An Introduction - Business Research Methods

Data Collection Tools and Data Processing2Questionnaire Design ProcessFor a questionnaire to fulfill a researchers purposes, the questions must meet the basic criteria of relevance and accuracy. To achieve these ends, a researcher who is systematically planning a questionnaires design will be required to make several decisions1. What should be asked?2. How should questions be phrased?3. In what sequence should the questions be arranged?4. What questionnaire layout will best serve the research objectives?5. How should the questionnaire be pretested? Does the questionnaire need to be revised?38423Questionnaire Design ProcessCertain decisions made during the early stages of the research process will influence the questionnaire design. At the same time, the latter stages of the research process will also have an important impact on questionnaire wording and measurement. For example, when designing the questionnaire, the researcher should consider the types of statistical analysis that will be conducted.What Should Be Asked?38434Questionnaire Design ProcessA questionnaire is relevant to the extent that all information collected addresses a research question that will help the decision maker address the current business problem. In a study where two samples of the same group of businesses received either a one-page or a three-page questionnaire, the response rate was nearly twice as high for the one-page survey. Questionnaire Relevancy38445Questionnaire Design ProcessConversely, many researchers, after conducting surveys, find that they omitted some important questions. Therefore, when planning the questionnaire design, researchers must think about possible omissions. Is information on the relevant demographic and psychographic variables being collected? Would certain questions help clarify the answers to other questions? Will the results of the study provide the answer to the managers problem?Questionnaire Relevancy38456Questionnaire Design ProcessAccuracy means that the information is reliable and valid. While experienced researchers generally believe that questionnaires should use simple, understandable, unbiased, unambiguous, and nonirritating words. Obtaining accurate answers from respondents depends strongly on the researchers ability to design a questionnaire that will facilitate recall and motivate respondents to cooperate. Questionnaire Accuracy38467Questionnaire Design ProcessRespondents tend to be more cooperative when the subject of the research interests them. When questions are not lengthy, difficult to answer, or ego threatening, there is a higher probability of obtaining unbiased answers.Questionnaire Accuracy38478Questionnaire Design ProcessThere are many ways to phrase questions, and many standard question formats have been developed in previous research studies.Wording QuestionsOpen-Ended Response versus Fixed-Alternative QuestionsOpen-ended response questions pose some problem or topic and ask respondents to answer in their own words. Open-ended response questions are free-answer questions.38489Questionnaire Design ProcessWhat names of local banks can you think of?What comes to mind when you look at this advertisement?In what way, if any, could this product be changed or improved? Id like you to tell me anything you can think of, no matter how minor it seems. How would you describe your supervisors management style?Please tell us how our stores can better serve your needs.Open-Ended Response versus Fixed-Alternative Questions384910Questionnaire Design Processfixed-alternative questionssometimes called closed-ended questionswhich give respondents specific limited-alternative responses and ask them to choose the one closest to their own viewpoints. For example:Open-Ended Response versus Fixed-Alternative QuestionsDid you use any commercial feed or supplement for livestock or poultry in 2010? *Yes *No3841011Questionnaire Design ProcessWould you say that the labor quality in Japan is higher, about the same, or not as good as it was 10 years ago?HigherAbout the sameNot as goodOpen-Ended Response versus Fixed-Alternative QuestionsDo you think the Renewable Energy Partnership Program has affected your business?Yes, for the betterNot especiallyYes, for the worse3841112Questionnaire Design ProcessUsing Open-ended Response QuestionsOpen-ended response questions are most beneficial when the researcher is conducting exploratory research, especially when the range of responses is not yet known. Respondents are free to answer with whatever is foremost in their minds. Such questions can be used to learn which words and phrases people spontaneously give to the free-response question. 3841213Questionnaire Design ProcessUsing Open-ended Response QuestionsSuch responses will reflect the flavor of the language that people use in talking about the issue and thus may provide guidance in the wording of questions and responses for follow up surveys. Also, open-ended response questions are valuable at the beginning of an interview. They are good first questions because they allow respondents to warm up to the questioning process.3841314Questionnaire Design ProcessUsing Open-ended Response QuestionsThe cost of administering open-ended response questions is substantially higher than that of administering fixed-alternative questions because the job of editing, coding, and analyzing the data is quite extensive. As each respondents answer is somewhat unique, there is some difficulty in categorizing and summarizing the answers. Another potential disadvantage of the open-ended response question is the possibility that interviewer bias will influence the answer.3841415Questionnaire Design ProcessUsing Fixed-alternative QuestionsIn contrast, fixed-alternative questions require less interviewer skill, take less time, and are easier for the respondent to answer. This is because answers to closed questions are classified into standardized groupings prior to data collection. Standardizing alternative responses to a question provides comparability of answers, which facilitates coding, tabulating, and ultimately interpreting the data. 3841516Questionnaire Design ProcessTypes of Fixed-Alternative QuestionsA fixed-alternative question that requires the respondent to choose one of two alternatives. The answer can be a simple yes or no or a choice between this and that.Simple-dichotomy (Dichotomous) QuestionDid you have any overnight travel for work-related activities last month? Yes No3841617Questionnaire Design ProcessTypes of Fixed-Alternative QuestionsA fixed-alternative question that requires the respondentto choose one response from among multiple alternatives. Determinant-choice QuestionPlease give us some information about your flight. In which section of the aircraft did you sit? *First class *Business class *Coach class3841718Questionnaire Design ProcessTypes of Fixed-Alternative QuestionsA fixed-alternative question that asks for an answer about general frequency of occurrence.Frequency-determination QuestionHow frequently do you watch Star Plus?Every day 56 times a week 24 times a week Once a week Less than once a week Never3841819Questionnaire Design ProcessTypes of Fixed-Alternative QuestionsA fixed-alternative question that allows the respondent to provide multiple answers to a single question by checking off items.Checklist QuestionPlease check which, if any, of the following sources of information about investments you regularly use. Personal advice of your broker(s) Brokerage newsletters Brokerage research reports Investment advisory service(s) Conversations with other investors Web page(s) None of these Other (please specify) __________

