PDT)

550

650

7 OCT 85PAGE14 14-1/124 (PDT)

LUEC

in 750inLJDCQ.

850

\.750

850

95010 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

950 I--’--10 -5 0 5 10 .15 20 25 30

550 r 7 OCT 85HOPI POINT1508-1515 (PDT)

S 650s

IUGC

^ 750(nLU0:Q.

850

95010 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

TEMPERATURE (DEG 0

650

750

850

950 I--10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

TEMPERATURE (DEG C)

550 r 7 OCT 85SPIRIT MOUNTAIN1712-1724 (PDT)

Figure 14. Vertical profiles of temperature on 7 October 1985.

-37-

Fieure 15. 700 mb analysis of heights (solid lines labelled in decameters) and temperatures (in "C)

for 8 October 1985 at 0500 PDT.

-38-

conducted during the moniing hours. (A detailed flight track and particle size data for this flight

are not available due to a computer failure.) Considerably higher bgp values (> 3 x 10"5 m’1) were

measured from Hopi Point (1000 PDT) to the Lower Colorado Valley (Table 7), while the vertical

profiles (Figure 16) indicated uniform concentrations in the boundary layer. Sulfate concentrations

(Table 3) were again high over the entire region, but paniculate carbon concentrations (Table 4)

were slightly lower than those measured on the previous two days. It is likely that the high bgvalues were due mainly to the presence of sulfate aerosol that began to be transported into the

region on the previous day. The continued southwesterly flow resulted in the highest b-p and

sulfate values of the entire period (3.5 4.0 x 10-5 m-1 at 1145 to 1205 PDT. and 2.07 \ig m-3,respectively) in the Lower Colorado River Valley.


Light winds from the southwest dominated during this flight (see Figure 17). Scattered

stratus clouds were present in the area and the air was quite stable. The flight path is illustrated in

Figure 18. Ozone and b^p were rather variable (Table 8), due to the presence of haze layers

throughout the region. The early takeoff (0810 PDT) of the aircraft and good stability in the

boundary layer made it possible to observe "layering" at three of the four locations where profiles

were measured (Figures 19 and 20). The profiles at Spirit Mountain show a thick layer of elevated

03 and haze transported at high altitude into the region. This layer also extended to Hopi Point and

Page, but did not appear to impact Bryce Canyon.

Filters for sulfate and nitrate were not collected during this flight, but the concentrations of

fme particle sulfate measured at SCENES ground stations that day were 0.63, 0.67, 1.22 and 0.57

Ug m-3 at Spirit ML, Bryce, Page and Hopi Point, respectively (P. S. Bhardwaja, R. Lewis and

T. Hoffer, personal communications). Concentrations of paniculate carbon measured aloft

-39-


Timet(PDT)

08:1008:1508:2008:2508:3008:3508:4008:4508:5008:5509:0009:0509:1009:1509:2009:2509:3009:3509:4009:4509:5009:5510:0010:0510:1010:1510:2010:2510:3010:3510:4010:45

(Continued)

Pressure(mb) /

768765776780783778770752769802793795788725673737804794785767739746759769769770769769769768768768

Wind direction (degWind speed (m s’1)

146148

170/6214/-224/-217/-234/-240/-231/11235/7227/7199/8211/10231/11232/-238/-320/-

) bsp(lO^ m-1)

1.041.513.522.993.241.230.921.542.502.051.892.031.591.701.581.771.471.651.962.282.662.982.893.253.123.123.153.203.082.642.822.83

Ozone(Ppb)

7069677068828677737369737168637073757574696869676769666768717374

ApproximateLocation*

EastofLas Vegas

Zion

North of PageSpiral at PageSpiral at PageSpiral at PageSpiral at PageSpiral at Page

Marble Canyon

Eastern Grand Canyon

Hopi PointHopi PointHopi PointHopi PointHopi Point

Central Grand Canyon

+/-T:i-Time is the midpoint of the 5-minute period from which 13 Hz data is averaged.

Detailed flight path not available for this flight due to a computer failure.

