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CA - II - CH - 1
HUMBOLDT-UNIVERSITÄT ZU BERLININSTITUT FÜR INFORMATIK
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
Lecture 2
COMPUTER HISTORY
Sommersemester 2002
Leitung: Prof. Dr. Miroslaw Malek
www.informatik.hu-berlin.de/rok/ca
CA - II - CH - 2
A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTINGAND COMPUTER ARCHITECTURES
THE BEGINNINGS
• 4000-1200 BC, inhabitants of Sumer– Clay Tablets for trade records
• Origine unknown (used in Babylon, later in Arab world, Europe, China and Japan)– Abakus
• 1570-80, John Napier (1550-1617, Scotland)– Logarithm Bones
• 1617, Robert Bissaker– Wood Strip Logs
• 1620, Edmund Gunter, (1581-1626, England)– Slide Rule
CA - II - CH - 3
MECHANICAL ERA (1623-1945)
• 1623, Wilhelm Schickhard (1592-1633, Germany)– Adder
• 1642, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662, France)– Adder (+,-), main contribution: ratchet drive for carry transfers
• 1671, Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716, Germany)– Calculator (+,-,x,/,), created forerunner of four function machine
CA - II - CH - 4
In the 18th century development was concentrated onthe improvement of four function machines.
• 1794, G. F. Prony, undertook a project for the French government tocalculate logs of numbers from 1 to 200,000– Autometer (+,-,x,/)
• 1820, Thomas de Colmar (France), built a practical four function machine– Arithmometer
• 1823, Charles Babbage, (1792-1871), undertook design of the Differential (Difference) Engine
– Differential Engine
CA - II - CH - 5
Charles Babbage‘s Differential Engine
The machine was to solve 6th degree polynomials to 20 digit accuracy.
ixn
i iaxf ∑=
=0
)( ji
ji
ji yyy 1
1+
+ ∆+∆=∆
Babbage was given £ 17,000 to construct the machine butthe project was abandoned in 1842 (uncompleted).
CA - II - CH - 6
THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE• 1834, Charles Babbage, a contemporary L. G. Menebrea developed the
hypothetical program to solve simultaneous equations
– Analytical Engine
The Mill
OperationCards
The Store
VariableCards
DATA
PROGRAM
INSTRUCTIONS
Printer CardPuncher
Components:
1. The Store is a memory.2. The Mill is the arithmetic unit.3. Program is Jaquard loom punch cards.
a. Operating Cards (program steps)b. Variable Cards (memory selection cards)
The Analytical Engine contained all the essential features of a general purpose automatic computer.
CA - II - CH - 7
A PROGRAM TO SOLVE SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
DATA PROGRAM
OP. VARIABLE CARDS COMPUTATION
LOC. CONTENTS CARD SOURCE DEST.
w0 = a11 x w2, w4 w8 w8
�
a22 b1w1 = a12 x w1, w5 w9 w9
�
a12 b2w2 = b1 x w0, w4 w10 w10
�
a11 a22w3 = a21 x w1, w3 w11 w11
�
a12 a21– w8, w9 w12 w12
�
a22 b1 – a12 b2w4 = a22 – w10, w11 w13 w13
�
a11a22 – a12a21w5 = b2 ÷ w12, w13 w14 w14
�
w12 ÷ w13
The data was loaded into the store and computations were performed as indicatedin the table.The significiant contribution was the concept of a programmed calculator.
a11 x1 + a12 x2 = b1
a21 x1 + a22x2 = b2
x1 =
x2 =
a22 b1 – a12 b2
a11 a22 – a12 a21
a11 b2 – a21 b1
a11 a22 – a12 a21
CA - II - CH - 8
• 1837-53, George Scheutz (1785-1873), built a working Babbage'sDifferential Engine that solved 3rd degree polynomials to 15 digits– Differential Engine
• 1854, George Boole, (1814-1864, England)– Binary Logic Operators AND, OR, NOR
• 1872, E. D. Borbour, awkward to ink by hand before print– Printing Calculator
• 1874-78, Lord Kelvin (1824-1907, England)– Analog Machine
• 1875, Frank Baldwin (1838-1925, USA)– Printing Calculator
• 1874-77, W. F. Odhner (Sweden)– Desk Calculator
• 1885, D. E. Felt (1862-1930, USA), printing calculator with depressible keys– Comptometer
HISTORY (Cont.)
CA - II - CH - 9
International Business Machines Corp. (IBM)• 1890, Herman Hollerith (1860 - 1926, USA), (1890 Census)
– Punching Cards, Tabulating Machine
Electric Tabulating System
Tabulating Machine Co. (1896)
Computation-Tabulating Recording Co. (1911)
International Business Machines Corp. (IBM) (1924)
CA - II - CH - 10
• 1892, William S. Burroughs, (Sold 1 million by 1926)– Printing Calculator
• 1904, John A. Fleming, patents the diode vacuum tube setting the stage for better radio communication– Diode Vacuum Tube
• 1930-1945, Vannevar Bush, MIT Professor andscientifical consultant at White House– The Idea of MEMEX
• 1908, Campbell Swinton (British scientist)– Electronic Scanning Method for Cathode-Ray Tube
• 1912-30, Monroe, Baldwin, Frieden, Marchant, etc.– Four Functions Calculators
• 1930-50– Motor Driven Calculators
• 1936, Alan Turing (1912-1954, England)– Paper on Computable Numbers
HISTORY (Cont.)
CA - II - CH - 11
1934 Zuse proposes to build a electro-mechanical calculating machine.
1936 Zuse files a patent application for the automatic execution of calculations, including a binary "combination memory"
KONRAD ZUSE (1910-1995)
Zuse's Z-series of computers
1938 Z1 mechanical computer
1940 Z2 uses telephone relays instead of mechanical logical circuits
1941 Z3 first fully functional program-controlled electro-mechanical calculator
1945 Z4 Z4 survives WW II and helps launching post-war development of scientific computers in Germany
CA - II - CH - 12
• 1937, Howard Aiken (USA) submitted to IBM a proposal for a digital calculating machine capable of performing the four arithmetic operations and some other functions
• 1943, British built code-breaking Vacuum Tube Computercomputer called Colossus
• WW II, Americans built a general purpose electroniccomputer, prior to that John Atanasoff built anelectromechanical digital computer with some vacuum tubes.Howard Aiken of Harvard University and IBM built anan electromechanical machine called Harvard Mark I
ATLAS was developed at Manchester University
HISTORY (Cont.)
2,4 m
15 m
CA - II - CH - 13
• 1943-46, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) by J.Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, first general purpose electronic computer
• A program was created manually by setting switches and plugging &unplugging cables. It used 18,000 tubes, weighted 30 tones and had aperformance of 5,000 ops/sec. More decimal than binary it had a card reader, a printer and a card punch.
• 1945, John von Neumann introduces
the concept of a stored program.
After the WW II a great amount of activity began andthe era of the modern computer resulted.
CA - II - CH - 14
• 1947, first transistor designed by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley for Bell Labs (Nobel prize in 1956)
• 1947- 48, magnetic drum memory is introduced
• 1948, Claude Shannon publishes „A Mathematical Theory of Communication“
• 1948, Richard Hamming designs the Hamming code for error correction in data blocks
• 1949, EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) was developed at Cambridge University in England by Maurice Wilkis
HISTORY (Cont.)
CA - II - CH - 15
• 1949, Whirlwind computer by Jay Forrester (MIT) with 5000 vacuum tubes
• 1950, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was basedon ideas developed at the Institute for Advanced Studies of Princeton University.
• 1951, UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) was built by Eckert andMauchly using vacuum tubes (mainly triodes and pentodes). Memory accesstime 0.5 ms.
HISTORY (Cont.)
CA - II - CH - 16
• 1951, Maurice Wilkes introduces microprogramming
• 1951, Jay Forrester's matrix core memory
• 1951-52, Grace Murray Hooper develops A-0 (1st compiler)
• 1952, John Neumann's IAS bit-parallel machine
• 1953, IBM 650 - 1st mass-produced computer• 1953, Kenneth Olsen uses Jay Forrester's
core-memory to build the Memory Test Computer
• 1954, Texas Instruments introduces the silicon transistor
20th CENTURY HISTORY
CA - II - CH - 17
• 1956, Fuji Photo Film Co. (Japan) develops a 1700 vacuum-tube computer for lens design calculation
• 1956, Univac with transistors• 1957, John Backus and colleagues at
IBM deliver the 1st FORTRAN compiler
• 1957, NTT (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Co., Japan) develops Musasino-1 (first parametron-computer)
• 1958, Jack Kilby (Texas Instruments) and Robert Noyce (Fairchild) develop first semiconductor ICs separately
• 1959, The Committee on Data Systems Languages is formed to createCOBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
• 1962, Stanford and Purdue Universities establish first departments of Computer Science
20th CENTURY HISTORY (Cont.)
CA - II - CH - 18
• 1964, IBM announces the System/360 "third-generation„ line of computers
• 1964, IBM's seven-year-long Sabre project for worldwide airline reservations is fully implemented
• 1964, Doug Engelbart invents the mouse• 1967, 4 function hand-held calculator (Texas Instruments)
• 1968, Edsger Dijkstra writes about GOTO programming vs. Structured programming
• 1969, ARPANET, Communication between Computers
• 1968, Cray CDC7600 supercomputer achieves 40 MFLOPS• 1970, E. F. Codd describes the relational model• 1971, Intel introduces 4-bit microprocessor (4004)
20th CENTURY HISTORY (Cont.)
CA - II - CH - 19
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol), To send data over the nets
• 1973, Alan Kay develops a forerunner of the PC, his „office computer“ employing icons, graphics and a mouse
• 1975, IBM introduces the laser printer• 1975, Intel introduces 8-bit microprocessor (8008,8080)
• 1976, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak build the Apple I• 1977, Bill Gates and Paul Allen found Microsoft
• 1981, IBM introduces its model of PC• 1984, Sony and Phillips introduce the CD-ROM• 1984, NEC manufactures the 256-Kbit RAM and IBM introduces a 1-Mbit RAM
• 1984, IBM uses Intel's 80286 for the new PC ATs• 1985, Cray 2 and Thinking Machines' parallel-processor Connection Machine
reach 1 billion ops/second• 1990, Berners-Lee writes the WWW prototype: URL (Unified Resource Locator),
HTML (Hyper Text Metalanguage), HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)• 1993, first graphical web-browser Mosaic is created at University of Illinois• 1995, initial public offering of Netscape
20th CENTURY HISTORY (Cont.)
CA - II - CH - 20
THE ROOTS AND THE STORY OF THE MOST SUCCESSFUL MINICOMPUTER PDP-11
D.E.C. WAS FOUNDED BY K. OLSEN1957
MANY MODELS, e.g., PDP-11/40, PDP-11/45, VAX -11
32K300 ns –
980 ns16-BITLSI-111975
$15,000-
$30,000
(Unibus)
128K300 ns –
980 ns16-BITPDP-111969
$18,000
(Software
Packages)
1K-4K3µs12-BITPDP-81965
$30,000
(PC & DMA)1K-4K6µs12-BITPDP-51963
$120,000(Peripherals)
4K-64K5µs18-BITPDP-11959
COSTMEMORY
CAPACITY
MEMORYCYCLETIME
WORDLENGTH
MODELYEAR
(375 IC’s on PCB)
CA - II - CH - 21
A BRIEF JOURNEY THROUGHCOMPUTER GENERATIONS
GENERATION PERIOD TECHNOLOGY
FIRST 1945-1954 VACUUM TUBES
SECOND 1955-1964 TRANSISTORS
THIRD 1965-1974 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (SSI, MSI)
FOURTH 1975 - ? INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (LSI, VLSI)
FIFTH ? ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE,NEURAL NETWORKS, DIGITAL/ANALOG HYBRIDS, WEB COMPUTING
CA - II - CH - 22
Input/Outputequipment
Mainmemory
FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS (1945-1954)
CHARACTERISTICS
- Random Access Memory AC -Accumulator- 1000 (2 1/2) Word MQ -Multiplexor-Quotient- 40 Bit Word DR -Data (40 Bit)- One Address (OP ADDR) AR -Address (12 Bit)- Parallel Binary Circuits IBR - Instruction Buffer- High-speed Registers (CPU) PC -Instruction Address (Program Counter)
Central Processing Unit
STRUCTURE OFIAS COMPUTER
instructionsand data
Arithmetic-logic unit
Arithmetic-logic circuits
AC MQ
DR
IBR PC
IR AR
Program control unit
ControlSignals
Addresses
Controlcircuits
CA - II - CH - 23
REGISTER TRANSFER LANGUAGE
0 1 39
0 8 19 20 28 39
Instruction Comments
AC
�
M(100) Transfer contents of memory location 100 to the accumulator
AC
�
AC + M(101) Add the contents of memory location 101 to the contents of theaccumulator and place the result in the accumulator
M(102)
�
AC Store the contents of the accumulator in memory location 102
NUMBER WORDSign bit
SYMBOLIC
LDA AADD BSTA C
INSTRUCTION WORD
Left instruction Right instruction
AddressOpcodeAddressOpcode
CA - II - CH - 24
Central processing unit
Arithmetic-logiccircuits
AC MQ
DR
Operator's console
Index registersXR(1-7)
Indexadders
IBR
IR AR PC
SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS (1955-1964)
Controlcircuits
Controlsignals IBM 7094
Memoryaddress
Corememory
IO processor(channel)
IO processor(channel)
Drum discControl unit
Magnetic tapestorage
Magnetic drumstorage
Magnetic discstorage
Printer
Card reader
Memory control unit(multiplexer)
CA - II - CH - 25
0 1 35
0 1 9 35
S
0 21 35
S Fixed-point number
Exponent MantissaFloating-point number
INFORMATION FORMATS OF THE IBM 7094
AddressOpcodeInstruction
Transistor technology Batch processingIndex registers Real timeFloating point MultiprocessingSubroutine linkage Separate I/O200 instructions 32K memoryIndirect addressing Magnetic core memoryInterrupts Memory interleavingHigh level language Magnetic drum
CHARACTERISTICS
CA - II - CH - 26
16 32-bitgeneral purposeregisters
4 64-bit floating-point registers
Fixed-pointarithmetic unit
Floating-pointarithmetic unit
internal buses
AR IR PC DR
Memorycontrol unit
Programstatus word
ToMainmemory
THIRD GENERATION (1965 - 1974)CPU STRUCTURE OF IBM S/360-370 SERIES
Decimalarithmetic unit
CA - II - CH - 27
Low-order byte
Zone Digit Zone Digit Sign Digit
Digit Digit Sign
0 1
Fixed-point binary number
3115
0 1 7 8
1276331
ExponentS
MantissaFloating-point binary number
1 byte
Character
Alphanumeric data
Low-order byte
Digit Digit Digit
Character Character
S
Zoned decimal number
Packed decimal number
IBM S/360-370 DATA FORMATS
CA - II - CH - 28
FOURTH GENERATION (1971-200?)
MICROPROCESSORS
Intel 4004 (1971) 4-BIT WORD 45 INSTRUCTIONS
INTEL 8080 (1973) 8-BIT WORD 16 ADDRESS LINES (216=64 K MEMORY)
MC68000 (1979) 16-BIT WORD
M 68020 (1985) 32-BIT WORD 20 MHz
Intel 80486 (1989) 32-BIT WORD
Pentium (1993) 32-BIT WORD 70 MHz
ALPHA (1993) 64-BIT WORD
Athlon (2000) 32-BIT WORD 1 GHz
PowerPC G4 (2001) 64-BIT WORD 500MHz
CA - II - CH - 29
INTEL 8080 MICROPROCESSOR
AC FR Multiplexer
IR
DR
Controlcircuits
FR flag register (5 bits) stores: sign of operation, carry, overflow, interrupt enable, parityIR is an instruction registerDR data register
8-bit internal data bus
Arithmetic-logic circuits
Address register
Registerarray
Internalcontrollines
8 bidirectionaldata lines
16 address lines12 external control lines
4 powerlines
B CD EH LStack pointer
Program counter
e.g. ADD M AC
�
AC + M(H,L)ADC M AC
�
AC + M(H,L) + FR(C) where FR indicates overflow (carry) bitDAA decimal adjust accumulatorthen ADD M for binary
DAA for decimal
CA - II - CH - 30
MIPS R4000 MICROPROCESSOR
- General Purpose Registers
64-bit System Bus
Data CacheSystemcache
ControlSystemControl
ProgramcacheControl
InstructionCache
CPU RegistersALULoad Aligner/Store DriverInteger Multiplier/DividerAddress UnitPC Incrementer
Exeption/Control Registers
MemoryManagement Registers
TranslationLookaside buffers
FPU RegistersPipeline BypassFP MultiplierFP DividerFP Add, Convert,Square Root
Pipeline Control
0R0
63 32 31
R31
R1
PC063 32 31
- Program Counter
MultHI063 32 31
- Multiply/Divide Registers
MultLO
CP0 CPU FPU
CPU Registers
CA - II - CH - 31
INTEL Pentium 4 Microarchitecture
21
34
1. In-Order Front End; 2. Out-of-Order Execution L ogic; 3. Integer and F loating-Point Execution Units; 4. Memory Subsystem; BTB – Branch Target Register