3841920Questionnaire Design ProcessTypes of Fixed-Alternative QuestionsA category exists for every respondent in among the fixed alternative categories. Totally ExhaustiveAlternatives should be totally exhaustive, meaning that all the response options are covered and that every respondent has an alternative to check. The alternatives should also be mutually exclusive, meaning there should be no overlap among categories and only one dimension of an issue should be related to each alternative.3842021Questionnaire Design ProcessTypes of Fixed-Alternative QuestionsTotally ExhaustiveThe following listing of income groups illustrates common errors: $10,000$30,000 $30,000$50,000 $50,000$70,000 $70,000$90,000 $90,000$110,000 Over $110,0003842122Questionnaire Design ProcessTypes of Fixed-Alternative QuestionsTotally ExhaustiveThe following response categories address the totally exhaustive and mutually exclusive issues.Less than $10,000$10,000$29,999$30,000$49,999$50,000$69,999$70,000$89,999$90,000$109,999Over $110,0003842223Questionnaire Design ProcessPhrasing Questions for Self-administered, Telephone, and Personal Interview SurveysThe means of data collectiontelephone interview, personal interview, self-administered questionnairewill influence the question format and question phrasing. In general, questions for telephone in particular, as well as Internet and mail surveys, must be less complex than those used in personal interviews. Questionnaires for telephone and personal interviews should be written in a conversational style. telephone surveys use easy to understand response categories.3842324Questionnaire Design Process

