Anatomy&Physiology (b&c) 2015

7/25/2019 Anatomy&Physiology (b&c) 2015

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2015 Anatomy & Physiology(B & C)

Karen Lancour Patty PalmiettoNational Bio Rules National EventCommittee Chairman Supervisor A&P


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Event Rules2015

DISCLAIMER

This presentation was prepared usingdraft rules. There may be some changesin the final copy of the rules. The rules

which will be in your Coaches Manual andStudent Manuals will be the official rules.


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Event Rules2015

BE SURE TO CHECK THE 2015

EVENT RULES FOR EVENTPARAMETERS AND TOPICSFOR EACH COMPETITION

LEVEL


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ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGYEvent Content: 2015 BASIC ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Nervous system(new for B&C) Integumentary system Immune system (new for B) Major disorders

Treatment and prevention of disorders PROCESS SKILLS - observations, inferences,

predictions, calculations, data analysis, andconclusions.


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TRAINING MATERIALS Training Power Pointcontent overview

Training Handout - content information

Sample Tournamentsample problems with key

Event Supervisor Guideprep tips, event needs,and scoring tips

Internet Resource & Training CDson the ScienceOlympiad website at www.soinc.orgunder Event

Information

Biology-Earth Science CD,Anatomy/A&P CD(updated) as well as the Division B and Division CTest Packetsare available from SO store at

www.soinc.org
http://www.soinc.org/http://www.soinc.org/http://www.soinc.org/http://www.soinc.org/


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CARDIOVASCULARSYSTEM

Karen Lancour Patty PalmiettoNational Bio Rules National EventCommittee Chairman [email protected] Science
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Heart/Circulatory


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Blood Flow through the Heart


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Electrical System of Heart

1. Bundle of His2. Sinoatrial Node

3. Intraatrial Pathway4. Inernodal Pathway5. Atrialventricular Node6. Right Bundle Branch7. Purkinje Fibers8. Left Bundle Branch


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Electrocardiogram

Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) = record ofspread of electrical activity through the

heart

P wave= caused by atrial depolarization(contraction)

QRS complex= caused by ventriculardepolarization (contraction) and atrialrelaxation

T wave= caused by ventricular

repolarization (relaxation)

ECG= useful in diagnosing abnormal heartrates, arrhythmias, & damage of heartmuscle


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Cardiac Cycle


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Circulatory SystemRelevant formulas

Stroke volume (SV) = milliliters of blood pumped per beat

Heart rate (HR) = number of beats per minute

Cardiac output (CO) = heart rate times stroke volumeCO = HR x SV

Pulse pressure (PP) = the difference between systolic pressure(SP) and diastolic pressure (DP)

PP = SP

DP

Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) (2 equations):Formula 1: MAP = diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressureFormula 2: MAP = 2/3 diastolic pressure + 1/3 systolic

pressure


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Flow of Blood

Through the Bodyvena cava right atrium tricuspidvalve right ventricle pulmonary

valve pulmonary artery pulmonarycapillary bed

pulmonary veins leftatrium bicuspid (mitrial valve)

left ventricle aortic valve aortaarteries

arterioles tissue capillariesvenules veins vena cava


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Blood Vessels

Arteries

Arterioles

Veins

Venules

Capillaries


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Functions of Blood

Transportation: oxygen & carbon dioxide nutrients waste products (metabolic wastes, excessive

water, & ions)

Regulation- hormones & heat (to regulatebody temperature)

Protection- clotting mechanism protectsagainst blood loss & leucocytes provideimmunity against many disease-causingagents


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Blood Components

Formed elements:Red blood cells (or erythrocytes)White blood cells (or leucocytes)

Platelets (or thrombocytes)Plasma= water plusdissolvedsolutes
http://www.psbc.org/education/hematology/blood/blood.htmhttp://www.psbc.org/education/hematology/blood/plasma.htmhttp://www.psbc.org/education/hematology/blood/plasma.htmhttp://www.psbc.org/education/hematology/blood/blood.htm