-40-


Timet(PDT)

10:5010:5511:0011:0511:1011:1511:2011:2511:3011:3511:4011:4511:5011:5512:0012:0512:1012:1512:2012:2512:3012:3512:4012:4512:50

Pressure(mb)

769769769768768770802838868878890911926927920851795743690758845915918871852

Wind direction (deg)/Wind speed (m s"1) ^ 1(lO^ m-1)

2.993.062.563.253.123.573.583.443.503.363.033.483.453.613.454.043.023.201.162.372.883.723.133.503.41

Ozone(Ppb)

7478767975798791929298103105102961009084758710010910910164

ApproximateLocation*

Lake Mead

Lake Mohave

Needles

Bullhead CitySpiral at Spirit Mt.Spiral at Spirit Mt.Spiral at Spirit Mt.Spiral at Spirit Mt.Spiral at Spirit Mt,

Hoover Dam

+Time is the midpoint of the 5-minute period from which 13 Hz data is averaged.

Detailed flight path not available for this flight due to a computer failure.

550

m 6502^

LU(X

^ 750COLJCE0-

850

950

550

m 6502:

lU0:

^ 750COLU(IQ.

850

950

r 8 OCT 85 550PAGE909-929 (PDT)

650

:^"-.^. 750

^.*.,.+ 850

9500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 30 50 70 90 1 10 130

r 8 OCT 85 550SPIRIT MOUNTAIN1210-1228 (PDT)

650

^...^,-

^ 750.X-’’*

+ 850

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 30 50 70 90 1 10 130bsp dO’^m-’) OZONE (PPB)

r 8 OCT 85PAGE909-929 (PDT)

*^’’’%%fti.,<:f,y-^f^--^.-

r 8 OCT 85SPIRIT MOUNTAIN1210-1228 (PDT)

^,.<-’tt:-

Figure 16. Vertical profiles of b~, and 03 on 8 October 1985. Plus signs indicate surface

measurements from a nearby SCENES site.

-42-

Figure 17. 700 mb analysis of heights (solid lines labelled in decameters) and temperatures (in C)

for 12 October 1985 at 0500 PDT.

-43-

Figure 18. As for Figure 2, but for 12 October 1985.

-44-


Timet(PDT)

08:1508:2008:2508:3008:3508:4008:4508:5008:5509:1009:1509:2009:2509:3009:3509:4009:4509:5009:5510:0010:0510:1010:1510:2010:2510:3010:3510:4010:4510:5010:5511:00

Pressure(mb)

787774773773773773774788789780678670728732751780803810750691733797818818791755746746730712760780

Wind direction (deg)/Wind speed (m s"1)

157/4181/4204/11210/7190/5197/4170/4163/2182/1

313/3327/3286/3245/4233/-233/-233/-240/-243/-240/17236/14213/5195/4259/7275/6253/-244/-108/-92/-

^P(lO^ m-1)

1.801.781.911.271.201.371.471.541.451.340.740.711.361.371.401.611.541.651.400.621.432.081.842.061.811.361.481.401.210.881.751.87

Ozone(Ppb)

1081071069890868380797363616767718080767173717476676672707172747175

Fine particle volume(Urn3 cm"3)*

1.120.650.610.720.780.82

0.640.340.100.550.720.680.841.77

(Continued)

+Time is the midpoint of the 5-minute period from which 13 Hz data is averaged.*i-Fine panicle volume represents the average calculated from the 2 or 3 particle sizedistribution measurements obtained during each 5-minute period.

-45-


Timet(PDT)

11:0511:1011:1511:2011:2511:3011:3511:4011:4511:5011:5512:0012:0512:1012:1512:2012:2512:3012:3512:4012:4512:5012:5513:0013:0513:1013:1513:2013:2513:30

Pressure(mb)

779779780780779780781781781779780792828871913932933931930929860803111717778874929914883864

Win(

/Win

1.13

213/11

ddirectii

id speed

320/3320/2280/3290/4248/4225/3264/4264/3

233/3232/4239/4257/4193/6171/8193/7200/6171/5150/4143/5197/-

239/-

166/6139/5155/6

an (deg)(m s-1)

2.14 761.66

2.14

^(10-5

2.24

1.641.661.611.641.651.69

1.691.761.901.771.831.811.822.011.931.891.742.203.131.763.022.152.031.96

2.38

!pm-1)

Ozone(Ppb)

73

878783858384929910110297941019998991001019211011979123105989910095

Fine particle volume

4im3 cm’3)*

+Time is the midpoint of the 5-minute period from which 13 Hz data is averaged.

Fine particle volume represents the average calculated from the 2 or 3 particle sizedistribution measurements obtained during each 5-minute period.

