(c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapter 8 Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood PowerPoints developed by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan

(c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Chapter 8

Socioemotional Development in Middle and

Late Childhood

PowerPoints developed by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan Community College -- Omaha


The Development of Self-Understanding

Children increasingly describe themselves with psychological characteristics and traits

They become more likely to recognize social aspects of the self

More likely to distinguish themselves from others in comparative rather than in absolute terms

(Harter, 2006)


Self-Esteem and Self-Concept

Self-esteem -- global evaluations of the self; self-worth or self-imageSelf-esteem reflects perceptions that do not

always match reality

Self-concept -- domain-specific evaluations of the selfChildren self-evaluate in many domains of

their lives -- academic, athletic, appearance (Dusek & McIntyre, 2003; Harter, 2006)


Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem

Identify the causes of low self-esteem Provide emotional support and social

approval Help children achieve Help children cope

(Bednar, Wells, & Peterson, 1995; Harter, 1999, 2006)


Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy -- belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes

Self-efficacy influences a student’s choice of activitiesstudents with low self-efficacy for learning

may avoid many learning tasks, especially those that are challenging

high-self-efficacy counterparts eagerly work at learning tasks

(Schunk & Zimmerman, 2003, 2006)


Self Regulation

Self-regulation -- deliberate efforts to manage one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement

Capacity in self-regulation is linked to developmental advances in the brain’s prefrontal cortex

(Laible & Thompson, 2007; Saarni & others, 2006) (Durston & others, 2007)


Erikson’s 4th Stage: Industry Versus

Inferiority Industry -- becoming interested in how

things are made and how they work When children are encouraged in their

efforts, their sense of industry increases Parents who see their children’s efforts at

making things as “mischief” or “making a mess” foster a sense of inferiority in their children


Developmental Changes in Emotion

Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation

Increased awareness of the events leading to emotional reactions

Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions

The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings

A capacity for genuine empathy


Recommendations for Parents and Teachers to Promote Coping

Strategies Repeatedly reassure children of their safety and

security Allow children to retell events and be patient in

listening to them Encourage children to talk about any disturbing

or confusing feelings; confirm normality of the feelings

Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma

Help children make sense of what happened

(Gurwitch & others, 2001)


Moral Development

According to Piaget, older children: consider the intentions of the individual believe that rules are subject to changeare aware that punishment does not always

follow wrongdoing

Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universal


The Kohlberg Stages

Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universalPreconventional reasoning -- children interpret

good and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments

Conventional reasoning -- individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government

Postconventional reasoning -- individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and then decide on a personal moral code



Kohlberg’s Substages Preconventional reasoning

Stage 1. Heteronomous morality Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose,

and exchange Conventional reasoning

Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity

Stage 4. Social systems morality Postconventional reasoning

Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights

Stage 6. Universal ethical principles


Kohlberg’s Critics Key criticisms involve

link between moral thought and moral behavior

roles of culture and the family in moral development

significance of concern for others

Kohlberg’s theory misses or misconstrues some moral concepts in particular cultures

(Lapsley, 2006; Lapsley & Narvaez, 2006; Smetana, 2006; Turiel, 2006; Walker, 2006) (Miller, 2006; Shweder & others, 2006; Wainryb, 2006)


Gender and the Care Perspective

The most publicized criticism of Kohlberg’s theory has come from Carol Gilligan

She argues that Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender biasKohlberg’s theory is based on a male norm

that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others

In contrast to Kohlberg’s justice perspective, Gilligan argues for a care perspective


Prosocial Behavior

Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s theories have focused on moral reasoning

Study of prosocial moral behavior emphasizes behavioral aspects of moral development sharing is one aspect of prosocial behaviorby the elementary school years, children

express objective ideas about fairness

(Grusec, Davidov, & Lundell, 2002) (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006)