3842425Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing QuestionsDeveloping good business research questionnaires is a combination of art and science. Few hard and- fast rules exist in guiding the development of a questionnaire. Fortunately, research experience has yielded some guidelines that help prevent the most common mistakes.3842526Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions1-Avoid Complexity: Use Simple, Conversational LanguageWords used in questionnaires should be readily understandable to all respondents. Remember, not all people have the vocabulary of a college graduate. The vocabulary used in the following question from an attitude survey on social problems probably would confuse many respondents:3842627Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions1-Avoid Complexity: Use Simple, Conversational LanguageWhen effluents from a paper mill can be drunk and exhaust from factory smokestacks can be breathed, then humankind will have done a good job in saving the environment. . . . Dont you agree that what we want is zero toxicity: no effluents?3842728Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions1-Avoid Complexity: Use Simple, Conversational LanguageBesides being too long and confusing, this question is leading. Survey questions should be short and to the point. Like this: The stock market is too risky to invest in these days.3842829Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions2- Avoid Leading and Loaded QuestionsLeading and loaded questions are a major source of bias in question wording. A leading question suggests or implies certain answers. A study of the dry cleaning industry asked this question:Many people are using dry cleaning less because of improved wash-and-wear clothes. How do you feel wash-and-wear clothes have affected your use of dry cleaning facilities in the past 4 years? * Use less * No change *Use more3842930Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions2- Avoid Leading and Loaded QuestionsA loaded question suggests a socially desirable answer or is emotionally charged. Consider the following question from a survey about media influence on politics:What most influences your vote in major elections?My own informed opinionMajor media outlets such as CNNNewspaper endorsementsPopular celebrity opinionsCandidates physical attractiveness Family or friendsVideo advertising (television or Web video)Other3843031Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions2- Avoid Leading and Loaded QuestionsCertain answers to questions are more socially desirable than others. For example, a truthful answer to the following classification question might be painful:Where did you rank academically in your high school graduating class? Top quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter 4th quarter3843132Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions2- Avoid Leading and Loaded QuestionsWhen taking personality or psychographic tests, respondents frequently can interpret whichanswers are most socially acceptable even if those answers do not portray their true feelings.I feel capable of handling myself in most social situations.* Agree * Disagree

I fear my actions will cause others to have low opinions of me.* Agree * Disagree3843233Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions3-Avoid Ambiguity: Be as Specific as PossibleItems on questionnaires often are ambiguous because they are too general. Consider such indefinite words as often, occasionally, regularly, frequently, many, good, and poor. Each of these words has many different meanings.What media do you rely on most? Television Radio Internet Newspapers3843334Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions3-Avoid Ambiguity: Be as Specific as PossibleThis question is ambiguous because it does not provide information about the context. Rely on most for whatnews, sports, entertainment? Whenwhile getting dressed in the morning, driving to work, at home in the evening? Knowing the specific circumstance can affect the choice made.3843435Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions4-Avoid Double-Barreled ItemsA question that may induce bias because it covers two issues at once. Making the mistake of asking two questions rather than one is easyfor example, Do you feel our hospital emergency room waiting area is clean and comfortable?Did your plant use any commercial feed or supplement for livestock or poultry in 2010? * Yes * No3843536Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions5-Avoid Making AssumptionsShould General Electric continue to pay its outstanding quarterly dividends?*Yes *NoAnother frequent mistake is assuming that the respondent had previously thought about an issue. Research that induces people to express attitudes on subjects they do not ordinarily think about is rather meaningless.3843637Questionnaire Design ProcessGuidelines for Constructing Questions6-Avoid Burdensome Questions That May Tax the Respondents MemoryA simple fact of human life is that people forget. Researchers writing questions about past behavior or events should recognize that certain questions may make serious demands on the respondents memory. Writing questions about prior events requires a conscientious attempt to minimize the problems associated with forgetting.3843738Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best Question SequenceThe order of questions, or the question sequence, may serve several functions for the researcher. If the opening questions are interesting, simple to comprehend and easy to answer, respondents cooperation and involvement can be maintained throughout the questionnaire.3843839Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best Question SequenceIn their attempt to warm up respondents toward the questionnaire, student researchers frequently ask demographic or classification questions at the beginning of the survey. This generally is not advisable, because asking for personal information such as income level or education may embarrass or threaten respondents. Asking these questions at the end of the questionnaire usually is better, after rapport has been established between respondent and interviewer.3843940Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best Question SequenceOrder bias can result from a particular answers position in a set of answers or from the sequencing of questions. In political elections in which candidates lack high visibility, such as elections for county commissioners and judges, the first name listed on the ballot often receives the highest percentage of votes. For this reason, many election boards print several ballots so that each candidates name appears in every possible position on the ballot.3844041Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best Question SequenceFunnel Technique Asking general questions before specific questions in order to obtain unbiased responses. Generally, researchers should ask general questions before specific questions. This allows the researcher to understand the respondents frame of reference before asking more specific questions about the level of the respondents information and the intensity of his or her opinions.3844142Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best Question SequenceFilter Question A question that screens out respondents who are not qualified to answer a second question. minimizes the chance of asking questions that are inapplicable. Asking a human resource manager How would you rate the third party administrator (TPA) of your employee health plan? may elicit a response even though the organization does not utilize a TPA. The respondent may wish to please the interviewer with an answer.3844243Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best Question SequenceA filter question such as Does your organization use a third party administrator (TPA) for your employee health plan? followed by If you answered Yes to the previous question, how would you rate your TPA on . . . ? would screen out the people who are not qualified to answer.3844344Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best Question SequencePivot Question A filter question used to determine which version of a second question will be asked. Is your total family income over or under $50,000? IF UNDER, ASK, Is it over or under $25,000? IF OVER, ASK, Is it over or under $75,000?