12 OCT 85BHYCE CANYON913-925 (PDT)

12 OCT 85PAGE951- 10 13 (PDT)

m 6502:

HJocen 750enUJcra.

850

650

750

850

950 L.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

550 r 12 OCT 85HOPI POINT1045- 1059 (PDT)

12 OCT 85SPIRIT MOUNTAIN1254-1314 (PDT)

m 650 [650 [

IUocen 750(nujCLa.

850

750

850

^ ^*^-.,’.is-’: ...;>-.<. .<’-^-.-.^ :’.

+ ;"

9500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

bspdO^ m-’)

9500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

bspdO^ m-’)^sp

Figure 19. Vertical profiles of b^p on 12 October 1985.

550

m 650s

UJ(X

^ 750C/lUJ0:Q-

850

950

550

m 650:

UJre

^ 750(/)

UJcr0.

850

950

r 12 OCT 85 550BRYCE CANYON913-925 (PDT)

"^. 650

^ 750

850

’--- --’-’-’-’---i---. QRn30 50 70 90 1 10 130

r 12 OCT 85 550HOPI POINT1045- 1059 (PDT)

650

"-^>..^-..-^ 750

850

’-’--’-’--’--i-^-t qRn0 50 70 90 1 10 130 3

OZONE (PPB)

r 12 OCT 85PAGE951- 1013 (PDT)

"1S--^’

^"%.:%

30 50 70 90 1 10 130

r 12 OCT 85SPIRIT MOUNTAIN1254- 1314 (PDT)

^-,,,.

":;-f"^P3../<.-,.,.’

;.;.’;..’0 50 70 90 1 10 130

OZONE (PPB)

Figure 20. Vertical profiles of 03 on 12 October 1985.

-48-

(Table 4) were simUar to those measured on previous flights; they did not correspond to general

variations in b^p from day to day. Thus. the haze may have been caused by elevated sulfate

aerosol concentrations in the layers transported into the region.

Summary

The measurements obtained on the five flights described above (four of which were in

southwesterly flow conditions) indicate that although significant amounts of visibility-reducingpollutants can be transported into the Grand Canyon region, under light northerly winds local

emissions can also contribute to fairly high values of bgp. Cases 1 through 4 described above

show the transition from light northerly to strong southwesterly flow over a four day period. The

magnitude of b^p over this period increased by about 50% as the aerosol sulfate concentrations

increased approximately three-fold.

Organic carbon concentrations remained almost constant during the four day study, but

elemental carbon approximately doubled under southwesterly flow. The relationship between the

light-scattering coefficient and sulfate and carbon concentrations is discussed in Section 3.

The effects of transport from the southwest were most noticeable in the Lower Colorado River

Valley, where bgp values and layers of haze were observed. At the northeastern end of the region,

Bryce Canyon usually had lower values of bgp and lower concentrations of sulfate during

southwesterly flow, indicating that pollutants were dispersed or diverted as they entered the higher

terrain of the Colorado Plateau region.

-49-

SECTION 3

EFFECTS OF FINE PARTICLES ON LIGHT SCATTERING

The effect of fine aerosol panicles on light scattering is well established. Waggoner et al.

(1981) have shown that particle size is the most important parameter in relating aerosol mass

concentrations to bgp. Malm and Johnson (1984) showed that at Grand Canyon, Arizona, fine

particle (0 2.5 p.m diameter) sulfate is responsible for a large fraction of the visibility reduction.

The relationship of bgp and fine particles during the flights described in this report was

investigated by calculating fine particle volumes (0.09 1.08 urn diameter) from the particle size

distribution measurements. These volumes were then plotted against 20-second average values of

the concurrent measurements of bc.r>."r

These plots for each of the first three flights (8 and 12 October had few data available), are

shown in Figure 21. Indicated on these plots are the best-fit lines and correlation coefficients for

the data. Only the data from 7 October show a good correlation between particle scattering and fine

panicle volume in the accumulation mode (even though b^p is of similar magnitude on the other

flights). Paniculate organic carbon concentrations (Table 4) were similar for the three flights, but

only on 7 October were there high sulfate concentrations (Table 3). Qualitatively, it appears that

fine panicle sulfate and the light-scattering coefficient were closely correlated only when sulfate

concentrations were higher than about 0.5 p,g m"3, and, in this case, the fine particle sulfate

dominates light scattering. We hypothesize that when the concentration of fine sulfate particles is

5 OCT 854 O SLOPE-0 05

r =-. 2l

3 0

2 0

1 0

0 00 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0

7 OCT 854 0 r SLOPE= 0 57

r =0 88

3 0

2 0

1 0

^ 0 0

bspOO^m-’)

6 OCT 854 0 SI_OPE= 0 46

r =0 45

3 0

2 0

1 0

0 0

bspdO^m-1)

Figure 21. Plots of fine panicle volume versus b^p for a) 5 October 1985, b) 6 October 1985.c) 7 October 1985, and d) all flights.