Gender Stereotypes, Similarities and Differences Gender stereotypes -- broad categories

that reflect general impressions and beliefs about females and males

Similarities and differences between boys and girls -- bear in mind…the differences are averages even when differences are reported, there is

considerable gender overlap the differences may be due primarily to

biological and/or sociocultural factors


Physical Development Males grow to be 10% taller Females have a longer life expectancy Females are less likely to develop physical or

mental disorders Males have twice the risk of coronary disease Male hormones promote the growth of long

bones; female hormones stop such growth at puberty

Researchers have found some differences in the brains of males and females

(Goldstein & others, 2001; Kimura, 2000)


Cognitive Development

Males have better math and visuospatial skills whereas females have better verbal abilitiesLater studies showed verbal differences

between females and males had virtually disappeared, but that math and visuospatial differences still existed

Cognitive differences between females and males have been exaggerated

(Maccoby & Jacklin,1974) (Maccoby, 1987) (Hyde, 2005, 2007)


Socioemotional Development Boys are more physically aggressive than

girls girls tend to be more verbally aggressivethere are no definitive findings on relational

aggression -- behaviors such as spreading malicious rumors or ignoring someone when angry

Boys are more likely to hide negative emotions

Girls are less likely to express disappointment that might hurt others’ feelings

(White, 2001) (Crick & others, 2004; Underwood, 2004) (Eisenberg, Martin, & Fabes, 1996)


Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior

Females view themselves as more prosocial and empathic

Across childhood and adolescence, females engage in more prosocial behavior

The biggest gender difference occurs for kind and considerate behavior with a smaller difference in sharing

(Eisenberg & Morris, 2004) (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006)


Gender-Role Classification in Context Androgyny -- the presence of positive

masculine and feminine characteristics in the same personandrogynous individuals are more flexible,

competent, and mentally healthy The importance of considering gender in

context is very apparent when examining what is culturally prescribed behavior for females and males in different countries around the world

(Bem, 1977; Spence & Helmreich, 1978)


Developmental Changes in Parent-Child Relationships

In middle and late childhood years, parents spend considerably less time with children

Parents continue to be important Parents support and stimulate academic

achievement Children receive less physical discipline

than they did as preschoolers Children in grade school use more self-

regulation

(Huston & Ripke, 2006)


Parents as Managers

Parents can play important roles managers of children’s opportunitiesmonitors of children’s behaviorsocial initiators and arrangers

Family management practices are positively related to students’ grades and self-responsibility, and negatively to school-related problems

(Parke & Buriel, 2006) (Taylor, 1996)


Stepfamilies

About half of all children whose parents divorce will have a stepparent

Complex histories and multiple relationships make adjustment difficult in a stepfamily

Children often have better relationships with their custodial parents

Simple families show better adjustment than complex (blended) families

(Hetherington, 2006) (Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan, 2002) (Santrock, Sitterle, & Warshak, 1988) (Anderson & others, 1999; Hetherington & Kelly, 2002)


Types of Stepfamilies

Three common types of stepfamily structure are stepfather

mother typically had custody of the children and remarried

stepmotherfather usually had custody and remarried

blended or complexIn a blended or complex stepfamily, both parents

bring children from previous marriages to live in the newly formed stepfamily


Latchkey Children

Latchkey children -- children who use the key to their home to let themselves in after school while their parents are still at worklatchkey children are largely unsupervised for

two to four hours or more per dayexperiences of latchkey children vary

enormously parental monitoring and authoritative

parenting help the child cope more effectively

(Galambos & Maggs, 1989; Steinberg, 1986)


After-School Programs

Practitioners and policymakers recommend that after-school programs have warm and supportive staffflexible and relaxed schedulemultiple activitiesopportunities for positive interactions with staff

and peers (Coley, Morri, & Hernandez, 2004) (Pierce, Hamm, & Vandell, 1997)


Developmental Changes in Peer Relations

Reciprocity becomes especially important in peer interchanges

Amount of time spent in social interaction with peers increases

Size of their peer group increases Peer interaction is less closely supervised

by adults Until age 12, same-sex peer groups are

preferred (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006)


Peer Status

Sociometric status -- describes the extent to which children are liked or disliked by their peer group

5 peer statuses Popular childrenAverage children Neglected children Rejected children Controversial children

(Ladd, Herald, & Andrews, 2006) (Wentzel & Asher,1995)


Being Popular

Popular children give out reinforcementslisten carefullymaintain open lines of communication with

peersare happy and control their negative emotionsshow enthusiasm and concern for othersare self-confident without being conceited

(Hartup, 1983; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998).