-Under $25,000 -$50,001$75,000-$25,001$50,000 -Over $75,0003844445Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best LayoutGood layout and physical attractiveness are crucial in mail, Internet, and other self-administered questionnaires. For different reasons, a good layout in questionnaires designed for personal and telephone interviews is also important.3844546Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best Layout-Traditional Questionnaires

3844647Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best Layouta page from a telephone questionnaire. The layout is neat and organized, and the instructions for the interviewer (all boldface capital letters) are easy to follow. The responses It depends, Refused, and Dont Know are enclosed in a box to indicate that these answers are acceptable but responses from the five-point scale are preferred.-Traditional Questionnaires3844748Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best LayoutQuestionnaires should be designed to appear as short as possible. Sometimes it is advisable to use a booklet form of questionnaire rather than stapling a large number of pages together. In situations in which it is necessary to conserve space on the questionnaire or to facilitate data entry or tabulation of the data, a multiple-grid layout may be used. The multiple-grid question presents several similar questions and corresponding response alternatives arranged in a grid format.-Traditional Questionnaires3844849Questionnaire Design ProcessThe Best Layout-Traditional QuestionnairesAirlines often offer special fare promotions, but they may require connecting flights. On a vacation trip, how often would you take a connecting flight instead of a nonstop flight if you could save $100 a ticket, but the connecting flight was longer? Never Rarely Sometimes Often AlwaysComplete trip is one hour longer?

Complete trip is two hours longer?

Complete trip is three hours longer?3844950Collecting Primary DataMaking Initial Contact and Securing the InterviewPersonal InterviewsPersonal interviewers may carry a letter of identification or an ID card to indicate that the study is a bona fide research project and not a sales pitch. Interviewers are trained to make appropriate opening remarks that will convince the respondent that his or her cooperation is important, as in this example:3845051Collecting Primary DataMaking Initial Contact and Securing the InterviewPersonal InterviewsGood afternoon, my name is _____________, and Im with [insert name of firm], an international research company. We are conducting a survey concerning _____________. I would like to get a few of your ideas. It will take [insert accurate time estimate] minutes.3845152Collecting Primary DataMaking Initial Contact and Securing the InterviewTelephone InterviewsGiving the interviewers name personalizes the call. The name of the research agency is used to imply that the caller is trustworthy. The respondent must be given an accurate estimate of the time it will take to participate in the interview. If someone is told that only three minutes will be required for participation, and the interview proceeds to five minutes or more, the respondent will tend to quit before completing the interview. 3845253Collecting Primary DataMaking Initial Contact and Securing the InterviewTelephone InterviewsFor the initial contact in a telephone interview, the introduction might be something like this:

Good evening, my name is ________________. I am not trying to sell anything. Im calling from [insert name of firm] in Mason, Ohio. We are seeking your opinions on some important matters and it will only take [insert accurate time estimate] minutes of your time.38453Processing ofResearch Data 55Processing of Research DataStages of Data AnalysisPractically all researchers will be very anxious to begin data analysis once the field work is complete. Now, the raw data can be transformed into intelligence. However, raw data may not be in a form that lends itself well to analysis.Raw DataThe unedited responses from a respondent exactly as indicated by that respondent.3845556Processing of Research Data Stages of Data AnalysisRaw data will often also contain errors both in the form of respondent errors and non-respondent errors. Whereas a respondent error is a mistake made by the respondent, a non-respondent error is a mistake made by an interviewer or by a person responsible for creating an electronic data file representing the responses.3845657Processing of Research Data

3845758Processing of Research Data Stages of Data AnalysisData integrity refers to the notion that the data file actually contains the information that the researcher promised the decision maker he or she would obtain. Additionally, data integrity extends to the fact that the data have been edited and properly coded so that they are useful to the decision maker.3845859Processing of Research Data EditingFieldwork often produces data containing mistakes. For example, consider the following simple questionnaire item and response:

How long have you lived at your current address? - 48

The researcher had intended the response to be in years. Perhaps the respondent has indicated the number of months rather than years he or she has lived at this address?3845960Processing of Research Data EditingSometimes, responses may be contradictory. What if thesame respondent above gives this response?

What is your age? 32 years

This answer contradicts the earlier response. If the respondent is 32 years of age, then how could he or she have lived at the same address for 48 years?3846061Processing of Research Data EditingEditing is the process of checking the completeness, consistency, and legibility of data and making the data ready for coding and transfer to storage. So, the editors task is to check for errors and omissions on questionnaires or other data collection forms. When the editor discovers a problem, he or she adjusts the data to make them more complete, consistent, or readable.3846162Processing of Research Data Field EditingField supervisors often are responsible for conducting preliminary field editing on the same day as the interview. Field editing is used to1. Identify technical omissions such as a blank page on an interview form2. Check legibility of handwriting for open-ended responses3. Clarify responses that are logically or conceptually inconsistent.3846263Processing of Research Data In-House EditingIn-house editing rigorously investigates the results of data collection. The research supplier or research department normally has a centralized office staff perform the editing and coding function. For example, Arbitron measures radio audiences by having respondents record their listening behaviortime, station, and placein diaries. After the diaries are returned by mail, in-house editors perform usability edits in which they check that the postmark is after the last day of the survey week, verify the legibility of station call letters, look for completeness of entries on each day of the week, and perform other editing activities.3846364Processing of Research Data Illustrating Inconsistency - Fact Or Fiction?Consider a situation in which a telephone interviewer has been instructed to interview only registered voters in a state that requires voters to be at least 18 years old. If the editors review of a questionnaire indicates that the respondent was only 17 years old, the editors task is to correct this mistake by deleting this response because this respondent should never have been considered as a sampling unit.3846465The editor also should check for consistency within the data collection framework.In which of the following cities have you shopped for clothing during the last year? San Francisco SacramentoProcessing of Research Data Illustrating Inconsistency - Fact Or Fiction?Suppose a respondent checks Sacramento and San Francisco to the first question. If the same respondent lists a store that has a location only in Los Angeles in the second question, an error is indicated. Either the respondent failed to list Los Angeles in the first question or listed an erroneous store in the second question. These answers are obviously inconsistent. San Jos Los Angeles Other _________3846566Responses should be logically consistent, but the researcher should not jump to the conclusion that a change should be made at the first site of an inconsistency. In all but the most obvious situations, a change should only be made when multiple pieces of evidence exist that some response is in error and when the likely true response is obvious.Processing of Research Data Taking Action When Response Is Obviously An Error3846667The editor may check other responses to make sure that the screening question was answered accurately. For instance, if the respondent left the question about home value unanswered, then the editor will be confident that the person truly does not own a home. In cases like this, the editor should adjust these answers by considering all answers to the irrelevant questions as no response or not applicable.Processing of Research Data Taking Action When Response Is Obviously An Error3846768In some cases the respondent may have answered only the second portion of a two-part question. The following question creates a situation in which an in-house editor may have to adjust answers for completeness:Does your organization have more than one computer network server? # Yes # NoIf yes, how many? ____Processing of Research Data Editing for CompletenessIf the respondent checked neither yes nor no but indicated three computer installations, the editor should change the first response to a Yes as long as other information doesnt indicate otherwise.3846869Processing of Research Data Editing for CompletenessItem Non-responseThe technical term for an unanswered question on an otherwise complete questionnaire resulting in missing data.Plug ValueAn answer that an editor plugs in to replace blanks or missing values so as to permit data analysis; choice of value is based on a predetermined decision rule.3846970Processing of Research Data Editing for CompletenessThe decision rule may be to plug in an average or neutral value in each instance of missing data. Several choices are available:1. Leave the response blank. Because the question is so important, the risk of creating error by plugging a value is too great.2. Plug in alternate choices for missing data (yes the first time, no the second time, yes the third time, and so forth).3847071Processing of Research Data Editing for Completeness3. Randomly select an answer. The editor may flip a coin with heads for yes and tails for no.4. The editor can impute a missing value based on the respondents choices to other questions. Many different techniques exist for imputing data. Some involve complex statistical estimation approaches that use the available information to forecast a best guess for the missing response.3847172Processing of Research Data Editing Questions Answered Out of OrderAnother task an editor may face is rearranging the answers given to open-ended questions such as may occur in a focus group interview. The respondent may have provided the answer to a subsequent question in his or her comments to an earlier open-ended question. Because the respondent already had clearly identified the answer, the interviewer may not have asked the subsequent question,3847273Processing of Research Data Facilitating the Coding ProcessWhile all of the previously described editing activities will help coders, several editing procedures are designed specifically to simplify the coding process. For example, the editor should check written responses for any stray marks. Respondents are often asked to circle responses. Sometimes, a respondent may accidentally draw a circle that overlaps two numbers. For example, the circle may include both 3 and 4. The editor may be able to decide which number is the most accurate response and indicate that on the form.3847374Processing of Research Data Editing And Tabulating Dont Know AnswersIn many situations, respondents answer dont know. A legitimate dont know response is the same as no opinion. However, there may be reasons for this response other than the legitimate dont know. A reluctant dont know is given when the respondent simply does not want to answer a question. For example, asking an individual who is not the head of the household about family income may elicit a dont know answer meaning, This is personal, and I really do not want to answer the question.3847475Processing of Research Data Pitfalls of EditingSubjectivity can enter into the editing process. Data editors should be intelligent, experienced, and objective. A systematic procedure for assessing the questionnaires should be developed by the research analyst so that the editor has clearly defined decision rules to follow. Any inferences such as imputing missing values should be done in a manner that limits the chance for the data editors subjectivity to influence the response.3847576Processing of Research Data CodingEditing may be differentiated from coding, which is the assignment of numerical scores or classifying symbols to previously edited data. Careful editing makes the coding job easier. Codes are meant to represent the meaning in the data. 3847677Processing of Research Data CodingAssigning numerical symbols permits the transfer of data from questionnaires or interview forms to a computer. Codes often, but not always, are numerical symbols. However, they are more broadly defined as rules for interpreting, classifying, and recording data. In qualitative research, numbers are seldom used for codes.3847778Processing of Research Data Coding Qualitative ResponsesIn qualitative research, the codes are usually words or phrases that represent themes. A qualitative researcher is applying a code to a text describing in detail a respondents reactions. Unstructured Qualitative Responses (Long Interviews)3847879Processing of Research Data Coding Qualitative ResponsesStructured Qualitative ResponsesQualitative responses to structured questions such as yes or no can be stored in a data file with letters such as Y or N. Alternatively, they can be represented with numbers, one each to represent the respective category. So, the number 1 can be used to represent yes and 2 can be used to represent no.4647980Processing of Research Data Coding Qualitative ResponsesStructured Qualitative ResponsesThe research may consider adopting dummy coding for dichotomous responses like yes or no. Dummy coding assigns a 0 to one category and a 1 to the other. Dummy coding provides the researcher with more flexibility in how structured, qualitative responses are analyzed statistically.4648081Processing of Research Data Data File TerminologyFieldA collection of characters that represents a single type of datausually a variable.String CharactersComputer terminology to represent formatting a variable using a series of alphabetic characters that may form a word.RecordA collection of related fields that represents the responses from one sampling unit.Data FileThe way a data set is stored electronically in spreadsheet-likeform in which the rows represent sampling units and the columns represent variables.4648182Processing of Research Data Precoding Fixed-Alternative Questions

4648283Processing of Research Data Precoding Fixed-Alternative Questions

4648384Processing of Research Data Coding Open-Ended QuestionsSurveys that are largely structured will sometimes contain some semi-structured open-ended questions. These questions may be exploratory or they may be potential follow-ups to structured questions. The purpose of coding such questions is to reduce the large number of individual responses to a few general categories of answers that can be assigned numerical codes. 4648485Processing of Research Data Coding Open-Ended QuestionsA consumer survey about frozen food also asked why a new microwaveable product would not be purchased: We dont buy frozen food very often. I like to prepare fresh food. Frozen foods are not as tasty as fresh foods. I dont like that freezer taste.All of these answers could be categorized under dislike frozen foods and assigned the code 1. Code construction in these situations reflects the judgment of the researcher.4648586Processing of Research Data Coding Open-Ended QuestionsTest tabulation is the tallying of a small sample of the total number of replies to a particular question. The purpose is to preliminarily identify the stability and distribution of answers that will determine a coding scheme.4648687Processing of Research Data Editing and Coding CombinedFrequently the person coding the questionnaire performs certain editing functions, such as translating an occupational title provided by the respondent into a code for socioeconomic status. A question that asks for a description of the job or business often is used to ensure that there will be no problem in classifying the responses.For example, respondents who indicate salesperson as their occupation might write their job description as selling shoes in a shoe store or selling IBM supercomputers to the defense department. Generally, coders are instructed to perform this type of editing function, seeking the help of a tabulation supervisor if questions arise.4648788Processing of Research Data TabulationTabulation refers to the orderly arrangement of data in a table or other summary format. When this tabulation process is done by hand, the term tallying is used. Counting the different ways respondents answered a question and arranging them in a simple tabular form yields a frequency table. The actual number of responses to each category is a variables frequency distribution. A simple tabulation of this type is sometimes called a marginal tabulation.4648889Processing of Research Data TabulationSimple tabulation tells the researcher how frequently each response occurs. This starting point for analysis requires the researcher to count responses or observations for each category or code assigned to a variable. A frequency table showing where consumers generally purchase Chocolate can be computed easily. 4648990Processing of Research Data Tabulation

4649091Processing of Research Data Cross-TabulationCross-tabulation is the appropriate technique for addressing research questions involving relationships among multiple less-than interval variables. We can think of a cross-tabulation is a combined frequency table. Cross-tabs allow the inspection and comparison of differences among groups based on nominal or ordinal categories. One key to interpreting a cross-tabulation table is comparing the observed table values with hypothetical values that would result from pure chance.4649192Processing of Research Data Cross-Tabulation

4649293Processing of Research Data Cross-Tabulation

4649394Processing of Research Data Contingency TablesA contingency table is a data matrix that displays the frequency of some combination of possible responses to multiple variables. Two-way contingency tables, meaning they involve two less-than interval variables, are used most often. A three-way contingency table involves three less-than interval variables. Beyond three variables, contingency tables become difficult to analyze and explain easily. For all practical purposes, a contingency table is the same as a cross-tabulation.4649495Processing of Research Data Contingency TablesTwo variables are depicted in the contingency table shown in panel A: Row Variable: Biological Sex _____M _____F Column Variable: Do you shop at Target? YES or NO4649596Processing of Research Data Contingency Tables

4649697Processing of Research Data Contingency Tables

4649798Processing of Research Data Contingency TablesA two-way contingency table like the one shown in part A is referred to as a 2 2 table because it has two rows and two columns. Each variable has two levels. A two-way contingency table displaying two variables, one (the row variable) with three levels and the other with four levels, would be referred to as a 3 4 table. Any cross-tabulation table may be classified according to the number of rows by the number of columns (R by C).4649899Processing of Research Data Percentage Cross-TabulationsWhen data from a survey are cross-tabulated, percentages help the researcher understand the nature of the relationship by making relative comparisons simpler. The total number of respondents or observations may be used as a statistical base for computing the percentage in each cell.46499100Processing of Research Data Percentage Cross-TabulationsWhen the objective of the research is to identify a relationship between answers to two questions (or two variables), one of the questions is commonly chosen to be the source of the base for determining percentages. 464100All the Best