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Lymph Vessels

Lymph vessels are thin walled, valvedstructures that carry lymph

Lymph is not under pressure and ispropelled in a passive fashion

Fluid that leaks from the vascular system isreturned to general circulation via

lymphatic vessels. Lymph vessels act as a reservoir for plasma

and other substances including cells thatleaked from the vascular system


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Lymph Circulation

Interstitial fluidLymphLymph capillaryAfferent lymphvesselLymph nodeEfferent lymph vesselLymph trunkLymph duct {Right lymphatic duct and Thoracic duct (left side)}

Subclavian vein (right and left)

Blood

Interstitial fluid...
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Illu_lymph_capillary.jpg


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Effects of Exercise

Decreases the risk of

atherosclerosisDecreases BP or causes a

slower rise in BP

Decreases LDLs, decreasescholesterol, and increases

HDLs


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Major diseases of theCardiovascular System

Arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis, high

blood pressure, high cholesterol,stroke, and myocardial infarction,congestive heart failure, atrialfibrillation, bradycardia, tachycardia

Symptoms of disorders

Treatments and prevention


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Integumentary System

The integumentary system consists of theskin, hair, nails, the subcutaneoustissuebelow the skin, and assorted

glands


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SkinFunctions

Protection from injury

Protection against infection Regulates body temperature

Regulates water loss

Chemical synthesis

Sensory perception


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Types of Membranes

Serous Membranes Line body cavities that have no

opening to the outside Secrete a watery fluid called serous

fluid that lubricates surfaces Mucous Membranes

Line cavities and tubes that open tothe outside

Synovial Membranes Form the inner lining of joint

cavities Secrete a thick fluid called synovial

fluid Cutaneous Membranealso

known as skin


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Skin Layers andAttachment Layer

EpidermisCovers internal +external surfacesof body

DermisInner layerContainsaccessory skinstructures

Hypodermis orsubcutaneouslayerAttaches the skinto underlyingorgans & tissues


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Thin skin vs. Thick skin

Thin- 1-2 mm on most of the body and 0.5 mm in

eyelidsHairy; Covers all parts of the body exceptpalms, soles

Thick- up to 6 mm thick on palms of hands and solesof feet; Hairless; Covers palms, and soles


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Epidermal Cell Types

Keratinocytes - 90 % of epidermalcells are keratinized contains keratin(fibrous protein) protects andwaterproofsthe skin

Melanocytes- 8% of the epidermalcells produces melanin contributes toskin color and absorbs UV light

Langerhans cells-Arise from redbone marrow and migrate to theepidermis -Constitute small portion ofepidermal cells -Participate in immune

responses Easily damaged by UV light Merkel cells- Least numerous of

the epidermal cells Found in thedeepest layer of the epidermis-Alongwith tactile discs, they function insensation of touch


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Epidermal LayersStratum corneum - nuclei and organelles

are destroyed by lysosomes and the cellsfill with keratin

Stratum lucidum - only found in the

palms and soles of feet 3-5 layers ofclear, flat, dead keratinocytes -Densepacked intermediate filaments Thickplasma membranes

Stratum granulosum - cells start tobecome keritanized--Secretes lipid-rich

secretion that acts as a water sealantStratum spinosum - 8-10 layers ofkeratinocytesskin both strength and flexibility

Stratum basale -Also referred to asstratum germinatum -where new cells

are formed -


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Growth of Epidermis

Newly formed cells in the stratum basaleundergo keratinazationas they are pushed tothe surface and accumulate more keratinduring the process

Then they undergo apoptosis or death

Eventually they slough off and are replaced

The process takes about 4 weeks

Rate of cell division in the stratum basaleincreases during injury


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Dermis

Second deepest part of the skin Composedmainly of connective

tissues (collagen and elastic

fibers) Papillary LayerSurface area is

increased due to projectionscalled dermal papillaewhichcontains capillariesor tactile

receptors -Epidermal ridgesconforms to the dermal papillae Reticular Layer -Contains hair

follicles, nerves, sebaceousandsudoriferous glands


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Hypodermis

(Subcutaneous)Attaches the skin tounderlying organs and tissues

Not part of the skin - lies below the dermis

Contains connective tissue andadipose

tissues (subcutaneous fat) for insulation Infants and elderly have less of this than

adults and are therefore more sensitive tocold


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Skin Color


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Skin Color

Genetic FactorsSkin pigmentation

All humans have the same number of

melanocytes How much melanin they produce is

controlled by several genes

Lack of pigment is called albinism

Environmental Factors - Exposure to sunlight Volume of BloodHemoglobin in blood


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Skin PigmentsMelanin

Located mostly in epidermis

Two types of melanin: eumelanin

which is brownish black andpheomelaninwhich is reddishyellow

Fair-skinnedpeople have morepheomelaninand dark skinned

people have more eumelanin


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Environmental Factors AffectMelanin Production

UV light increases enzyme activity inmelansomesincreased melanin production

A tan= amount of melanin increases +darkness of melanin

Eumelanin= protection from UV radiationbut pheomelin breaks down with too much

UV

Too much UV radiation may cause skincancer


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Other Skin Pigments

Carotene= yellow -orange pigment

precurser of Vitamin Aimportant for

vision

Found in Stratum corneum and fattyareas of dermis and hypodermal layer

Hemoblobin= oxygen carryingpigment in red blood cells


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Skin Markings

friction ridges: markings on fingertipscharacteristic of primates - allow us tomanipulate objects more easily-fingerprints

are friction ridge skin impressions flexion lines: on flexor surfaces of digits,

palms, wrists, elbows etc.- skin is tightlybound to deep fascia at these points

freckles: flat melanized patches vary withheredity or exposure to sun

moles: elevated patch of melanized skin, ofthe with hair mostly harmless, beauty marks


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AgingSkin

In our 20s, the effects of aging begin to be visible in the skin.Stem cell activity declines: skin thin, repair difficultEpidermal dendritic cells decrease: reduced immune responseVitamin D3 production declines: calcium absorption declines

and brittle bonesGlandular activitydeclines: skin dries, body can overheatBlood supply to dermis declines: tend to feel coldHair follicles die or produce thinner hairDermisthins and becomes less elasticwrinkles


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Skin Derivatives

During embryonic development

thousands of small groups ofepidermal cells from stratumbasalepush down into dermis to

form hair follicles and glands


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FunctionsHair & Nails

Functions of Hair

Hair on the head protects scalp from injury andsunlight

Eyelashes and eyebrows protect eyes Nostril and ear hairs protect from foreign particles

Help in sensing light touch due to the touchreceptors associated with the hair root plexuses.

Functions of the Nails Grasping objects

Manipulating objects

Protects ends of digits from trauma

Scratching


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Hair Anatomy

Shaft: portion of hair that projects from skin surface

Root: portion of hair deep to the shaft penetrating

the dermis

Has 3 layers:

medulla

cortexcuticle

Base of the hair follicle

Bulb: houses the papilla which contains the

blood vessels that nourishes the growing hair

follicle.

Matrix:responsible for hair growth andproduces new hair

Arrector pili:smooth muscle

Extends from the dermis to the side of hair

follicle.

Hair root plexus - dendrites of neurons which are

sensitive to touch


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Hair Features& Texture

About 100,000 hairs are on the scalpAlmost every part of body is covered with hair except

palms of hands, soles of feet, sides of fingers andtoes, lips and parts of genitals

Hair shafts differ in size, shape, and color. In theeyebrows they are short and stiff while on the scalpthey are longer and more flexible. Over the rest ofthe body they are fine and nearly invisible

Oval shaped hair shafts produce wavy hair,Flat or ribbon-like hair shafts produce curly or kinkyhairRound hair shafts produce straight hair.

Roughly 5 million hairs cover the body of an average

individual


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Hair Growth

Hair follicles grow in repeated cycles.One cycle can be broken down into threephases.

Anagen- Growth Phase

CatagenTransitional PhaseTelogen- Resting PhaseEach hair passes through the phasesindependent of the neighboring hairs


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Skin Glands

Sudoriferous - sweat glands

Eccrine sweat glands -Secretescooling sweat

Appocrine sweat glands - duringemotional stress/excitement

Sebaceous - oil glands

Acne - inflammation ofsebaceous gland ducts

Ceruminous -modified sweatglands of the external ear thatproduce ear wax


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Nails

Made of tightly packed, hard, keratinizedepidermal cells

Consist of:

Nail body: portion of the nail that is visible- Freeedge: part that extends past the distal end of thedigit

Nail root: portion buried in a fold of skin

Lunula: means little moon - Crescent shaped area

of the nailHyponychium: secures the nail to the fingertip -Thickened stratum corneum

Eponychium or cuticle: narrow band of epidermis-Growth of nails is in the nail matrix.


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Skin Receptors

Heat

Cold

Lightpressure

Heavy

Pressure Pain


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Skin Imbalances

Skin Leisons

Skin Infections

Viral as cold sores, herpes simplex, warts (HPV)Bacterial as bioles, carbuncles, inflammmation ofhair follicles and subaceous glands. Impetigo

Fungal as athletes food, Tinea

Contact DermatitisIrritant Dermatitis as soaps, detergents, shampoo

Allergic Dermatitis as poison ivy, poison oak, rubbergloves, nickel and other medals, fragrances


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Genetic Disorders

Psoriasis chronic, noninfectious skin disease skin becomes dry and scaly, often with

pustules and many varieties stratum corneum gets thick as deadcells accumulate

often triggered by trauma, infection ,hormonal changes or stress

Vitiligoa autoimmune pigmentationdisorder where melanocytes in theepidermis are destroyed eg MichaelJackson


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Skin cancer


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Types of Skin Cancer

Basal Cell Carcinoma

Spread uncommon, verycurable if found early

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Occurs parts exposed to thesun

T pes of Skin Cance


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Types of Skin Cancer(cont.)

Malignant Melanoma

Most common in southernhemisphere where the ozonelayer is thin.

Deadly if not caught early!!


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Very common

ABCD

Asymmetry

Borders

Color Diameter

Skin Cancer


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Skin Cancer Prevention

Use SPF 15 minimum.

Wear hats and shirts withsleeves.

Wear sunglasses to protect

eyes from UV.

Avoid tanning beds

I S t


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Immune SystemComponents

specific cells - lymphocytes,

macrophages, etc., originate from

precursor cells in the bone marrow

and patrol tissues by circulating in

either the blood or lymphatics,

migrating into connective tissue or

collecting in immune organs

lymphatic organs- thymus, spleen,

tonsils, lymph nodes diffuse lymphatic tissue -collections of

lymphocytes and other immune cells

dispersed in the lining of the digestive

and respiratory tracts and in the skin


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Types of Cells

L h ti


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LymphmaticOrgans

Lymph Nodes

Spleen

Thymus

Red Bone Marrow

Immune Tissue inOrgansGALT,MALT, SALT


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Plan of Protection

Immunity is the ability to defendagainst infectious agents, foreign cells

and abnormal cells eg. cancerous cells 1stLine of defenseBlock entry

2ndLine of DefenseFight Local

Infections 3rdLine of DefenseCombat Major

Infections


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Nonspecific Response

Responds quickly, fights all invaders andconsists of:

First line of defenseintact skin and mucosaeand secretions of skin and mucousmembranes prevent entry of microorganisms

Second line of defensephagocytic white

blood cells, antimicrobial proteins, and othercells

Inflammatory response process is key

Inhibit invaders from spreading throughout

the body


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First line of Defense

Non specific barriers to block entry

Skinphysical & chemical barrier

Mucous membranes

Nasal hairs and microscopic cilia

Gastric juice, vaginal secretions &urine

Natural flora

Tears, salivaand sweatglands

Cerumenor Ear Wax

S d Li


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Second Lineof Defense

Fight local infection with Inflammation

Process Response is a non-specific, immediate,

maximalresponse

Consists of phagocytosis, complementprotein response

Involve the Inflammation Process

Ph t d Th i


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Phagocytes and TheirRelatives

I fl ti P


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Inflammation Process

S ifi R


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Specific Response

Third Line of Defense takes longer to react

work on specific types of invaders-

identifies and targets fordestruction

not restricted to initial site of

invasion/infectionwhole bodyprotection

a strongerimmune responseas

well as immunological memory


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Antigens

Antigensare proteins or carbohydratechain of a glycoprotein within a

plasma membrane which the bodyrecognizes asnonself

antigen presentation - specific

immune response is antigen-specificand requires the recognition ofspecific non-self antigens

Specific Defense


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Specific Defense

Humorial Antibody


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HumorialAntibody(Extracellular Response)

B cells

Plasma Cells -produce antibodies

Antibody-antigenComplex

Helper T Cells

Memory Cells

Antigen-Antibody Complex Functions


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Antigen-Antibody Complex Functions


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Classes of Antibodies


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Classes of Antibodies

IgA

Antibodies are dimmerscontain two Y shaped structures. Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut,

respiratory tract and urogenital tract. Also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk. They attack

microbes and prevents colonization by pathogens before they reach the blood stream so it is most

important antibody in local immunity

IgDFunctions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that have not been exposed to antigens. It has

been shown to activate basophils and mast cells to produce antimicrobial factors.

IgG

In its four forms, provides the majority of antibody-based immunity against invading pathogens. It

makes up about 75 % of all human antibodies and is the bodys major defense against bacteria. The

only antibody capable of crossing the placenta to give passive immunity to fetus. It is the most

versatile of antibodies because it carries out functions of the other antibodies as well.

IgEBinds to allergens and triggers histamine release from mast cells and basophils, and is involved in

allergy. Also protects against parasitic worms.

IgMExpressed on the surface of B cells and in a secreted form with very high avidity. Eliminates

pathogens in the early stages of B cell mediated (humoral) immunity before there is sufficient IgG.

Cell mediated immune


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Cell-mediated immuneresponse

Within the cellinvolves the activationofphagocytes, antigen-

specificcytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and therelease of various cytokinesin response to an antigen


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Memory B & T Cells

Should a pathogen infect

the body more than once,these specific memory cellsare used to quicklyeliminate

Primary & Secondary


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Primary & SecondaryImmunity

Sources of Specific Immunity


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p yInborn & Acquired

Inborn ImmunityImmunity for certain diseases is inherited

Acquired Immunityimmunity can be acquired throughinfection or artificially by medical intervention


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Immunization

ibi i d i i l


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Antibiotics and Antivirals

Antibiotics or antibacterialsgroup ofmedications used to kill bacteria bypreventing them from dividing

There is concern about the extensive use ofantibiotics resulting in resistant forms ofbacteria and superbugs

Antiviralsgroup of medications used totreat viral infections but they cannotdestroy the virus. Rather they inhibit thevirus from reproducing and developing.


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Cultured Antibodies

Monoclonal antibodiescloningof many copies of the same

antibody which can be useful infighting diseases because theycan be designed specifically to

only target a certain antigen, suchas one that is found on cancercells


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Allergies

Hypersensitivityof the immune systemto relatively harmless environmental

antigens - the immune system reacts toan outside substance that it normallywould ignore

Allergy types (food, dust, mold,seasonal), symptoms andsigns (skinrash, itching, red bumps, sneezing)


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Asthma

an obstructive pulmonary disorder

characterized by recurring spasms ofmuscles in bronchial walls accompanied byedema and mucus production which makebreathing difficult

it causes the airways of the lungs to swelland narrow, leading to wheezing, shortnessof breath, chest tightness, and coughing


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AIDS -HIV

AIDS -(acquired immune deficiencysyndrome) is the final stage of HIV

disease, which causes severe damage tothe immune system-caused by infectionwith human immunodeficiency virus

(HIV)-HIV infects vital cells in the humanimmune system such as helper T cells,macrophages, and dendrite cells


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Autoimmune Disorders

Condition that occurs when the immunesystem mistakenly attacks and destroyshealthy body tissue

Can't tell the differencebetween healthybody tissue and antigens- The result is animmune response that destroys normalbody tissues

More than 80 different typesMultiplesclerosis, Rheumatoid arthritis, Systemiclupus erythematosus


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ABO Antigens

The surface membranes of RBCs carry proteins thatact as antigens in some recipients

Type A blood has A antigens only.

Type B blood has B antigens only.

Type AB blood has both A and B antigens present

Type O blood lacks both A and B antigens

Blood plasma contains antibodies to the bloodtypes not present.

Exposure to foreign blood antigens results inagglutinationor clumping of RBCs, preventscirculation of blood, and the RBCs burst


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RH Factor

Another important antigen used in matching bloodtypes

Persons with Rh factor on RBC membrane are Rhpositive; Rh negative lack the Rh factor protein.

Rh negative individuals do not automatically haveantibodies to Rh factor but develop immunity whenexposed to it.

Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) can occurwhen mother is Rh negative and baby is Rh positive

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Anatomy&Physiology (b&c) 2015