Other Statuses

Neglected children -- low rates of interaction with their peers; often described as shy by peers

Rejected children often have more serious adjustment problems than those who are neglected Some but not all rejected children are

aggressive(Coie, 2004; Ladd, 2005) (Ladd, 2006; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006; Hymel, McDougall, &

Renshaw, 2004)


Training for More Effective Interactions with Peers

Help them to attract attention from their peers in positive ways and hold that attention by asking questions, by listening in a warm and friendly way, and by saying things about themselves that relate to the peers’ interests.

Role-playing or discussing hypothetical situations involving negative encounters with peers


Social Cognition

Social cognition -- thinking about social mattersimportant for understanding peer relationships

5 steps in processing information about the social world decode social cuesinterpretsearch for a responseselect an optimal responseenact

(Dodge, 1983)


Bullying

Bullied children reported more loneliness and difficulty in making friends

Anxious and socially withdrawn children may be victimized because they are non-threatening and unlikely to retaliate

Aggressive children may be the targets because their behavior is irritating to bullies

(DeRosier & Marcus, 2005; Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Roberts, 2005) (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006)


Victims of bullies had

higher incidence of headaches more abdominal pain sleeping problems and feeling tirednessmore depression

Those who did the bullying were more likely to have a poor academic record and to smoke and drink alcohol

(Fekkes, Pijpers, & Verloove-Vanhorick, 2004)


Reducing Bullying Teachers and schools can employ several

strategiesGet older peers to serve as monitors Develop school-wide rules and sanctions

against bullying and post themIncorporate the message of the anti-bullying

program into other community activitiesIdentify bullies and victims early Use social skills training to improve bullies’

behavior

(Hyman & others, 2006; Limber, 1997, 2004; Milsom & Gallo, 2006) (Macklem, 2003)


Functions of Friendships

Children’s friendships can serve six functions companionship stimulationphysical supportego supportsocial comparisonaffection and intimacy

Intimacy in friendships -- characterized by self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts

Gottman & Parker, 1987) (Berndt & Perry, 1990)


Constructivist Approach

Constructivist approach -- learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacherchildren should be encouraged to explore

their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher

(Eby, Herrell, & Jordan, 2006; Eggen & Kauchak, 2006; Morrison, 2006)


Direct Instruction Approach

Direct instruction approach -- structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high expectations for students’ progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum

Important goal: maximizing student learning


Constructivist versus Direct Instruction Approach

Constructivists argue that direct instruction turns children into passive learners and does not challenge them to think critically or creatively

Direct instructions say that constructivists do not give enough attention to the content of a discipline and instruction is too relativistic and vague

(Duffy & Kirkley, 2004)


Accountability

Demands for accountability includestate-mandated tests to measure just what

students have or have not learned high expectations and high standards for

students

(McNergney & McNergney, 2007) (Revelle, 2004) (Lewis, 2006)


Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity

Schools in low-income areas are more likely to: have more students with low achievement test

scores have low graduation rates have small percentages of students going to

college have young teachers with less experienceencourage rote learninghave buildings and classrooms that are old

and crumbling (Spring, 2008)


Ethnicity in Schools

School segregation remains a factor in U.S. education

The school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary considerably

Institutional racism, by which teachers accept a low level of performance from children of color, permeates many American schools

(Banks, 2006) (Bennett, 2007; Spring, 2008) (Ogbu & Stern, 2001; Spencer, 1999)


Documents

(c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapter 8 Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood PowerPoints developed by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan