西方文明史第十四講：中古宗教發展至十六世紀宗教改革  

劉　慧　　教授

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Religious Life in the Middle Ages

1, 633, 1054, 15172

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1. 1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture2. 4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule3. 5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes4. 9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the

canon laws5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the

sacramental system6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism7. Martin Luther 1483-1546

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• Pope• Archbishop• Bishop• Archdeacon• (Parish) priest• Deacon, sub-deacon …

• Abbot (/ Prior)• Monks

• Benedictine• Cluniac• Cistercian

• Friars

• Dominican (OP)• Franciscan (OFM)

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1. 1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture2. 4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule3. 5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes4. 9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the

canon laws5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the

sacramental system6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism7. Martin Luther 1483-1546

• St Augustine– Adam and Eve and original sin– Predestination

• God would be purely just if he condemned all humans to hell, but he is also merciful so he elected to save a few

– Grace, free will and the church: the Pelagian Controversy• Pelagius (354-420)

– Human race is composed of two societies, the ‘City of Earth’ and the ‘City of God’

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• Pope• Archbishop• Bishop• Archdeacon• (Parish) priest• Deacon,

sub-deacon …

• Abbot/ abbess• (Prior)• Monks/ nuns

• Benedictine Rule;St Benedict (c.489-543)

• Cluniac• Cistercian

• Communal and private prayer (8 canonical hours); study; manual labour

• Friars

• Dominican (OP)• Franciscan (OFM)

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1. 1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture2. 4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule3. 5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes4. 9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the

canon laws5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the

sacramental system6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism7. Martin Luther 1483-1546

• Conversion of the Franks, Anglo-Saxons and Germans• St Boniface, the ‘Apostle of the Germans’ c.680-794

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• Pope• Archbishop• Bishop• Archdeacon• Parish priest• Deacon,

sub-deacon …

• Friars

• Dominican (OP)• Franciscan (OFM)

• Abbot (/ Prior)• Monks

• Benedictine• Cluniac• Cistercian

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• The popular cult of saints– Hagiography; relics; pilgrimages (Rome;

Jerusalem; Santiago de Compostela; Canterbury)– Pre-12th c: small community’s values were

projected onto the local saint –saint as mediator in human conflicts

– assistance in day-to-day life

– Later in the 12th c: saints provided a human face for the Holy

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1. 1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture2. 4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule3. 5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes4. 9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the

canon laws5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the

sacramental system6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism7. Martin Luther 1483-1546

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Ring and Staff• Ottonian church system

– Otto I (936-973)

• Papal election decree 1059• Concordat of Worms 1122

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• Pope• Archbishop• Bishop• Archdeacon• (Parish) priest• Deacon,

sub-deacon …

• Friars

• Dominican (OP)• Franciscan (OFM)

• Abbot/ abbess• (Prior)• Monks/ nuns

Conversi

• Benedictine• Cluniac – elaborate liturgy• Cistercian – wool

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1. 1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture2. 4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule3. 5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes4. 9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the

canon laws5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the

sacramental system6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism7. Martin Luther 1483-1546

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1) More emotionally charged, more ‘merciful’

• The Crucifixion – Christ’s redemptive suffering

• The Virgin Mary – compassionate intercessor for sinners– Eastern Orthodox– St Bernard of Clairvaux and the

Cistercians• The purgatory

– Frightful; intellectual dimension; reassurance

the Gero Cross c. 970

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• Ave Maria Gratia plenaMaria Gratia plenaMaria Gratia plenaAve, ave dominusDominus tecum

Benedicta tu in mulieribusEt benedictusEt benedictus fructus ventris tuiVentris tui Jesus

Ave MariaAve Maria Mater deiOra pro nobis pecatoribusOra, ora pro nobisOra ora pro nobis pecatoribus

Nunc et in hora mortisIn hora mortis, mortis nostraeIn hora mortis nostraeAve Maria!

• Hail Mary, full of Grace,the Lord is with thee;

• blessed art thou among women,

and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus.

• Holy Mary, Mother of God,pray for us sinner now,and in the hour of our death

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2) Heresies and the new mendicant orders• Heresy = the obstinate adherence, by a professed Christian, to a freely chosen opinion that

deviates from the defined teaching of the church

• The Waldensians: – Peter Waldo, merchant of Lyons c.1173 started a life of apostolic poverty and

preaching in towns• The Cathars: 1130s-1170s-mid-13thc

– Dualism; no Passion, no Resurrection. An alternative church– 1209-29 Albigesian Crusade

• The mendicant orders: – St Dominic (1170-1221)

• Education. 1233 inquisition: preaching – evidence from neighbours – use of torture– St Francis of Assisi (c.1182-1226)

• 1209 the Franciscan order. ‘common touch’: birds and the beauty of the material world

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• Pope• Archbishop• Bishop• Archdeacon• (Parish) priest• Deacon,

sub-deacon …

• Abbot (/ Prior)• Monks

• Benedictine• Cluniac• Cistercian

• Friars

• Dominican (OP)• Franciscan (OFM)

Fra Angelico (1267-1337)Perugia Altarpiece 1447-8

Tempera Galleria Nazionale dell'Umbria, Perugia

GIOTTO di Bondone (1267-1337)Legend of St Francis: 15. Sermon to the Birds 1297-99Fresco, 270 x 200 cm. Upper Church, San Francesco, Assisi

St Francis of Assisi 1182-1226 St Dominic 1170-1221

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3) Elaboration of the sacramental system • 1215 4th Lateran Council. Ritual as miracle that conveys divine grace.

– Baptism – Confirmation – The Eucharist

• ‘Transubstantiation’: Aristotle on the nature of existence: substance, accidents• Luther’s ‘Consubstantiation’

– Penance • 12thc: sin → guilt + punishment. 1) attrition + 2) confession, penalty, absolution.

Purgatory• Sense of shame constituted a punishment• Indulgence• Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses

– Extreme Unction– Holy Orders– Matrimony

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• Luther on the Eucharist– ‘Consubstantiation’: the real presence share the same time and space with the bread;

God reveals himself there

A Catholic priest celebrating the Eucharist

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• Indulgence: concessions by ecclesiastical authorities that cancelled all or part of the temporal penalties that had been imposed by the church upon the sinner to expiate his sin

• Given for – major pious acts at first: e.g. crusades; – and later for lesser pious acts, e.g. 1300 Jubilee indulgences

• Mechanism – mid-13thc: treasury of merits. Indulgence applies some of the ‘merit’ from the

treasury to a given person – Late 14thc pardoners: indulgences applicable for the dead in purgatory

• Representing an overflow of God’s grace, mediated though the Christian community, past, present and future – great demand among the Christians

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• 31 Oct 1517 Ninety-Five Theses at Wittenburg– Objection to the avowed object of the expenditure (St Peter’s Basilica)– The pope has no power over purgatory– Consideration for the welfare of the sinner

• Diverting charity, inducing a false sense of security

• November 1518: the bull Cum postquam– Indulgences apply only to penalty and not to guilt– Penalties on earth: the church has complete jurisdiction– Penalties in the purgatory: the church is only petitioning to God (presenting

superfluous merits)

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1. 1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture2. 4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule3. 5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes4. 9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the

canon laws5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the

sacramental system6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism7. Martin Luther 1483-1546

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1) William of Ockham (c.1285-1349)– Nominalist: all universal ideas, all general concepts, were mere names

= concepts had no demonstrable connection with external reality– Authority of the papacy as head of the universal church could be

exercised by an emperor• Pope John XXII’s quarrel with Emperor Lewis of Bavaria (1314-46)

– Potentia Dei, ‘freedom’ of God:• Instead of the church, God could have chosen other means for humans’

salvation

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– Efficacy of the sacraments was not due to their intrinsically containing or conveying grace, but came from a covenant made by God

– Salvation depended on whether God would keep his word

• Martin Luther (1483-1546) – New theology of justification by faith– Good works (pilgrimage, cult of saints etc.) never contributed to one’s

salvation

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2) Spiritual prestige of the papacy declined– Zenith: 12-13th c– Crusades; fighting the Staufens; Philip IV (and Edward I) and taxation

• The bull Unam Sanctum (1302), the pope’s supreme authority in both spiritual and temporal matters is ‘absolutely necessary for salvation’

– Papacy in Avignon 1309-1376 – The Great Schism 1378-1417– The Conciliar movement -1449– The Italian territorial papacy

• By 1449: national churches– E.g. 1438 France

• To reform or to replace the clerical order?

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7. Martin Luther (1483-1546)• 1505- monk; 1507 first mass; failure at confession• 1513 Tower experience: ‘justification by faith

alone’ – Justice: salvation; to justify: to save. Justice =

enforcing the law; justification = suspending sentence, changing the offender

– Faith causes reform (‘conversion’); faith is God’s work in us

– Faith: believe God is seeking to save, trust God will keep his promise and the Holy Spirit will regenerate the sinner’s soul

– salvation is God’s free gift

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• 31 Oct 1517 Ninety-Five Theses at Wittenburg• Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz appealed to Pope Leo X• November 1518: the bull Cum postquam• October 1518: Luther met papal representative Cardinal Cajetan

– Cajetan: the pope had the inalienable right to interpret the Bible (and need prove nothing)

– Luther became a German folk hero (foreign papacy interested only in money and obedience)

• July 1519: disputation at Leipzig with John Eck– Forced Luther to take his theories to their logical conclusions: from testing one

aspect of papal power against scripture to testing every aspect

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• Pamphlets of 1520• Justification by faith alone• Sola scriptura

– traditional authority: 1) the Bible, 2) the traditions and 3) the pope. Luther: not logically consistent• In theory, the Holy Spirit and right reason would make the sense of the

scripture plain to the believers• Priesthood of all believers: in God’s eyes, all people were equal in

the church and faith. The church = the believers– 5/7 Sacraments: no need, could not be proven by scripture

• Baptism: an introduction to the community of the faithful – impact on monasticism

• The Eucharist: not magical but mystical, not the performance of a rite but the experience of a presence. ‘Consubstantiation’

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Resources Shop(http://www.historyonthenet.com/shop/history/posters/a3-a6-customisable-prints/religion-of-europe-after-the-reformation-laminated-print.html)，2012.06.19 visited.依據著作權法第  46、 52、 65 條合理使用。

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3《 A History of Christianity-The First Three Thousand Years》， Diarmaid

MacCulloch， Allen Lane， 24 Sep 2009。Penguin Book(http://www.penguin.co.uk/nf/Book/BookDisplay/0,,9780141957951,00.html)， 2012.06.14 visited.依據著作權法第  46、 52、 65 條合理使用。

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WIKIPEDIA - Seal of the Order of Preachers (Dominican Order) / Source： Copied from http://dominican-liturgy.blogspot.com and copyright owned by Dominican Liturgy(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_Dominican_Order.png)，2012.04.25 visited.依據著作權法第  46、 52、 65 條合理使用。

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