-51-

low, other aerosol components (organic carbon, soil aerosols) dominate light scattering, and,

under these conditions, the relationship between bgp and fme particle volume is poor.

Support for this hypothesis is obtained by looking at two typical pardcle size distributions

from 5 and 7 October. Figure 22 shows average number and volume particle size distributions

measured on these days. Both the number and volume of accumulation mode particles were much

greater on 7 October when the concentration of fme sulfate particles was higher. Since these

particles occur in the size range that is most efficient for light scattering, small increases in sulfate

aerosol mass are potentially important for visibility degradation. Comparison of the fine particle

modes in Figure 22 also argues against the presence of carbon in the accumulation mode, since on

both days there were similar carbon concentrations (~ 2.5 p,g m’^). Since paniculate carbon, even

though of secondary origin, does not have the same ability as sulfate to nucleate into fme particles

(Kocmond et al.. 1975), it may not have been present in the size range that most affects light

scattering.

To obtain further insights into the relationships between fme particle mass. sulfate and b.n,the fraction of the light-scattering coefficient attributable to the sub-micron panicle volume was

calculated for each flight The amount of light scattered is represented by the scattering coefficient

due to particles (bgp), which can be calculated from the following equation (Butcher and Charlson,

1972):

^pÔ^d^rT ^" ^ ^where Q is the scattering efficiency of a panicle, and dN the number of panicles in the size range

d(ln r). A parabola was fitted to the Q curve to estimate Q for particles with radius between 0.1

and 0.6 p.m, and Q was assumed to be constant at 2.3 for panicles with radius > 0.6 (im. A Junge

panicle size distribution was assumed and calculated from:

10’

10

\\t0

E 102u

Q 10

ft"-o\ 10 o

10 -’;

^10-210 10’’ 10 10’PARTICL E DIAMETER (/im)

rÊu

10

jt

Q

o*0

o\

>-0

lo-2 10-’ io0 K

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

n

k

X

!?X*"^ XXx ^x ’x ^ x

x

{ \ Kx.w; -PARTICLE DIAMETER (/im)

Figure 22. Aerosol number and volume distributions measured between 1330 and 1412 PDT(average of 15 records) on 5 October 1985 (dots) and between 1522 and 1607 PDT (average of 18

records) on 7 October 1985 (crosses).

-53-

a^r ^ (R)

During each flight, a particle size distribution composed of sixty-two diameter ranges between

0.005 and 48.0 p.m was measured approximately every two minutes. Groups of consecutive size

distributions with similar characteristics were averaged, giving a set of up to twelve average

particle size distributions for each flight (see Appendix). Values fordN

versus r were

obtained from this data, and a power curve for each flight was fitted to the data to determine the

values of C (which is related to particle concentration) and B (which indicates the relative numbers

of small and large particles). The results of this analysis are shown below:

Date(1985)

5 October

6 October

7 October

8 October

C(cm"3 p.m^)

1.95

2.75

3.29

1.97

B

2.17

2.28

2.25

2.55

Substitution of Equation (2) into Equation (1) yields:

b,p ^ Tt C Q rI-B dr

The fraction of the light-scattering coefficient attributable to the sub-micron particles can then be

calculated from the expression:

-54-

bsp(O.l l.O um) ^1 TC c Q rl-B dr

^POot) J^ Tr C Q r^ dr

The results are shown in Table 9. The fractions range from 0.34 to 0.73, indicating that from one-

third to three-quarters of the light scattering is due to sub-micron panicles. There is also good

agreement between the calculated b^p/^ and measured bg? averaged over the entire flight.

A further calculation was performed to determine the fraction of the submicron particle volume

that could be composed of sulfate. Each filter measurement was collected from three bag samples

so the individual particle size distributions measured closest to these times were used to calculate

the fme panicle volumes as shown in Table 10. Sulfate volume was calculated from the data of

Table 3 assuming that all the sulfate measured on the filter was contained in sub-micron panicles

and assuming a density of 1.5 g cm-3. The results (Table 10) show that on average, most of the

fine panicle volume can be attributed to sulfate, and that the fraction is highest for 7 October, the

flight with the highest sulfate concentrations. Also, since the organic carbon concentrations were

approximately 2.5 p,g m-3 during these flights, it is evident that only a small fraction of the

carbonaceous material can be contained in the sub-micron size range.

TABLE 9. Fraction of the light-scattering coefficient due to sub-micron panicles.

Date(October1985)

5

6

7

12

Calculatedvalue of

^(0.1 1.0 urn)

(lO^ m-1)!

0.71

0.82

0.79

1.13

Calculatedvalue of^pdot)

(10-5 m-1)1’

2.06

1.64

1.71

1.55

Measured b^^)

(lO^ m-1)*

1.97

2.06

2.38

1.72

Calculatedvalue of

^(0.1 1.0 \im)

sp(tot)

0.34

0.50

0.46

0.73

’See text for method of calculation.

The measured b^p is the average of continuous measurements obtained during the horizontal segments of each flight.

TABLE 10.Date

(October1985)

555555

6666666

7777777

Fraction of fine panic;Bag Sample Times

(PDT)

158. 1207. 12161235, 1244, 12531421, 1430, 14391449, 1459, 15081524. 1536, 15451614, 1624, 1634

0833, 0841. 08480916. 0924, 09331007, 1018, 10321045, 1055. 11061115, 1125, 11331139, 1147, 11571232. 1242, 1253

1316, 1326, 13391403, 141 1, 14211430, 1438, 14501500, 1509, 15191527, 1538, 15481700, 1709, 17191725, 1732

Ie volume composed ofAverage Relative

Humidity(%)

15.315.315.611.312.719.0

30.724.726.319.325.041.0

44.734.031.040.038.738.716.5

sulfate.Fine ParticleVolume

(Urn3 cm’3)!

0.6270.2560.1700.2270.2800.160

0.9702.4900.6330.3900.4000.4100.270

0.4400.8470.6700.5700.8801.2101.030

SulfateVolume

(Urn3 cm-3)*

0.360.340.130.950.180.15

mean

0.370.370.280.260.260.290.33

mean

0.350.610.660.700.881.270.75

mean

Sulfate VolumeFine Particle Volume

0.571.330.78(4.18)0 640.96

value 0.86+/-0.30(1.41+/-1.38)t

0.380.150.440.660.650.701.22

value 0.60+/-0.34

0.800.720.981.231.001.050.73

value =0.93+/-0.19

tpine particle volume represents the average calculated from several particle size distribution measurements obtained close in timeto each bag sample.The sulfate volume is calculated from the filter data assuming the density of ammonium sulfate at these humidities is 1.5 g cm-3.+Mean includes the extreme value shown above in parentheses.

-57-

SECTION4

COMPARISONS OF AIRBORNE AND GROUND-BASED MEASUREMENTS

The measurements obtained in the vertical from the aircraft were conducted over SCENES

ground-based monitoring stations. This provided an opportunity for intercomparisons of

measurements made aloft with those made at the ground.

Light scattering was measured continuously at the SCENES ground stations, and it was

reported as hourly averages of bgp. The hourly averages of the ground-based measurements of

bgp that were made closest in time to the airborne vertical spirals are shown as a plus sign in

Figures 3, 7, 12, 16, and 19. It was be seen that there is fairly good agreement between the

ground-based and airborne measurements at Spirit Mountain and Bryce for all four cases.

However, agreement between the ground-based and airborne measurements is poor at Hopi Point

and Page, with the ground-based measurements at Hopi Point much lower than the measurements

aloft in all cases, and the ground-based measurements at Page lower than the airborne

measurements in three out of the four cases.

Another ground-based measurement that can be compared with the airborne measurements is

the concentration of fine particle sulfate. The ground samples were collected over a 12-hour period

with a 2.5 p.m diameter outpoint, while the airborne samples were collected from three

instantaneous bag samples and have approximately a 4 p.m diameter outpoint. Despite these

differences, the agreement between the measurements offme particle sulfate on the ground and

-58-

aloft is fairly good. Table 11 lists the fine particle sulfate concentrations measured at the Bryce,

Page and Hopi Point SCENES sites and compares them to the nearest sulfate measurements from

the aircraft. It is interesting to note that on 5 October when the anomalously high sulfate

concentration was measured from the aircraft at Marble Canyon, a similar high sulfate

concentration was measured at the Page ground site; this is indicative of air stagnation and local

sources near Page. Also, by comparing the fine particle sulfate and total sulfate from the SCENES

measurements for these samples, we find that, on average, 89 +/- 7% of the sulfate was in the fine

particle mode (< 2.5 (im).

TABLE 11. Comparison of sulfate (< 2.5 ^m diameter) concentrations measured at SCENES ground stations with sulfate(S 4 (im diameter) concentrations measured overhead from the aircraft.

Date(October1985)

5

6

7

8

SCENESSite

BrycePage

Hopi Pt.Spirit Mt.

BrycePageHopi Pt.Spirit Mt.

BrycePageHopi Pt.Spirit ML

PageHopi Pt.Spirit Mt.

StartTime(PDT)

08550800

08000800

0800080008000800

0800092708500800

080008000800

[S04Jt(Ug m’3)

0.571.24

0.300.66

0.450.640.880.92

1.101.471.291.96

1.331.511.49

AircraftLocation

Spiral over BryceSpiral over PageMarble CanyonSpiral over Hopi Pt.Spiral near Spirit Mt.

Spiral over BryceSpiral over PageSpiral over Hopi Pt.Spiral near Spirit Mt.

Spiral over BryceSpiral over PageSpiral over Hopi Pt.Spiral near Spirit Mt.

Spiral over PageSpiral over Hopi Pt.Spiral near Spirit Mt.

Times of Firstand Last BagSamples (PDT)

1614-16341524-15451449-15081421-14391235-1253

1232-12531 139-11571045-11060916-0933

1316-13391403-14211500-15191700-1719

0908-09271002-10111210-1228

IS04](Ug m-3)

0.230.271.420.200.51

0.490.440.390.56

0.530.921.051.90

0.901.290.98

+Calculated from elemental sulfur measurements by [SOJ S| x [S].

-60-

SECTION 5

CONCLUSIONS

Under southwesterly airflow, layers of haze, which contained elevated concentrations of fine

particle sulfate, were transported into the Grand Canyon region and caused increases in light-

scattering and ozone concentrations. Over the course of four consecutive days (5 8 October,

1985), sulfate concentrations increased about five-fold as the airflow shifted from northerly to

southwesterly. Paniculate organic carbon, however, was roughly constant throughout this period.

Light scattering due to particles was correlated with fine particle volume only when sulfate

concentrations exceeded about 0.5 ng m’3. Sub-micron particles accounted for one-third to three-

quarters of the total light scattering due to particles, and the measured mass of sulfate was

sufficient to account for most of the fine particle volume. Very few particles in the sub-micron

mode were likely to have been composed of paniculate organic carbon.

Comparisons of airborne measurements of the concentration of fine particle sulfate and the

light-scattering coefficient due to panicles with those made at SCENES ground stations below

shows surprisingly good agreement for sulfate. but good agreement for light scattering at only two

out of four sites.

-61-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported by the Southern California Edison Co. and the Salt River

Project. We thank Drs. Robert J. Farber and Prem S. Bhardwaja for their considerable support

and help in this research. Dr. K. Fung analyzed the quartz filters for carbon, and Dr. Roberta

Lewis provided data from SCENES ground stations.

-62-

REFERENCES

Butcher, S. S. and R. J. Charison. 1972: An Introduction to Air Chemktrv Academic Press,New York, 157-210.

CahiU, T. A., B. H. Kusko, L. L. Ashbaugh, J. B. Barone, R. A. Eldred and F. G. Walther.1981: Regional and local determinations of paniculate matter and visibility in thesouthwestern United States during June and July, 1981. Atmos. Environ.. J5,, 2011.

Glantz, C. S., 1982: An investigation of air pollution in the Mohave Desert and neighboring areasin the southwestern United States, M.S. Thesis. University of Washington, Seattle.

Guest, P. S., W. H. Mach and J. W. Winchester, 1984: Meteorological associations with aerosolcomposition in the boundary layer. J. Geophvs. Res.. ^9, 1459-1467.

Hegg, D. A. and P. V. Hobbs, 1980: Measurements of gas-to-particle conversion in the plumefrom five coal-fired electric power plants. Atmos. Environ.. 14, 99.

Hegg, D. A., P. V. Hobbs and J. H. Lyons, 1985: Field studies of a power plant plume in theand southwestern United States. Atmos. Environ ^, 1147.

Hobbs. P. V., L. F. Radke and E. E. Hindman, 1976: An integrated airborne particle measuringfacility and its preliminary use in atmospheric aerosol studies. J. Aerosol Sci.- J, 195.

Hobbs, P. V. and D. A. Hegg, 1982: Sulfate and nitrate mass distributions in the near fields ofsome coal-fired power plants. Atmos. Environ.. ^, 2657.

Kocmond, W. C.. D. B. Kittelson, J. Y. Yang and K. L. Demerjian, 1975: Study of aerosolformanon m photochemical air pollution. U.S. Environmental Protection Apencv Report.Number iirA-650/3-75-007.

Macias, E. S., J. 0. Zwicker, J. R. Ouimette, S. V. Hering, S. K. Friedlander, T. A. Cahill, GA. Kuhlmey and L. W. Richards, 198 la: Regional haze case studies in the southwesternUnited States 1. Aerosol chemical composition. Atmos. Environ 1$, 1971.

Macias, E. S., J. 0. Zwicker and W. H. White, 198 Ib: Regional haze case studies in thesouthwestern United States n. Source contributions. Atmos. Environ.. 15, 1987.

Malm, W. C. and C. E. Johnson, 1984: Optical characteristics of fine and coarse particulates atGrand Canyon. Arizona. Atmos. Environ.. IS. 1^1

Mueller, P. K., K. K. Fung, S. L. Weisler, D. Grosjean and G. M. Hidy, 1982: Atmosphericpaniculate carbon observations in urban and rural areas of the United States. PaniculateCarbon. Atmospheric Life Cycle. G. T. Wolff and R. J. Klimisch. Eds., Plenum Press, NewYork, 343-367.

Pitchford, A., M. Pitchford, W. Malm, R. Flocchini, T. Cahill and E. Walther, 1981: Regionalanalysis of factors affecting visual air quality. Atmos. Environ.. 15., 2043.

-63-

Poteet, W. R., 1983: The effects of a coal-fired power plant on regional visibility M.S. ThesisUniversity of Washington, Seattle. --’

Radke, L. F., 1983: Preliminary measurements of the size distribution of cloud interstitial aerosolPrecipitation Scavenging. Dry Deposition, and Resuspension. Volnmp. T H. R. PruppacherR. G. Semonin, W. G. N. Slinn, Eds., Elsevier, New York, 71-78.

Schutt, D. J., 1984: Nitric acid and ammonia in the ambient air and in the plume from a coal-firedpower plant. M.S. Thesis. University of Washington, Seattle.

Waggoner, A. P., R. E. Weiss, N. C. Ahlquist, D. S. Covert, S. Will and R. J. Charlson, 1981:Optical characteristics of atmospheric aerosols. Atmos. Environ,. ^ 1891.

-64-

APPENDIX

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS

Figures A.I A.40 show particle number and volume distributions measured from the aircraft

at various times. The location of the aircraft at the stated times can be seen by consulting Figures

2, 6, 11 and 18. The number of sets of measurements ("records") that were averaged to obtain the

curves shown is stated on each figure.

Figure A. I. 5 October 1985, 1150-1 155 PDT, 3 records,

^^

3C3

*+ ^1=1

^ ^’"’.’s/LOG Q IUM)

2.00 -2>00 -1.00 0.00LOG 0 I^JMl

Figure A. 2. 5 October 1985, 1157-1233 PDT, 15 records,

s*+

^3S

G

-*

<’/-2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00

LBC D(^M)9.00 -2.00 -’1 .00 O’.OO

LOG D IUM)

Figure A. 3. 5 October 1985, 1236-1255, PDT, 9 records.

^^ +

0\CD

S

D

^

^: /.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00LOG D IUM) LOG D IUM)

Figure *.4. 5 October 1985, 1257-1327 PDT, 13 record,.

"\*

++

^-rt

(_>

"n

0

53C=>

A --^ ^ .+/ ^-2.00 -i.oo o.ooLOG OIJJM)

2.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00LOG 0 IDM)

Figure A. 5. 5 October 1985, 1330-1412 PDT, 16 records.

^V

"<

"-1

!*

-3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00LOG DIpMl

1.00 2.00 -3.00

-./W4 /-2.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG D IRM)

Figure A.6. 5 October 1985, 1415-1439 POT, 9 records.

j^

++

^^; /-2.00 1.00 0.00

LOG D 1UM11.03 -3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.03

LOG O IpM)

Figure A. 7. 5 October 1985. 1442-1500 PDT, 8 records.

\4

^

3@a

og

^

3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00LBG D IpM)

1.00-^w

-3.00 -2.00 -1.01] 0.00 I.COLOG D IpM)

Figure A.8. 5 October 1985, 1502-1524 PDT, 9 records.

\3So

^00

+/ ^-2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00LOG D1UM)

-9.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00LOG Q IpM)


^V

/+ aC3

^

-2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2 00LOG D IpMl

-9.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00LOG O IpM)


^t++-ft

^ 3S

^&

-/^ t/ ^-9.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG D IpM)1.00 2.00 -3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG D IpMl

Figure A. 11. 5 October 1985, 161 7-1635 PDT, 7 records,

\

*>i=>

^

^^-2.00 -1.00 0.00LOG D Ipm

1.00 2.10 -3.00 -Z.OO -1.00 0.00LOG D IpM)


^V

So

< +

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.yw-2.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG D (^JM)1.03 2.00 -3.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG D IRM)


\<+

<-

^-+

+<+++ Qg

-h+

/44-

^^-2.00 -1.00 0.00LOG D (pM)

1.00 2.00 -1.00 0.00LOG D IUM)


^+

^

n-

3ffm’

0

^.

+

++

<-3.00 -^.00 -I .00 0 00

LOG OlpM)1.00 2.00 .00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG O IRM)


"\

^-^

^

Svin’

0

D

^/ h ++/

t f^-2.00 -1.00 O’.OO I’.QO

LOG Dl^JM)2.00 -2.00 -I.CO 0.00 l.Or)

LOG D IpM)


"s

3a

Q

^

g

++

4-fc.oo -1.00 0.00

LOG D1UM)1.00 2.00 -3.00 -2.03 -1.00 0.00

LOG D IpM)

Figure A. 17. 6 October 1985, 1045-1 107 PDT, 9 records,

+-it

3S

^+-.

Da

g ^+/ Y4-3.00 -2.00LOG D IpMl

1.03 2.00 -3.00 -2.00 -1 .00 0.00 1’ -..ILOG D IRM)


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LOG D IUM)


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-ft

> -s.rr>

a

^g1=1-

-/w4 -"-i.oo o.ooLOG O I^JM)

2.00 -2.00 -1.00 0 00LOG D IUM)

Figure A.20. 6 October 1985, 1157-1207 POT, 5 records.

2-.

^+

û>LJ’,rr)

^V

00

.A^f

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Y\

^

>

Bea

I:a

^ ."-^.00 1.00 0.00

LOG O (^JM)-3.00 -a.oo -1.00 0.00

LOG D IpM)


^+*

^

^

3.00 -2.00LOG OIUM1

1.00 2.00 -3.00 -2.00


î* ^+*+

a

v’s

a

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LOG 0 (pM)o.oo 1.00 2.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG O IpM)


^^

u\n

^+

^ ^

\+

^ ’.+*

<^’-3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00 00

LOG D(/JM)-3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.M

LOG D IUM)


"\

++

a:"u

m

S

^D

++++t<-

^

^ ^.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00 -3.00 -2.001.00 2.00LOG O (ÎM)

-1.00LOG D

0.00

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+

y3@

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A./ A<-3.00 2.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG D1UM12.00 "-S-DO -2.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG D IpM)


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’-4

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**T

/ ^ ..00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00

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<

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^\\<

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S

+.;og

-t^

-+-^

^ ^^-^.00 -i.oo o.oo

LBG OI^M)1.00 2’. 00 -9.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG Q IpM)

Figure A. 34. 7 October 1985, 1700-1703 and 1715-1722 PDT, 6 records,

^

^<4+3o

4+

D

+

+

y.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG Dl^JMl1.00 2.00 -9.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00

LOG D I^JM)

Figure A. 35. 7 October 1985, 1705-1712 POT, 4 records.

^^<

^

"<

LJ"s.m

în’Q

c.

^ +*

S --2.00 -1.00 o.ooLOG D IUM)

1.00 2.00 -9.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00LOG 0 IpM)


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